Unit – I

Introduction to Signals & Systems

1.1.Signal:
A signal is a physical quantity which carries some informatics Mathematical Definition:
A signal is a function of one or more independent variables. If the signal is function of one
independent variable then the signal is one dimensional signal.

Fig: 1.1.continuous time signal

If the signal is a function of two or more independent variables then the signal is said to
be a multi dimensional signal.
Eg: electrical signal, speech signal
Speech signal is a signal which is a function of one independent variable. Here the
independent variable is time. Signals and systems mainly deal about one dimensional signal
which is a function of one independent variable and the independent variable here is time.

1.2.System:
A system is an interconnection of functional blocks which process and analyze the signal.

Fig: 1.2.simple block diagram of a system

The input to the system is known as excitation and the output of the system is known as
response. The system transforms the input signal to an output signal. Here comes the concept of
transformation, which is nothing but modification of signals.

1.3.The three important transformations are:

1. Time scaling
2. Time shifting

3. Time reversal
1.3.Classification of signals:
1. Continuous time signals(CT Signal)
2. Discrete time signals(DT Signal)
1.4.1. Continuous time signal: The signal is said to be a Continuous time signal, if it is defined
at any point of time or every point of time. The independent variable is denoted by t (time).
Independent variable t
Signal representation x (t)
The CT signal is defined in real domain(R).

Graphical representation: The signal is continuous in nature.

Fig: 1.3,CT signal

1.4.2.Discrete time signal: The signal is said to be a discrete time signal if it is defined only at
particular instants of time. The CT signal is defined in Integer domain (Z)

Independent variable n
Signal representation x [n]
Graphical representation: The signal is discrete in nature.

Fig: 1.4.DT signal

1.5. Other classifications of signals:

1. Even, odd

2. Periodic, a periodic
3. Deterministic, Random
4. Real, complex
5. Energy, power
1.5.1.Even and Odd signal:
Even Signal / Symmetric signal:
The signal is said to be symmetric or even signal if the independent variable of the signal is equal
to the time counterpart of itself.
Continuous domain x (t) = x (-t)
Discrete domain x [n] = x [-n]
Eg: cosine signal
x (-t) = x (t) even signal

Graphical representation:

Fig: 1.5.even signal

Odd signal / asymmetric signal:

Continuous domain x (-t) = -x (t)
Discrete domain x [-n] = -x[n]
Eg: Sine signal
x (-t) = - x (t) odd signal

Graphical representation:

Fig: 1.6.odd signal

The signal consist of 2 parts even part & odd part
X (t) = Xe (t) + Xo (t)
Xe (t) = ½ {X (t) + X(-t)} – equation(1)
X0(t) = ½ {X(t) - X (-t)} – equation(2)
1.5.2.Periodic and non- periodic signal:

Periodic Signal: A signal is said to be periodic if it is repeated after equal intervals of time.
Suppose if To is the Time interval,
Consider a sine wave (signal)
X(t) = A Sin (2π fo (t +To)]

Fig: 1.7.periodic signal

We know that fundamental frequency = 1/time period
fo = 1/To
X(t+To) = A sin (2πfo t + 2π 1/To* To)
= A sin (2 π + 2πfot)
= A sin ( 2π fot) = X(t) [Sin (2π +Ø) = sin Ø ]

Therefore X (t) =X (t+T0) Periodic signal

Graphical representation:

Fig: 1.8.graphical representation of periodic signal

A periodic (or) non-periodic signals:
The signal which does not repeat itself after equal intervals of time are non-periodic signals.
Eg: exponential signal
X(t) = ce-at decaying exponential Signal expression

X(t) is not equal to X(t+To) non- periodic signal

Graphical Representation:

Fig: 1.9.non-periodic signal

1.5.3.Deterministic and Random Signals:

Deterministic signal: The signal which is certain or determined is known as deterministic signal.
These signals can be expressed mathematically.
Eg: X(t) = A Sin ωt or A Cos ωt
Graphical representation:

Fig: 1.10.deterministic signal

These types of signals exhibit no uncertainty.

eg: A sin ωt
Random Signal: The signals which are not certain or uncertain are known as Random signals.
Eg: Noise Signal .
These signals are uncertain in nature.
Graphical representation:

Fig: 1.11.random signal

1.5.4.Real and complex signals:

Real: X(t) = ceat
If c and a are real numbers then the signal is said to be a real signal
If a>0 of a = positive then the signal is a growing exponential signal.
If a<0 or a= negative then the signal is a decaying exp. Signal

If a=0 or a=constant then the signal is linear over time axis.

Graphical representation:
i) a>0 growing exponential Signal

Fig: 1.12.growing exponential signal

ii)a<0 decaying exponential Signal

Fig: 1.13. Decaying exponential Signal

iii) a=0 constant signal

Fig: 1.14. constant signal

Complex signal:

X(t) = ceat c= C ejѳ

a = r +jw0 Complex number

X (t) = C ejѳ . eat

=
C ejѳ e (r+jw0)t

= C ert e j (ѳ+w0)

If r>0 signal is a multiple of growing exponential Signal

r<0 signal is a multiple of decaying exponential Signal

r =0 signal is a constant or symmetric over time axis

Graphical representation:
1. r>0

Fig: 1.15(growing exponential signal)

ii) r > 0

Fig: 1.16(decaying exponential signal

iii) r > 0

Fig: 1.17(symmetric signal)

1.5.5.Casual & non-casual signals:

Causal Signal : X(t) = 0 for t < 0
Non-Causal Signal : X(t) is not equal to 0 for t < 0

1.5.6.Energy & power signals:

In physics, energy is work and power is work per time;
Work = Force × Displacement
Power = Work / Time
For Kinetic energy is given by

In an electrical signal, the instantaneous power for the voltage across the resistance R and its
energy are defined…

In signal processing, total energy of signal x(t) is defined as (it is square of absolute
value.)
where |x(t)| denotes the magnitude of x(t).

Therefore, the energy of a signal is defined as a sum of square of magnitude.

The average power of signal is defined by;

A signal can be categorized into energy signal or power signal based on the
following,An energy signal has a finite energy, 0 < E < ∞. In other words, energy signals have
values only in the limited time duration. For example, a signal having only one square pulse is
energy signal. A signal that decays exponentially has finite energy, so, it is also an energy signal.
The power of an energy signal is 0, because of dividing finite energy by infinite time (or length).
On the contrary, the power signal is not limited in time. It always exists from beginning to end
and it never ends. For example, sine wave in infinite length is power signal. Since the energy of a
power signal is infinite, it has no meaning to us. Thus, we use power (energy per given time) for
power signal, because the power of power signal is finite, 0 < P < ∞.

1.6.Transformations or operations on signals:

Transformation is a small modification done to the signal with respect to time axis or amplitude
axis
Eg: In case of audio recording the audio signal is modified to enhance the quality of the signal,
to remove recording noise etc
1.6.1.Time shifting: x(t) original signal ; x (t-T) shifted signal

If ‘T’ is positive it results in a delayed signal

If ‘T’ is negative it results in a advanced signal

Fig: 1.18(original signal)

 Fig: 1.19(Shifted signal)

1.6.2.Time reversal : (Folding with respect to time axis) or folding operation:

X(t) original signal ; X(-t) Time reversal signal

Eg: tape recording X(t) fast farward

Fig: 1.20(original signal)

X(-t) revine

Fig: 1.21(reversed or folded signal)

X (t) is reflection of X (-t)
1.6.3.Time scaling: Scaling of the signal takes place with respect to time axis
X (t), X(t/2), X(2t)
Eg: X (t) recording at normal speed

Fig: 1.22.scaled signal

X (t/2) recording at half the speed

Fig: 1.23. scaled signal

 X (2t) recording at twice the speed

Fig: 1.24. scaled signal

1.6.4.Amplitude scaling: scaling with respect to amplitude axis

Suppose X (t) is a signal which is fed in to an amplifier with a gain of 3 then the output is of the
system is Y (t)= 3.X (t)
X (t) & Y (t) signals shape is identical but the only change is in amplitude

Fig: 1.25(original signal)

Fig: 1.26(amplitude scaled signal)

Here Y(t)=1/2*(t)

1.7.Basic Signals (or) Elementary signals: (Standard signals)

Representing a signal using mathematical expression is known as signal modeling.
Basic signals are important for studying the system behavior. Some of the standard signals are:
1. Unit Step signal
2. Unit Ramp signal

3. Unit Impulse signal

4. Sinusoidal Signal
5. Signum function
6. Sinc function
7. Exponential signal etc.,

1.7.1.Step signal or step function: u(t):

Used for analysis of many systems
Eg: appling break, ignition key car

If a step function has unity magnitude then it is called as unit step function
Unit step function is defined as

1 t 0
Definition: U (t) =
0 t 0

Fig: 1.27.unit step signal

1.7.2.Ramp Signal: r(t) :

Definition: r (t) =

r(t) = t. u (t)
Unit ramp function has always slope = unity

The ramp function can be obtained by applying unit step function to an integrator.

Fig: 1.28.ramp signal

1.7.3.Impulse function (delta function) δ (t) :
Used for analyzing networks
The delta function has zero amplitude every where except at t =0

We can similarly define the delta function, as such:

1.
2.
3.

Fig: 1.29.impulse signal

1.8.FOURIER SERIES REPRESENTATION OF PERIODIC SIGNALS

The signals are given as inputs to the system and the system produce
output signals. The system alters the properties (frequency, amplitude etc.,) of
the signal. Hence it is necessary to analyze input and output signals of a
system. The analysis of Continuous time signals can be performed using
mathematical tools such as Fourier series, Fourier Transform and Laplace
Transform. Fourier series is used to analyze continuous time periodic signals.
Where as Fourier Transform is used for analysis of Continuous time periodic
as well as non-periodic signal.

Fourier series represents the periodic waveform in terms of infinite

number of sine & cosine terms.
X(t) = ao +a1cos(ωot) + a2cos(2ωot) + a3cos(3ωot) + …….+akcos(kωot)
+b1sin(ωot) + b2sin(2ωot)+…… bksin(kωot).
For periodic signals x(t) = x(t + T )
In general, a periodic signal can be represented as a sum of both sines
and cosines. Also, since sines and cosines have no average term, periodic
signals that have a non-zero average can have a constant
component. Altogether, the series becomes the one shown below. This series
can be used to represent many periodic functions. The function, X(t), is
assumed to be periodic.

Here an and bn are the coefficients,where

So, now we have a way to find all of the coefficients in a Fourier series expansion.

1.8.2.Types of Fourier Series:

1. Quadrature / Trigonometric Fourier series.

2. Exponential / Complex Exponential Fourier series.

3. Polar / Cosine Fourier series.

1.8.2.1Quadrature or Trigonometric Fourier series:

Representation:

Here an and bn are the coefficients,where

1.8.2.2.Exponential or Complex Exponential Fourier series:

Representation:

Where
Here co is obtained by putting n =0 in this expression. This Fourier series is known as
exponential Fourier series because it involves exponential terms.

1.8.2.3.Polar or Cosine Fourier series:

Representation:

Here

and

1.9.Properties of Fourier Series:

1.9.1. Linearity property:

The Fourier series is said to be linear if it satisfies the homogeneity property and
superposition principle. According to exponential Fourier series the signal x(t) has coefficients
cn.Therefore,the signal x(t) and the coefficient cxn form the Fourier series pair.

Then

Proof:

Therefore, coefficients are linearly related.

1.9.2. Time Shifting property:

Here

Here the integration is being done over one period of m, so the limits are

1.9.3. Frequency shifting property:

1.9.4. Convolution in time domain:

On changing the order of integration,we get,

Let t-τ = m then dt = dm

1.10.Convergence of Fourier Series:

We have proved that the signal represented by a Fourier series is periodic. But we have not
proved the converse, that every periodic signal can be expressed as Fourier series. It is possible
to represent any periodic function by a Fourier series.

For the existence of Fourier series all coefficients must exist.

Thus if the above integral is finite, then cn must also be finite. Hence the coefficient cn will exists
if x(t) is integrable over the interval T seconds. That is if,
(is finite)

This is known as Weak Dirchlet condition.

If a function satisfies the weak dirichlet condition, the existence of Fourier series is guaranteed,
but the series may not converge at every point.

The function must be finite and must have only a finite number of maxima and minima. It may
have a finite number of finite discontinuities. This is known as Strong Dirichlete Condition.

1.10.1.Dirichlet Conditions:
1. Over any period x(t) must be absolutely integrable., that is,

2. In any finite interval of time, the signal x(t) should have bounded variations. That is
there are no more than a finite number of maxima and minima.
3. In any finite interval of time, there is only finite number of discontinuities.

1.11.Complex Fourier spectrum:

Fourier spectrum of a periodic signal x(t) can be obtained by plotting the Fourier coefficients versus Ω.
The plot of amplitude of the Fourier coefficients versus Ω is known as amplitude spectrum and the plot
of Fourier coefficients versus Ω is known as phase spectrum. The two plots together are known as
frequency spectrum of x(t).That is in Fourier spectrum the amplitude and phase of the Fourier
coefficients are plotted as a function of frequency. so, this type of representation is also known as
frequency domain representation.

Fig:1.30-Double sided spectrum