Research Methodology and IPR (22MBA23)

Module-5
Data Analysis and Report Writing: Editing, Coding, Classification, Tabulation, Validation.
Analysis and Interpretation, Report writing and presentation of results, Importance of report
writing, types of research reports, Report structure, Guidelines for effective documentation.
______________________________________________________________________________

Data Analysis and Report Writing: Editing

The data which has been collected from various primary/secondary sources is RAW in nature, this
means that there are likely chances of errors and inconsistencies in it.

Since data collected is of pivotal importance to policy and decision makers everywhere be it
governmental departments, business organizations, health or educational institutions etc it would
be better to have a team of experts at hand who know how to scrutinize, review and edit this data
before it is finally fed into the data bases and the required statistics are generated.

How to define data editing?

The process through which the data is reviewed to check for consistency, adequacy, detect errors
and outliers (values that are either too big or too small from the rest of the data) and the correction
of errors within the data in order to maximize its usefulness for the purpose for which it was
collected is called data editing.

Purposes and objectives of data editing

The basic purpose served by data editing is that it improves the quality, accuracy and adequacy of
the collected data thereby making it more suitable for the purpose for which the data was collected.
The following can therefore be identified as the main objectives of the data editing process:

 Detection of errors in the data that otherwise affect the validity of outputs.
 Validation of data for the purposes it was collected.
 Provision of information that that would help access the overall level of accuracy of the data.
 Detection and identification of any inconsistencies in the data and outliers and to make
adjustments for them.

Types of data editing

There are different types of data editing

 Validity and completeness of data: refers to correctness and completeness of obtained

responses. This helps ensure that there are no missing values or empty fields in the data bases.
 Range: verifies that data within a field fall between the boundaries specified for the particular
field.

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 Duplicate data entry: this helps ensure that there is no repetition or duplication of data and
each unit on the data base or register was filled only once.
 Logical consistency: through this type of editing connections between data fields or variables
are taken into account.
 Outliers: this type of editing helps detect values that are too extreme or unusual so that they can
be verified and checked.

Stages of data editing

The data editing process can be divided into three parts or stages

 The first stage is the stage where you set the rules for editing. This stage is further subdivided
into two steps.
In step one, you provide instructions to desk editors who then check the data for coherence and
consistency.

In step two, you set the rules by establishing logical relations between the variables according to
various criteria. This set of rules is called automated validation rules and this type of editing seeks
to detect errors during data entry and to screen them.

 The manual desk editing stage is a traditional method that is put into effect by a specialized
editing team. The data, (if) on paper is checked after the data has been collected and before it is
fed into the data bases. If however, electronic means have been used to collect the data, the
forms entered into the database are revised individually.
 The automated data editing method makes use of computer programs and systems for
checking the data all at once after it has been entered electronically. These programs and systems
contain Audit rules which validate the data, detect errors and determine unacceptable
responses.

Limitations to data editing

There are certain factors that can influence or pose limitations to the data editing process, these
can be summed up as follows;

 Data editing can be influenced by the amount of time available, the budget, the presence or
absence of other resources and also by the group of people involved in the editing process.
 The available computer software programs.
 Follow up with the respondents is of critical importance in the data editing process because they
are often the best source of information in many cases. However, the respondents might feel this
to be stressful and burdensome thereby causing limitations to the data editing process.

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 Some types of data do not require extensive editing, therefore it would be better to keep in mind
the intended uses of data and make sure that the more important part of data iz kept free from
all errors. In this way, the intended use of data does play an important role in influencing the
data editing process.
 What you need to do is to establish the methods and procedures that must be followed while
correcting or handling the data errors, in the survey plan, right at the start of the project otherwise
the process would be of no or little use.
 Also remember that if you plan to edit your data manually, you must develop and document the
methods that are to followed. Your team must be trained, a method must be established to check
their work progress and the impact of the edits on the original data must also be assessed.
 In case of automated editing, you would need to develop and document the rules for editing.
You might also need to develop a software or customize an existing computer program as per
your data editing demands or requirements.

General guidelines for data editing

There are certain things that must be kept in mind when editing the data, they are as follows;

 Who should make or set the editing rules? The answer to this question would be that such rules
should be made by professionals who are experts in data collection, questionnaire design and
analysis.
 The editing rules need to be consistent and free from any contradictions.
 When setting the editing rules, it must be established whether the variable is qualitative or
quantitative because the rules for editing either one are different from the other.
 Give enough time to each of the various stages of the process, that is, data collection entry and
analysis and at the end of each make a quick check to see that all the necessary edits have been
made and that there are no empty places within the questionnaire form.
 The questionnaire must be edited in full during the early stages of editing. If however it is found
that some errors remain, a sample of forms should be subjected to re editing. The size of the
sample is determined according to the expected number of the remaining errors.
 You also need to re run the desk editing stage to ensure that the data is almost free from all
errors.
 The questionnaire must be subjected to desk editing and also to automated rules within the built
in data editing/computer software programs.

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Coding
Introduction
When a researcher has completed collecting information or data, this information is ready to be
processed and analyzed. Quantitative data is information that is measurable and focuses on
numerical values, unlike qualitative data which is more descriptive. During the data processing
step, the collected data is transformed into a form that is appropriate to manipulate and analyze.

The process in which raw data is transformed into a standardized form suitable for machine
processing and analysis is called coding. In other words, coding is the act of assigning numerical
values to a set of data in order to make the analysis simpler. Coding can be used to quantify both
manifest content i.e. the tangible or concrete surface content (data), and latent content i.e. the
underlying meaning behind this information. The difference between manifest content and latent
content is very important when it comes to survey research.
It is advisable to do a pilot or a pretest of the instrument of data collection as it would help uncover
the potential problems with the study and accordingly help make changes in the tool. It will also
give the researcher an idea of how the data will look. On the basis of this, the researcher can work
out the layout of the codebook keeping in mind the responses collected for each variable, guiding
him to provide enough variables to capture all the richness, complexity, and variety of data that
has been collected. Depending on what shape the data comes in, the researcher will have to decide
how to code this information, with the help of one, two, or multiple variables.

Data Coding

Though the preparation of a codebook commences prior to actual data collection, after designing
the instrument and pre testing it, data coding as a step in the research process takes place after the
completion of data collection, simultaneously during data entry. It is important to keep the
following points in mind during coding of data:

 Identification variables: - Unique identification of the respondent/ questionnaire/ response sheet

is extremely important as it helps the researcher verify and check data. The identification variable
is a unique number corresponding to every respondent which has to be accommodated in a special
field at the beginning of each record. For example, 001, 002, etc. may be used as identification
variables
 Code categories:- Code categories should be mutually exclusive, exhaustive, and precisely
defined. Each interview response should fit into one and only one category. Ambiguity will cause
coding difficulties and problems with the interpretation of the data also. An example of this would
be while recording literacy levels of youth in a slum community, the coding should include not
just those who have gone through the formal system of education, but also those who have
participated in non-formal education programs and are therefore literate.

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 Preserving original information:- Data once coded is retained and becomes final; hence it is
important to code as much detail as possible by recording the original data rather than collapsing
or bracketing the information. With original or detailed data, the research analyst can determine
other meaningful relationships between variables beyond those which are selected primarily or
restricted by the entering or coding data. Hence, occupation of women in a slum community being
surveyed could include the home based small enterprises (involved in small scale business like
making snacks, Knick knacks, etc.) each as a separate code.
 Closed-ended questions:- Responses to survey questions that are pre coded in the questionnaire
should retain this coding scheme in the machine-readable data to avoid errors and confusion. For
example, in the above mentioned study in case the women respondents may be pre divided as per
their age and marital status, this pre coding should be retained.
 Open-ended questions:- For open-ended items, investigators can either use a predetermined
coding scheme or review the initial survey responses to construct a coding scheme based on major
categories that emerge. Any coding scheme and its derivation should be reported in study
documentation. Increasingly, investigators submit the full verbatim text of responses to open-
ended questions to archives so that users can code these responses themselves. However, such
responses may contain sensitive information and may involve the risk of identification; they must
therefore be reviewed prior to disclosure.
 Check-coding:- Check-coding provides an important means of quality control in the coding
process. In this process some cases are repeated with an independent coder in order to verify the
coding assigned and rule out discrepancies and ambiguities if any.
 Series of responses:- If a series of responses requires more than one field, organizing the responses
into meaningful major classifications becomes helpful. Responses within each major category are
assigned the same first digit. Secondary digits can distinguish specific responses within the major
categories. Such a coding scheme permits analysis of the data using broad groupings or more
detailed categories.

Dealing with Missing Data

There are various situations wherein the data may be missing and each of these would need to be
coded differently. Some of these situations are listed below:

 Refusal to answer or No response - In such a scenario the respondent explicitly refuses to answer
a question or does not answer it when he or she should have. This may be with regard to questions
that may be deemed personal and sensitive or too private by the respondent or even in a case where
there was lack of clarity with regard to a particular question.
 Don’t know responses - In this case the respondent was unable to answer a question, either
because he or she had no opinion or because the required information was not available (e.g., a
respondent could not provide family income for the previous year).

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 Processing error - In this case, there is no answer to the question, although the subject provided
one. This would indicate an error on the part of the interviewer, incorrect coding or other such
problems, despite the respondent providing a response to the particular question.
 Not applicable - The subject was never asked a question for a particular reason. While this may
be a result of skip patterns following filter questions, for example, subjects who are not married
are not asked questions pertaining to their children. Other examples of inapplicability are sets of
items asked only of random subsamples and those asked of one member of a household but not
another.
 No match - This situation arises when data are drawn from different sources (for example, a survey
questionnaire and an administrative database), and information from one source cannot be located
 No data available - The question should have been asked to the respondent, but for a reason other
than those listed above, no answer was given or recorded. This may be due to an error on the part
of the interviewer.

Classification,

Meaning of Classification of Data

 It is the process of arranging data into homogeneous (similar) groups according to their
common characteristics.
 Raw data cannot be easily understood, and it is not fit for further analysis and
interpretation. Arrangement of data helps users in comparison and analysis.
 For example, the population of a town can be grouped according to sex, age, marital status,
etc.

Definition of classification given by Professor. Secrist - “Classification is the process of

arranging data into sequences according to their common characteristics or separating them into
different related parts.”

Classification of data
The method of arranging data into homogeneous classes according to the common features present
in the data is known as classification.

A planned data analysis system makes the fundamental data easy to find and recover. This can be
of particular interest for legal discovery, risk management, and compliance. Written methods and
sets of guidelines for data classification should determine what levels and measures the company
will use to organise data and define the roles of employees within the business regarding input
stewardship.

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Once a data -classification scheme has been designed, the security standards that stipulate proper
approaching practices for each division and the storage criteria that determines the data’s lifecycle
demands should be discussed.

Objectives of Data Classification

The primary objectives of data classification are:

 To consolidate the volume of data in such a way that similarities and differences can be
quickly understood. Figures can consequently be ordered in sections with common traits.
 To aid comparison.
 To point out the important characteristics of the data at a flash.
 To give importance to the prominent data collected while separating the optional
elements.
 To allow a statistical method of the materials gathered.

Tabulation
What is the meaning of Tabulation?
Tabulation is the systematic and logical representation of figures in rows and columns to ease
comparison and statistical analysis. It eases comparison by bringing related information closer to
each other and helps further in statistical research and interpretation. In other words, tabulation is
a method of arranging or organizing data in a tabular form. The tabulation process may be simple
or complex depending upon the type of categorization.

Tabulation Definition

Tabulation is defined as the process of placing classified data in tabular form. A table is a
systematic arrangement of statiscal information in rows and columns. The rows of a table are the
horizontal arrangement of data whereas the columns of a table are the vertical arrangement of data.

What are the Essential Parts of a Table?

To tabulate data correctly, one must learn about the eight essential parts of a table. These are as
follows –

1. Table Number –

This is the first part of a table and is given on top of any table to facilitate easy identification
and for further reference.

2. Title of the Table –

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One of the most important parts of any table is its title. The title is either placed just below
the table number or at its right.It is imperative for the title to be brief, crisp and carefully-
worded to describe the tables’ contents effectively.

3. Headnote –

The headnote of a table is presented in the portion just below the title. It provides
information about the unit of data in the table, like “amount in Rupees” or “quantity in
kilograms”, etc.

4. Column Headings or Captions –

The headings of the columns are referred to as the caption. It consists of one or more
column heads. A caption should be brief, short, and self-explanatory, Column heading is
written in the middle of a column in small letters.

5. Row Headings or Stubs –

The title of each horizontal row is called a stub.

6. Body of a Table –

This is the portion that contains the numeric information collected from investigated facts.
The data in the body is presented in rows which are read horizontally from left to right and
in columns, read vertically from top to bottom.

7. Footnote –

Given at the bottom of a table above the source note, a footnote is used to state any fact
that is not clear from the table’s title, headings, caption or stub. For instance, if a
table represents the profit earned by a company, a footnote can be used to state if said
profit is earned before, or after tax calculations.

8. Source Note –

As its name suggests, a source note refers to the source from where the table’s information
has been collected.

Tabulation of Data: Illustration

Following is a tabulation of data to represent the total number of boys and girls in classes V, VI
and VII in XYZ School.

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Table Number – 1
Gender-Wise Distribution of Students in Classes- V, VI and VII of XYZ School
(Head Note)
Gender V VI VII Total
Boys 50 60 65 175
Girls 45 50 60 155
Total 95 110 125 330

Types of Tabulation

1. Simple Tabulation or One-way Tabulation

When the data in the table are tabulated to one characteristic, it is termed as a simple
tabulation or one-way tabulation.

For example, Data tabulation of all the people of the World is classified according to one
single characteristic like religion.

2. Double Tabulation or Two-way Tabulation

When the data in the table are tabulated considering two different characteristics at a time,
then it is defined as a double tabulation or two-way tabulation.

For example, Data tabulation of all the people of the World is classified by two different
characteristics like religion and sex.

3. Complex Tabulation

When the data in the table are tabulated according to many characteristics, it is referred to
as a complex tabulation.

For example, Data tabulation of all the people of the World is classified by three or more
characteristics like religion, sex, and literacy, etc.

What are the Objectives of Tabulation?

Tabulation essentially bridges the gap between the collection of data and analysing them. The
primary objectives of tabulation are given below –

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 For Simplification of Complex Data –

When any information is tabulated, the volume of raw data is compressed and presented in
a much more simplified manner. This facilitates easy comprehension and analysis of
previously complex data.

 To Highlight Important Information –

Representing any data in tabular form increases the scope to highlight important
information. Since data is presented in a concise manner without any textual explanation,
any crucial information is automatically highlighted without difficulty.

 To Enable Easy Comparison –

When data is presented in an orderly fashion in rows and columns, it becomes easier to
compare between them on the basis of several parameters. For example, it becomes easier
to determine the month when a country has received the maximum amount of rainfall if
the data is presented in a table. Otherwise, there always remains room for making a mistake
in processing the data correctly.

 To Help in the Statistical Analysis of Data –

Statistical analysis involves computing correlation, average, dispersion, etc. of data. When
information is presented in an organised manner in a table, statistical analysis becomes a
lot simpler.

 Saves Space

Even though it might not seem as important as the other objective of tabulation, saving
space without sacrificing the quality of data can be extremely helpful in the long run.
Additionally, a table helps to present facts in a much more concise manner than page after
page of text.

How is Data in Tabulation Executed?

With tabulation, data can be carried out manually or with the help of a computer. Mostly, the
execution of data tabulation depends on the cost, type, and size of the study, availability of
computers, time at disposal, and such other factors.

If tabulation is carried out on a computer, the answers are converted in numeric form. Whereas in
the case of tabulation by hand, one can utilize lists, tally, card sort, and count methods.

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Following are the categories of tabulating data by hand:

 Direct Tally Method –

Here, codes are first written down in tally sheets. Then a stroke is marked against codes to
denote response. After every fourth stroke, the fifth response is given by putting a
horizontal or diagonal line through the stroke.

 Card Sort and Count Method –

This is perhaps the most efficient hand tabulation method. Here the data is recorded in
cards of various sizes and shapes with the help of a series of holes. Next, cards belonging
to each of the categories are segregated and counted, and their frequency is recorded. This
way, a total of 40 items can be included in a single page.

 List and Tally Method –

With this method, a large number of questionnaires are listed in one sheet. The responses
to each question are then entered into rows, and the code corresponding to each question
is represented in columns.

What are the Rules of Tabulation?

There are a few general rules that have to be followed while constructing tables. These are –

 The tables illustrated should be self-explanatory, simple and attractive. There should be no
need for further explanation (details). If the volume of information is substantial, it is best
to put them down in multiple tables instead of a single one. This reduces the chances of
mistakes and defeats the purpose of forming a table. However, each table formed should
also be complete in itself and serve the purpose of analysis.
 The number of rows and columns should be kept minimal to present information in a crisp
and concise manner.
 Before tabulating, data should be approximated, wherever necessary.
 Stubs and captions should be self-explanatory and should not require the help of footnotes
to be comprehended.
 If certain positions of data collected cannot be tabulated under any stub or captions, they
should be put down in a separate table under the heading `` miscellaneous.
 Quantity and quality of data should not be compromised under any scenario while forming
a table.

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Validation
What is Data Validation?

Data validation refers to the process of ensuring the accuracy and quality of data. It is implemented
by building several checks into a system or report to ensure the logical consistency of input and
stored data.

In automated systems, data is entered with minimal or no human supervision. Therefore, it is

necessary to ensure that the data that enters the system is correct and meets the desired quality
standards. The data will be of little use if it is not entered properly and can create bigger
downstream reporting issues. Unstructured data, even if entered correctly, will incur related costs
for cleaning, transforming, and storage.

Types of Data Validation

There are many types of data validation. Most data validation procedures will perform one or more
of these checks to ensure that the data is correct before storing it in the database. Common types
of data validation checks include:

1. Data Type Check

A data type check confirms that the data entered has the correct data type. For example, a field
might only accept numeric data. If this is the case, then any data containing other characters such
as letters or special symbols should be rejected by the system.

2. Code Check

A code check ensures that a field is selected from a valid list of values or follows certain formatting
rules. For example, it is easier to verify that a postal code is valid by checking it against a list of
valid codes. The same concept can be applied to other items such as country codes and NAICS
industry codes.

3. Range Check

A range check will verify whether input data falls within a predefined range. For example, latitude
and longitude are commonly used in geographic data. A latitude value should be between -90 and
90, while a longitude value must be between -180 and 180. Any values out of this range are invalid.

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4. Format Check

Many data types follow a certain predefined format. A common use case is date columns that are
stored in a fixed format like “YYYY-MM-DD” or “DD-MM-YYYY.” A data validation procedure
that ensures dates are in the proper format helps maintain consistency across data and through
time.

5. Consistency Check

A consistency check is a type of logical check that confirms the data’s been entered in a logically
consistent way. An example is checking if the delivery date is after the shipping date for a parcel.

6. Uniqueness Check

Some data like IDs or e-mail addresses are unique by nature. A database should likely have unique
entries on these fields. A uniqueness check ensures that an item is not entered multiple times into
a database.

Practical Example

Consider the example of a retailer that collects data on its stores but fails to create a proper check
on the postal code. The oversight could make it difficult to leverage the data for information
and business intelligence. Several problems can occur if the postal code is not entered or entered
improperly.

It can be difficult to define the location of the store in some mapping software. A store postal code
will also help generate insights about the neighborhood where the store is located. Without a data
check on the postal code, it is more likely to lose the value of data. It will result in further costs if
the data needs to be recollected or the postal code needs to be manually entered.

A simple solution to the problem would be to put a check in place that ensures a valid postal code
is entered. The solution could be a dropdown menu or an auto-complete form that allows the user
to choose the postal code from a list of valid codes. Such a type of data validation is called a code
validation or code check.

Data Validation in Excel

The following example is an introduction to data validation in Excel. The data validation button
under the data tab provides the user with different types of data validation checks based on the
data type in the cell. It also allows the user to define custom validation checks using Excel

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formulas. The data validation can be found in the Data Tools section of the Data tab in the ribbon
of Excel:

Fig. 1: Data validation tool in Excel

Data Entry Task

The example below illustrates a case of data entry, where the province must be entered for every
store location. Since stores are only located in certain provinces, any incorrect entry should be
caught.

It is accomplished in Excel using a two-fold data validation. First, the relevant provinces are
incorporated into a drop-down menu that allows the user to select from a list of valid provinces.

Fig. 2: First level of data validation

Second, if the user inputs a wrong province by mistake, such as “NY” instead of “NS,” the system
warns the user of the incorrect input.

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Fig. 3: Second level of data validation

Further, if the user ignores the warning, an analysis can be conducted using the data validation
feature in Excel that identifies incorrect inputs.

Fig. 4: Final level of data validation

Analysis and Interpretation

What is Data Analysis?
Data analysis is defined as a process of cleaning, transforming, and modeling data to discover
useful information for business decision-making. The purpose of Data Analysis is to extract useful
information from data and taking the decision based upon the data analysis.

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A simple example of Data analysis is whenever we take any decision in our day-to-day life is by
thinking about what happened last time or what will happen by choosing that particular decision.
This is nothing but analyzing our past or future and making decisions based on it. For that, we
gather memories of our past or dreams of our future. So that is nothing but data analysis. Now
same thing analyst does for business purposes, is called Data Analysis.

Why Data Analysis?

To grow your business even to grow in your life, sometimes all you need to do is Analysis!

If your business is not growing, then you have to look back and acknowledge your mistakes and
make a plan again without repeating those mistakes. And even if your business is growing, then
you have to look forward to making the business to grow more. All you need to do is analyze your
business data and business processes.

Data Analysis Tools

Data analysis tools make it easier for users to process and manipulate data, analyze the
relationships and correlations between data sets, and it also helps to identify patterns and trends
for interpretation. Here is a complete list of tools used for data analysis in research.

Types of Data Analysis: Techniques and Methods

There are several types of Data Analysis techniques that exist based on business and technology.
However, the major Data Analysis methods are:

 Text Analysis
 Statistical Analysis
 Diagnostic Analysis
 Predictive Analysis
 Prescriptive Analysis

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Text Analysis
Text Analysis is also referred to as Data Mining. It is one of the methods of data analysis to
discover a pattern in large data sets using databases or data mining tools. It used to transform raw
data into business information. Business Intelligence tools are present in the market which is used
to take strategic business decisions. Overall it offers a way to extract and examine data and deriving
patterns and finally interpretation of the data.

Statistical Analysis
Statistical Analysis shows “What happen?” by using past data in the form of dashboards. Statistical
Analysis includes collection, Analysis, interpretation, presentation, and modeling of data. It
analyses a set of data or a sample of data. There are two categories of this type of Analysis –
Descriptive Analysis and Inferential Analysis.

Descriptive Analysis
analyses complete data or a sample of summarized numerical data. It shows mean and deviation
for continuous data whereas percentage and frequency for categorical data.

Inferential Analysis
analyses sample from complete data. In this type of Analysis, you can find different conclusions
from the same data by selecting different samples.

A good data interpretation process is key to making your data usable. It will help you make sure
you’re drawing the correct conclusions and acting on your information.

No matter what, data is everywhere in the modern world. There are two groups and organizations:
those drowning in data or not using it appropriately and those benefiting.

Diagnostic Analysis
Diagnostic Analysis shows “Why did it happen?” by finding the cause from the insight found in
Statistical Analysis. This Analysis is useful to identify behavior patterns of data. If a new problem
arrives in your business process, then you can look into this Analysis to find similar patterns of
that problem. And it may have chances to use similar prescriptions for the new problems.

Predictive Analysis
Predictive Analysis shows “what is likely to happen” by using previous data. The simplest data
analysis example is like if last year I bought two dresses based on my savings and if this year my
salary is increasing double then I can buy four dresses. But of course it’s not easy like this because

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you have to think about other circumstances like chances of prices of clothes is increased this year
or maybe instead of dresses you want to buy a new bike, or you need to buy a house!

So here, this Analysis makes predictions about future outcomes based on current or past data.
Forecasting is just an estimate. Its accuracy is based on how much detailed information you have
and how much you dig in it.

Prescriptive Analysis
Prescriptive Analysis combines the insight from all previous Analysis to determine which action
to take in a current problem or decision. Most data-driven companies are utilizing Prescriptive
Analysis because predictive and descriptive Analysis are not enough to improve data performance.
Based on current situations and problems, they analyze the data and make decisions.

Data Analysis Process

The Data Analysis Process is nothing but gathering information by using a proper application or
tool which allows you to explore the data and find a pattern in it. Based on that information and
data, you can make decisions, or you can get ultimate conclusions.
Data Analysis consists of the following phases:

 Data Requirement Gathering

 Data Collection
 Data Cleaning
 Data Analysis
 Data Interpretation
 Data Visualization

Data Requirement Gathering

First of all, you have to think about why do you want to do this data analysis? All you need to find
out the purpose or aim of doing the Analysis of data. You have to decide which type of data
analysis you wanted to do! In this phase, you have to decide what to analyze and how to measure
it, you have to understand why you are investigating and what measures you have to use to do this
Analysis.

Data Collection
After requirement gathering, you will get a clear idea about what things you have to measure and
what should be your findings. Now it’s time to collect your data based on requirements. Once you
collect your data, remember that the collected data must be processed or organized for Analysis.
As you collected data from various sources, you must have to keep a log with a collection date and
source of the data.

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Data Cleaning
Now whatever data is collected may not be useful or irrelevant to your aim of Analysis, hence it
should be cleaned. The data which is collected may contain duplicate records, white spaces or
errors. The data should be cleaned and error free. This phase must be done before Analysis because
based on data cleaning, your output of Analysis will be closer to your expected outcome.

Data Analysis
Once the data is collected, cleaned, and processed, it is ready for Analysis. As you manipulate
data, you may find you have the exact information you need, or you might need to collect more
data. During this phase, you can use data analysis tools and software which will help you to
understand, interpret, and derive conclusions based on the requirements.

Data Interpretation
After analyzing your data, it’s finally time to interpret your results. You can choose the way to
express or communicate your data analysis either you can use simply in words or maybe a table or
chart. Then use the results of your data analysis process to decide your best course of action.

Data Visualization
Data visualization is very common in your day to day life; they often appear in the form of charts
and graphs. In other words, data shown graphically so that it will be easier for the human brain to
understand and process it. Data visualization often used to discover unknown facts and trends. By
observing relationships and comparing datasets, you can find a way to find out meaningful
information.

What is Data Interpretation

Data interpretation is the process of reviewing data and arriving at relevant conclusions using
various analytical research methods. Data analysis assists researchers in categorizing,
manipulating, and summarizing data to answer critical questions.

In business terms, the interpretation of data is the execution of various processes. This process
analyzes and revises data to gain insights and recognize emerging patterns and behaviors. These
conclusions will assist you as a manager in making an informed decision based on numbers while
having all of the facts at your disposal.

Importance of Data Interpretation

Raw data is useless unless it’s interpreted. Data interpretation is important to businesses and
people. The collected data helps make informed decisions.

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Make better decisions

Any decision is based on the information that is available at the time. People used to think that
many diseases were caused by bad blood, which was one of the four humors. So, the solution was
to get rid of the bad blood. We now know that things like viruses, bacteria, and immune responses
can cause illness and can act accordingly.

In the same way, when you know how to collect and understand data well, you can make better
decisions. You can confidently choose a path for your organization or even your life instead of
working with assumptions.

The most important thing is to follow a transparent process to reduce mistakes and tiredness when
making decisions.

Find trends and take action

Another practical use of data interpretation is to get ahead of trends before they reach their peak.
Some people have made a living by researching industries, spotting trends, and then making big
bets on them.

With the proper data interpretations and a little bit of work, you can catch the start of trends and
use them to help your business or yourself grow.

Better resource allocation

The last importance of data interpretation we will discuss is the ability to use people, tools, money,
etc., more efficiently. For example, If you know via strong data interpretation that a market is
underserved, you’ll go after it with more energy and win.

In the same way, you may find out that a market you thought was a good fit is actually bad. This
could be because the market is too big for your products to serve, there is too much competition,
or something else.

No matter what, you can move the resources you need faster and better to get better results.

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What are the steps in interpreting data?

Here are some steps to interpreting data correctly.

1. Gather the data

The very first step in data interpretation is gathering all relevant data. You can do this by first
visualizing it in a bar, graph, or pie chart. This step aims to analyze the data accurately and without
bias. Now is the time to recall how you conducted your research.

Here are two question patterns that will help you to understand better.

 Were there any flaws or changes that occurred during the data collection process?
 Have you saved any observatory notes or indicators?

You can proceed to the next stage when you have all of your data.

2. Develop your discoveries

This is a summary of your findings. Here, you thoroughly examine the data to identify trends,
patterns, or behavior. If you are researching a group of people using a sample population, this is
the section where you examine behavioral patterns. You can compare these deductions to previous
data sets, similar data sets, or general hypotheses in your industry. This step’s goal is to compare
these deductions before drawing any conclusions.

3. Draw Conclusions

After you’ve developed your findings from your data sets, you can draw conclusions based on
your discovered trends. Your findings should address the questions that prompted your research.
If they do not respond, inquire about why; it may produce additional research or questions.

4. Give recommendations

The interpretation procedure of data comes to a close with this stage. Every research conclusion
must include a recommendation. As recommendations are a summary of your findings and
conclusions, they should be brief. There are only two options for recommendations; you can either
recommend a course of action or suggest additional research.

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Data interpretation examples

Here are two examples of data interpretations to help you understand it better:

Example 1

Let’s say your users fall into four age groups. So a company can see which age group likes their
content or product. Based on bar charts or pie charts, they can develop a marketing strategy to
reach uninvolved groups or an outreach strategy to grow their core user base.

Example 2

Another example of data analysis is the use of recruitment CRM by businesses. They utilize it to
find candidates, track their progress, and manage their entire hiring process to determine how they
can better automate their workflow.

Report writing and presentation of results,

Report writing

Reports are usually spread across a vast horizon of topics but are focused on communicating
information about a particular topic and a niche target market. The primary motive of research
reports is to convey integral details about a study for marketers to consider while designing new
strategies.

Certain events, facts, and other information based on incidents need to be relayed to the people in
charge, and creating research reports is the most effective communication tool. Ideal research
reports are extremely accurate in the offered information with a clear objective and conclusion.
These reports should have a clean and structured format to relay information effectively.

What are Research Reports?

Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing the
information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form
of surveys or qualitative methods.

A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research. It is most often
considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of research.

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The various sections of a research report are:

1. Summary
2. Background/Introduction
3. Implemented Methods
4. Results based on Analysis
5. Deliberation
6. Conclusion

Components of Research Reports

Research is imperative for launching a new product/service or a new feature. The markets today
are extremely volatile and competitive due to new entrants every day who may or may not provide
effective products. An organization needs to make the right decisions at the right time to be
relevant in such a market with updated products that suffice customer demands.

The details of a research report may change with the purpose of research but the main components
of a report will remain constant. The research approach of the market researcher also influences
the style of writing reports. Here are seven main components of a productive research report:

 Research Report Summary: The entire objective along with the overview of research are
to be included in a summary which is a couple of paragraphs in length. All the multiple
components of the research are explained in brief under the report summary. It should be
interesting enough to capture all the key elements of the report.
 Research Introduction: There always is a primary goal that the researcher is trying to
achieve through a report. In the introduction section, he/she can cover answers related to
this goal and establish a thesis which will be included to strive and answer it in detail. This
section should answer an integral question: “What is the current situation of the
goal?”. After the research design was conducted, did the organization conclude the goal
successfully or they are still a work in progress – provide such details in the introduction
part of the research report.
 Research Methodology: This is the most important section of the report where all the
important information lies. The readers can gain data for the topic along with analyzing the
quality of provided content and the research can also be approved by other market
researchers. Thus, this section needs to be highly informative with each aspect of research
discussed in detail. Information needs to be expressed in chronological order according to
its priority and importance. Researchers should include references in case they gained
information from existing techniques.

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 Research Results: A short description of the results along with calculations conducted to
achieve the goal will form this section of results. Usually, the exposition after data analysis
is carried out in the discussion part of the report.
 Research Discussion: The results are discussed in extreme detail in this section along with
a comparative analysis of reports that could probably exist in the same domain. Any
abnormality uncovered during research will be deliberated in the discussion section. While
writing research reports, the researcher will have to connect the dots on how the results
will be applicable in the real world.
 Research References and Conclusion: Conclude all the research findings along with
mentioning each and every author, article or any content piece from where references were
taken.

Tips for Writing Research Reports

Writing research reports in the manner can lead to all the efforts going down the drain. Here are
15 tips for writing impactful research reports:

 Prepare the context before starting to write and start from the basics: This was always
taught to us in school – be well-prepared before taking a plunge into new topics. The order
of survey questions might not be the ideal or most effective order for writing research
reports. The idea is to start with a broader topic and work towards a more specific one and
focus on a conclusion or support, which a research should support with the facts. The most
difficult thing to do in reporting, without a doubt is to start. Start with the title, the
introduction, then document the first discoveries and continue from that. Once the
marketers have the information well documented, they can write a general conclusion.
 Keep the target audience in mind while selecting a format that is clear, logical and
obvious to them: Will the research reports be presented to decision makers or other
researchers? What are the general perceptions around that topic? This requires more care
and diligence. A researcher will need a significant amount of information to start writing
the research report. Be consistent with the wording, the numbering of the annexes and so
on. Follow the approved format of the company for the delivery of research reports and
demonstrate the integrity of the project with the objectives of the company.
 Have a clear research objective: A researcher should read the entire proposal again, and
make sure that the data they provide contributes to the objectives that were raised from the
beginning. Remember that speculations are for conversations, not for research reports, if a
researcher speculates, they directly question their own research.
 Establish a working model: Each study must have an internal logic, which will have to
be established in the report and in the evidence. The researchers’ worst nightmare is to be
required to write research reports and realize that key questions were not included.

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 Gather all the information about the research topic. Who are the competitors of our
customers? Talk to other researchers who have studied the subject of research, know the
language of the industry. Misuse of the terms can discourage the readers of research reports
from reading further.
 Read aloud while writing. While reading the report, if the researcher hears something
inappropriate, for example, if they stumble over the words when reading them, surely the
reader will too. If the researcher can’t put an idea in a single sentence, then it is very long
and they must change it so that the idea is clear to everyone.
 Check grammar and spelling. Without a doubt, good practices help to understand the
report. Use verbs in the present tense. Consider using the present tense, which makes the
results sound more immediate. Find new words and other ways of saying things. Have fun
with the language whenever possible.
 Discuss only the discoveries that are significant. If some data are not really significant,
do not mention them. Remember that not everything is truly important or essential within
research reports.
 Try and stick to the survey questions. For example, do not say that the people surveyed
“were worried” about an research issue, when there are different degrees of concern.
 The graphs must be clear enough so that they understand themselves. Do not let graphs
lead the reader to make mistakes: give them a title, include the indications, the size of the
sample, and the correct wording of the question.
 Be clear with messages. A researcher should always write every section of the report with
an accuracy of details and language.
 Be creative with titles– Particularly in segmentation studies choose names “that give life
to research”. Such names can survive for a long time after the initial investigation.
 Create an effective conclusion: The conclusion in the research reports is the most difficult
to write, but it is an incredible opportunity to excel. Make a precise summary. Sometimes
it helps to start the conclusion with something specific, then it describes the most important
part of the study, and finally, it provides the implications of the conclusions.
 Get a couple more pair of eyes to read the report. Writers have trouble detecting their
own mistakes. But they are responsible for what is presented. Ensure it has been approved
by colleagues or friends before sending the find draft out.

Presentation of results

Written Presentation of Results

Once you've gone through the process of doing communication research – using a quantitative,
qualitative, or critical/rhetorical methodological approach – the final step is to communicate it.

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The major style manuals (the APA Manual, the MLA Handbook, and Turabian) are very helpful
in documenting the structure of writing a study, and are highly recommended for consultation.
But, no matter what style manual you may use, there are some common elements to the structure
of an academic communication research paper.

Title Page:

This is simple: Your Paper's Title, Your Name, Your Institutional Affiliation (e.g., University),
and the Date, each on separate lines, centered on the page. Try to make your title both descriptive
(i.e., it gives the reader an idea what the study is about) and interesting (i.e., it is catchy enough to
get one's attention).

For example, the title, "The uncritical idealization of a compensated psychopath character in a
popular book series," would not be an inaccurate title for a published study, but it is rather vague
and exceedingly boring. That study's author fortunately chose the title, "A boyfriend to die for:
Edward Cullen as compensated psychopath in Stephanie Meyer's Twilight," which is more
precisely descriptive, and much more interesting (Merskin, 2011). The use of the colon in
academic titles can help authors accomplish both objectives: a catchy but relevant phrase, followed
by a more clear explanation of the article's topic.

Abstract:

In some instances, you might be asked to write an abstract, which is a summary of your paper that
can range in length from 75 to 250 words. If it is a published paper, it is useful to include key
search terms in this brief description of the paper (the title may already have a few of these terms
as well). Although this may be the last thing your write, make it one of the best things you write,
because this may be the first thing your audience reads about the paper (and may be the only thing
read if it is written badly). Summarize the problem/research question, your methodological
approach, your results and conclusions, and the significance of the paper in the abstract.

Quantitative and qualitative studies will most typically use the rest of the section titles noted below.
Critical/rhetorical studies will include many of the same steps, but will often have different
headings. For example, a critical/rhetorical paper will have an introduction, definition of terms,
and literature review, followed by an analysis (often divided into sections by areas of investigation)
and ending with a conclusion/implications section. Because critical/rhetorical research is much
more descriptive, the subheadings in such a paper are often times not generic subheads like
"literature review," but instead descriptive subheadings that apply to the topic at hand, as seen in
the schematic below. Because many journals expect the article to follow typical research paper
headings of introduction, literature review, methods, results, and discussion, we discuss these
sections briefly next.

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Introduction:

As you read social scientific journals (see chapter 1 for examples), you will find that they tend to
get into the research question quickly and succinctly. Journal articles from the humanities tradition
tend to be more descriptive in the introduction. But, in either case, it is good to begin with some
kind of brief anecdote that gets the reader engaged in your work and lets the reader understand
why this is an interesting topic. From that point, state your research question, define the problem
(see Chapter One) with an overview of what we do and don't know, and finally state what you will
do, or what you want to find out. The introduction thus builds the case for your topic, and is the
beginning of building your argument, as we noted in chapter 1.

By the end of the Introduction, the reader should know what your topic is, why it is a significant
communication topic, and why it is necessary that you investigate it (e.g., it could be there is gap
in literature, you will conduct valuable exploratory research, or you will provide a new model for
solving some professional or social problem).

Literature Review:

The literature review summarizes and organizes the relevant books, articles, and other research in
this area. It sets up both quantitative and qualitative studies, showing the need for the study. For
critical/rhetorical research, the literature review often incorporates the description of the historical

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context and heuristic vocabulary, with key terms defined in this section of the paper. For more
detail on writing a literature review, see Appendix 1.

Methods:

The methods of your paper are the processes that govern your research, where the researcher
explains what s/he did to solve the problem. As you have seen throughout this book, in
communication studies, there are a number of different types of research methods. For example,
in quantitative research, one might conduct surveys, experiments, or content analysis. In
qualitative research, one might instead use interviews and observations. Critical/rhetorical studies
methods are more about the interpretation of texts or the study of popular culture as
communication. In creative communication research, the method may be an interpretive
performance studies or filmmaking. Other methods used sometimes alone, or in combination with
other methods, include legal research, historical research, and political economy research.

In quantitative and qualitative research papers, the methods will be most likely described according
to the APA manual standards. At the very least, the methods will include a description of
participants, data collection, and data analysis, with specific details on each of these elements. For
example, in an experiment, the researcher will describe the number of participants, the materials
used, the design of the experiment, the procedure of the experiment, and what statistics will be
used to address the hypotheses/research questions.

Critical/rhetorical researchers rarely have a specific section called "methods," as opposed to

quantitative and qualitative researchers, but rather demonstrate the method they use for analysis
throughout the writing of their piece.

Helping your reader understand the methods you used for your study is important not only for your
own study's credibility, but also for possible replication of your study by other researchers. A good
guideline to keep in mind is transparency. You want to be as clear as possible in describing the
decisions you made in designing your study, gathering and analyzing your data so that the reader
can retrace your steps and understand how you came to the conclusions you formed. A research
study can be very good, but if it is not clearly described so that others can see how the results were
determined or obtained, then the quality of the study and its potential contributions are lost.

Results:

After you completed your study, your findings will be listed in the results section. Particularly in
a quantitative study, the results section is for revisiting your hypotheses and reporting whether or
not your results supported them, and the statistical significance of the results. Whether your study
supported or contradicted your hypotheses, it's always helpful to fully report what your results

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were. The researcher usually organizes the results of his/her results section by research question
or hypothesis, stating the results for each one, using statistics to show how the research question
or hypothesis was answered in the study.

The qualitative results section also may be organized by research question, but usually is organized
by themes which emerged from the data collected. The researcher provides rich details from her/his
observations and interviews, with detailed quotations provided to illustrate the themes identified.
Sometimes the results section is combined with the discussion section.

Critical/rhetorical researchers would include their analysis often with different subheadings in
what would be considered a "results" section, yet not labeled specifically this way.

Discussion:

In the discussion section, the researcher gives an appraisal of the results. Here is where the
researcher considers the results, particularly in light of the literature review, and explains what the
findings mean. If the results confirmed or corresponded with the findings of other literature, then
that should be stated. If the results didn't support the findings of previous studies, then the
researcher should develop an explanation of why the study turned out this way. Sometimes, this
section is called a "conclusion" by researchers.

References:

In this section, all of the literature cited in the text should have full references in alphabetical order.
Appendices: Appendix material includes items like questionnaires used in the study, photographs,
documents, etc. An alphabetical letter is assigned for each piece (e.g. Appendix A, Appendix B),
with a second line of title describing what the appendix contains (e.g. Participant Informed
Consent, or New York Times Speech Coverage). They should be organized consistently with the
order in which they are referenced in the text of the paper. The page numbers for appendices are
consecutive with the paper and reference list.

Tables/Figures:

Tables and figures are referenced in the text, but included at the end of the study and numbered
consecutively. (Check with your professor; some like to have tables and figures inserted within
the paper's main text.) Tables generally are data in a table format, whereas figures are diagrams
(such as a pie chart) and drawings (such as a flow chart).

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Importance of report writing

1. Decision Making Tool: Today's complex business organizations require thousands of
information. Reports provide the required information. A large number of important decisions in
business or any other areas are taken on the basis of information presented in the report.
2. Investigation: Whenever there is any problem, a committee or commission or study group
investigate the problem to find out the reason behind the problem and present the fount output with
or without the recommendation in the form of a report.
3. Evaluation: Large scale organization are engaged in multidimensional activities. It is not
possible for a single top executive to keep personal watch on what others are doing.
So, the executive depends on reports to evaluate the performance of various departments or units.
4. Quick Location: There is no denying the fact that business executives need information for
quick decision making. As top executive are found to be busy for various purposes, they need vital
sources of information. Such sources can be business report.
5. Development of Skill: Report writing skill develops the power of designing, Organization co-
ordination, judgement and communication. Therefore such skill acts as a catalyst.
6. Neutral Presentation of Facts: Facts are required to be presented in a neutral way. Such
presentation is ensured through a report as it investigates, explains and evaluates and much more
about any fact independently.
7. Professional Advancement: Report also plays a major role in professional progress and
advancement.
For promotion to the rank and file position, satisfactory job performance is enough to help a
person. But for promotion to high level position, intellectual ability is highly required. Such ability
can be expressed through the report submitted to higher authority.
8. Proper Control: Whether activities are happening according to plan or not is expressed
through a report. So, controlling such activities are implemented based on the information of
a report.
9. A Managerial Tool: Various reports make activities easy for the managers. For planning,
organizing, coordinating, motivating and controlling, A manger may find help from a report which
acts as a source of information.
10. Encountering Advance and Complex Situation: In a large business organization, there is
always some sort of labor problems which may bring complex situations. To tackle those situation,
managers take the help of a report.

Types of research reports

1. Thesis
Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research
document that presents the findings and conclusions of an original
research study conducted by a student as part of a graduate or
postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student pursuing a

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higher degree, such as a Master’s or Doctoral degree, although it can also

be written by researchers or scholars in other fields.

2. Research Paper
Research paper is a type of research report. A research paper is a
document that presents the results of a research study or investigation.
Research papers can be written in a variety of fields, including science,
social science, humanities, and business. They typically follow a standard
format that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology,
results, discussion, and conclusion sections.

3. Technical Report
A technical report is a detailed report that provides information about a
specific technical or scientific problem or project. Technical reports are
often used in engineering, science, and other technical fields to document
research and development work.

4. Progress Report
A progress report provides an update on the progress of a research
project or program over a specific period of time. Progress reports are
typically used to communicate the status of a project to stakeholders,
funders, or project managers.

5. Feasibility Report
A feasibility report assesses the feasibility of a proposed project or plan,
providing an analysis of the potential risks, benefits, and costs associated
with the project. Feasibility reports are often used in business,
engineering, and other fields to determine the viability of a project before
it is undertaken.

6. Field Report
A field report documents observations and findings from fieldwork, which
is research conducted in the natural environment or setting. Field reports
are often used in anthropology, ecology, and other social and natural
sciences.

7. Experimental Report
An experimental report documents the results of a scientific experiment,
including the hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusions. Experimental

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reports are often used in biology, chemistry, and other sciences to

communicate the results of laboratory experiments.

8. Case Study Report

A case study report provides an in-depth analysis of a specific case or
situation, often used in psychology, social work, and other fields to
document and understand complex cases or phenomena.

9. Literature Review Report

A literature review report synthesizes and summarizes existing research
on a specific topic, providing an overview of the current state of
knowledge on the subject. Literature review reports are often used in
social sciences, education, and other fields to identify gaps in the literature
and guide future research.

Report structure

(A)-Front Matter
1) Letter of transmittal (Cover letter)
2) Title page
3) Executive summary
4) Table of content
5) List of figures/ Illustration
(B)-Body of the report
6) Introduction
7) Findings and Documentation
8) Conclusion and Recommendation
(C)-Back Matter
9) Appendices, References, and Glossary
Note: The letter of transmittal is an optional element of reporting which may or may not be
included depending on the type of report prepared.

(A)Front Matter
The front matter consists of all the opening components of a business report. This includes a title
page, executive summary, table of contents, and a list of figures/illustrations. A letter of
transmittal, which serves as an official cover letter, may also be included.
The following elements are included in the front matter of a report:
1) Letter of Transmittal (Cover):
The letter of transmittal serves as a customary cover page. Its purpose is to state the title of the
report and if necessary, briefly preview conclusions, state the purpose, and mention key highlights.

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It mentions who commissioned the report and appreciates the efforts of those involved in the
project. This letter is attached to the top of the report and is written in a courteous tone.

An example of the letter of transmittal.

2) Title Page:
As the name suggests, the title page is the opening page of a business report. It comprises the
following:
1. The title of the subject
2. Name of the writer
3. Name of the receiver, title, and organization
4. Purpose of the report
5. Date of submission
The title of a business report should clearly convey the type of report and its purpose. It should be
written in capital letters and centered in alignment.

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 Research Methodology and IPR (22MBA23)

3) Executive Summary:
The executive summary or the abstract is a major element of a business report. It is written for
busy executives who may only read this part of the report. It offers a summary of the entire report
and its findings.
It includes:
1. Purpose of the report
2. Scope of the investigation
3. The methods used to conduct the investigation
4. Key findings along with essential statistics
5. Conclusions, analysis, and recommendations

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 Research Methodology and IPR (22MBA23)

Source: asana.com
Note: You can further check out the following blog by Hubpots on powerfull executive
summary for more details.
4) Table of Contents:
For longer and more detailed information, a table of contents is a necessary element of report
writing. It provides the readers with an overview of the content present. This helps them easily
locate particular sections of a report. All headings and subheadings are listed along with page
numbers in the exact order of appearance.

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 Research Methodology and IPR (22MBA23)

5) List of Figures/Illustrations:
The graphic aids (charts, graphs, photographs, diagrams, etc) used in a business report are
organized in their own separate table of contents. A list of figures or list of illustrations helps the
readers locate the specific page where this information is presented.
If a report has only tables, it is called a list of tables. If it has only figures with no tables, it is
termed a list of figures. And if it contains both tables and figures, it is collectively called a list of
illustrations.

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(B)Body of a Report
The body contains the meaty content of the report. After the introductory sections, is where the
substance of the report lies. The body of a report may vary according to the type of business report.
For example, The essential elements of a technical report will differ from the content of a progress
report.
The following sections make up the body of a report:
6) Introduction:
The introduction is the ‘beginning’ of the report. This is the section where the structure of the
report is detailed. Along with this, key questions are answered such as “what is the report about ”
and “how can it be used”.
This is where the page numbering of a report starts. The introduction of a report is used to:
 Define the main subject or problem
 Provide brief background information
 State the overall purpose of the report
 State theoretical foundations, scope, methodology, and any limitations
7) Findings and Documentation:
This is one of the main elements of a report. It is also usually the longest section of a report. The
factual findings are presented along with an interpretation of the data collected.
The key findings of the investigation are explained in detail. The writer mentions all the sources
used to formulate the report. This helps in the authentication of the report and allows the readers
to visit the source material for further information.

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All significant information gathered is documented in this section. Both positive and negative
points are mentioned to form conclusions and recommend solutions.
The relevant questions pertaining to the report, its purpose, addressing problems and analysis of
information are present in the findings and documentation.
8) Conclusion:
The findings and purpose of the report are summarized in the conclusion. The information
presented in the report is analyzed and the advantages, limitations, and actions that need to be
taken are stated in this section.
The writer must avoid including new information in the conclusion. It must only be relevant to the
data presented in the rest of the report.
9) Recommendations:
The recommendation is one of the prime elements of the structure of a business report, this part
includes the recommended actions that need to be taken based on the findings of the report. They
are relevant to:
 What must be done
 Who will do it
 How and when they will do it
 Where it will be done
Recommendations can be made for improvement, implementation of new ideas, or change which
will help the company’s performance.

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(C)Back Matter
Following the front matter and the body of the report, we have the back matter. This section of the
report highlights auxiliary and supporting segments such as glossary, references, and appendices.
10) Glossary:
The glossary serves as a dictionary providing definitions of technical terms used in the report. The
words are listed in alphabetical order.
The glossary is listed before the appendix and if very brief, it can be placed just after the table of
contents.
11) References:
References are also one of the essential components of a business report because a report is only
considered authentic if all accurate sources are listed. All references from where the data was
collected are mentioned in this section. Data collected from third-party sources such as stats, facts,
and journals must be credited to their original sources.

12) Appendices:
The appendix is the last element of the business report structure that contains supporting
information that would be too bulky to include in the body of the report. This is considered an
optional section that may or may not be included in a report.
It contains specialized information such as maps, questionnaires, interviews, letters, etc.

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Guidelines for effective documentation

Rule 1. Never consider the time you invest in writing or planning documentation as
wasted time
Like any well-designed project, the production of good documentation requires clear planning
and a considerable investment of time and resources. This may seem like a pain to you, especially
when you are overloaded with other work. Rather than viewing documentation and the lengthy
meetings with the "non- specialised" technical writer who needs to be explained step by step the
simplest things, as a necessary evil, you should see it as a tool for helping you clarify your product
to yourself as well as to others.
One of the problems of design is that when you become bogged down in the gritty details
and mechanics you may loose site of the forest, for all the trees. Documentation not only
provides you with a roadmap of the forest, it also presents an overall perspective, an
opportunity to step out of the logger’s mindset and see the larger plan or goal. Where are you
going? Are you missing anything? Have you included everything that needs to be included?
Your discussions with your writers may help identify problems that you were not aware. The
documentation process helps you to place what you are doing in perspective and keep in
focus the ultimate purpose or use of the product being designed.
Preferably an outline should be produced that covers the major sections of the
documentation. The outline is designed to lead the reader in a logical manner through the
task, procedure or description being described.
Make sure your time allotment for a project takes into consideration time devoted to
documentation.

Rule 2. Don’t take what you say or write for granted

What may seem clear and obvious to you may not appear so to someone from outside the
company, who is not familiar with the concepts and jargon that you use daily.
When a writer asks you what you mean by something, the answer may seem obvious, but it
may not be. Language needs to be taken apart, examined for its basic concepts and then
reassembled. Often, drafts need to be rewritten several times, to clarify the meaning and
focus the text to fit the reader's needs.
Information that has been assembled from a technical or development perspective needs to
be presented in a form suitable for the purpose of the document and the intended reader.
Readers of manuals or brochures will probably not need to know any technical details, other
than on a broad, conceptual level. This requires removing information not relevant to the
reader.

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Rule 3. Provide plenty of feedback and input

The basic formula for documentation is:
Quality of input = quality and clarity of output
Remember this formula the next time you give feedback. Writers depend on receiving good
quality information. You are responsible for ensuring that the information you provide is
comprehensive and accurate.
Feedback should be concise and to the point. It should:
 Refer to specific items
 Provide clear guidelines for what needs to be changed
 Preferably be presented as a list of to do items or as text to be edited/changed in the
document
You may not be sure of the precise problem with the documentation. Something may feel
wrong or be missing, or a description of a concept or procedure may feel incomplete. Trust
your gut feeling and explore this further. You know the product. Ask yourself or the writer
“What do you mean by this?” Try rephrasing unclear sections in a way that communicates
the way that you see the product.
Use diagrams and examples to explain what you mean.
Finally, if a writer requests information or feedback, don’t procrastinate and delay. This
holds up the entire documentation process, since the writer cannot proceed until your
feedback or information has been received.

Rule 4. Be prepared for several drafts

Clear documentation, like any other activity, requires constant rethinking and reshaping.
Concepts, terminology and processes need to be identified, written about, clarified, rewritten
about, discussed and honed. Writing is a cyclical process. Each round of feedback produces
a document that is clearer to read, more comprehensive and accurate. The more input
received from different perspectives and different readers, the more reliable and accurate
will be the nature of the information you produce.
Unfortunately, the myth of dashing off a draft in one sitting, which contains everything that
needs to be said in a clear way, is unpractical. It would be similar to asking a software
engineer to produce a program in one draft.

Rule 5. Be on friendly terms with your writer

The writer assigned to your project is there to help you. He/she is not an added nuisance that is a
drain on your resources and time. The writer’s purpose is to take the problems and considerations

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that go with documentation off your hands.

The task of documenting a project is both lengthy and time- consuming – technical writers are
employed to take over responsibility, allowing you to devote your energies where they are most
needed.
Don't cut short or avoid your writer, for fear of wasting your time. Your patience will pay off.

Rule 6. Make sure all stages of design are well-documented

It pays to invest time and energy at the start of a project in clarifying the concepts of your
design, through white papers, product proposals, presentations, diagrams and system
specification documents. The more complete the documentation, the more information will
be available at a later stage for user-orientated manuals and other external documents.

Rule 7. Involve your writer in all stages of the product design

Your writer is a valuable resource. Don’t involve him/her at the last stage, in the final rush
to complete the project.
The writer should be involved in all stages of a project. An experienced writer will be able
to provide a bird’s eye view of the entire project and its components. Such a writer can
integrate and synthesise information from different sources, written over different time
periods. A writer who has been involved in all stages of documentation will be able to fill in
gaps and make critical decisions about the contents of a manual, with the minimum of
investment from the product manager and engineers.

Rule 8. Writing is team work

The final documentation product should be the result of the combined input and feedback
from the entire team: engineers, product managers, writers and quality assurance staff. Each
professional member of the team can add something from his or her own perspective that
can contribute to the value of the documentation and the project. Remember this when you
are asked to offer feedback or if it is your task to coordinate and ensure that other members
of the team contribute their feedback.

Rule 9. Be Flexible in your expectations and demands

Be prepared to be flexible in your expectations and demands. You may have to share a writer
with several other product managers, each with their own deadlines. A busy writer, with
several projects on hand, may not be in a position to drop everything else and devote all
their time to your project. It is therefore important that you plan your documentation needs
in advance, together with the writer. This will enable him/her to schedule time for you.
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