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Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Research Hypotheses
1.6 Significance of the Study
1.7 Scope of the Study
1.8 Limitations
1.9 Definitions of Terms

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Review of Previous Studies
2.2.1 Studies on Dependent Variable (Digital Literacy Competence)
2.2.2 Studies on Independent Variables
2.3 Analysis of Independent Variables
2.3.1 Socioeconomic Status
2.3.2 Access to Digital Resources
2.3.3 Educational Background
2.4 Relationships Analysis
2.4.1 Relationship between Socioeconomic Status and Digital Literacy Competence
2.4.2 Relationship between Access to Digital Resources and Digital Literacy Competence
2.4.3 Relationship between Educational Background and Digital Literacy Competence
2.4.4 Relationship between Access to digital resources and digital literacy competence
mediated by Student engagement with Digital Learning
2.5 Theoretical Framework
2.5.1 Theories and Theoretical Grounding
2.6 Research Framework
2.7 Summary

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction/Research Design

3.2 Research Philosophy
3.3 Research Approach
3.4 Research Strategy
3.5 Research Choices
3.6 Time Horizon
3.7 Data Types
3.8 Instrumentation/Questionnaire
3.9 Sources of Data Collection
3.10 Sampling
3.10.1 Sampling Method
3.10.2 Sampling Population
3.10.3 Sampling Frame
3.10.4 Sample Size
3.11 Data Processing
3.12 Data Analysis
3.13 Ethical Considerations
 CHAPITER 1.
INTRODUCTION.

1.1 Background of Study.

In the contemporary digital era, proficiency in digital literacy is essential, defining how
individuals access, interpret, and interact with information. Malaysia, reflecting global trends,
acknowledges that digital literacy is critical for educational success and active participation in
the digital world. However, not all university students in Malaysia possess the same level of
digital literacy, and this imbalance can have profound implications for their academic and
professional futures.
This study focuses on the disparities in digital competency among university students across
Malaysia, seeking to uncover the factors contributing to these differences and their
ramifications on students' lives. The investigation will explore the influence of variables such
as socioeconomic background, accessibility to technology, and previous educational
experiences.
Central to the research are several pertinent issues: how digital literacy levels differ among
students from various socioeconomic strata and educational backgrounds and what impact
these differences have on their academic achievements and integration into the digital
economy. It is critical to do further research in this area, as prior studies have shown that
differences in digital literacy may substantially impact educational outcomes and future
employment opportunities.
The significance of this topic is well-documented in academic circles, yet there is a need for
more comprehensive, localised research that considers the unique context of Malaysian
higher education. By mapping out the landscape of digital literacy within this specific
demographic, the study aims to illuminate the pathways through which educational
institutions and policymakers can address and bridge these gaps.
Furthermore, this research intends to evaluate the measures currently in place at Malaysian
universities to improve digital literacy and propose strategic improvements based on the
findings. Regardless of background, the intention is to create a learning environment where
all students can utilise digital resources and gain the skills they need to excel in the classroom
and the workplace.
By thoroughly analysing these interactions, the research will enhance our comprehension of
how digital literacy influences educational and economic prospects in Malaysia. It will
provide valuable insights that could influence future educational policies and initiatives to
create a more equitable digital landscape.

1.2 Problem Statement.

Digital literacy is crucial for future employment and social involvement, but not all
Malaysian university students have equal access to or competence with digital technology.
This gap threatens the nation's future workforce growth and educational equity. A qualitative
study involving focus groups from three universities revealed a significant gap in digital
literacy skills necessary for academic success and future employment. Factors such as limited
English proficiency and inadequate design of digital materials hinder students' ability to
effectively access, evaluate, and utilize digital content for academic purposes. Therefore,
there is a pressing need to reassess the digital literacy capabilities of Malaysian university
students to ensure they can meet the demands of a technologically driven educational and
professional landscape. Further investigation into specific digital literacy programs within
Malaysian universities could provide a deeper understanding of how these programs are
tailored to different student demographics (Shariman,2012).
While numerous studies have examined digital literacy on a global scale, more localized
research must address Malaysian university students' specific conditions and needs.
Existing literature often needs more comprehensive data on how socioeconomic factors,
access to digital resources, and educational backgrounds influence digital literacy among
this group.

Understanding Malaysian university students' particular difficulties is essential to

addressing the discrepancies in digital literacy. Key aspects that need further investigation
include the impact of these disparities on academic performance and future job prospects,
as well as the effectiveness of current educational policies and interventions to reduce these
gaps.

There needs to be a theoretical gap in understanding the dynamics of digital literacy within
the Malaysian context. Most studies still need to sufficiently synthesize the interactions
between socioeconomic status, educational policy, and digital literacy outcomes.
Moreover, theories that explain the persistence of digital divides often need to be tailored
to reflect the nuances of Malaysia's multicultural and economically diverse population.

Despite some recognition of the importance of digital literacy, more targeted empirical
research within Malaysia still needs to be done. Specific aspects, such as the direct
correlation between digital literacy and academic success in Malaysian universities or the
evaluation of policy effectiveness in real-world educational settings, still need to be
 explored. Moreover, while digital literacy initiatives exist, their impact and reach have yet
to be empirically validated within this localized setting.

1.3 Objective of the study.

General Objective:

To develop comprehensive methods that improve digital inclusion and educational justice,
this study aims to investigate the nature and significance of disparities in digital literacy
among Malaysian university students.

Specific Objectives:

1. To outline the digital literacy profiles of Malaysian university students from various
socioeconomic backgrounds. This aim aims to map digital capabilities in great detail
across a range of demographic groups, highlighting areas of disparity.
2. To examine how unequal access to digital technology impacts learners' digital
literacy. By studying the relationship between students' capacity to use digital
technologies and their accessibility, this aim helps identify significant obstacles to
digital competence.
3. Consider critically how policies in higher education contribute to closing the digital
literacy gap. This objective aims to assess the effectiveness of existing educational
efforts and frameworks in achieving equitable digital literacy.
4. To create focused, data-driven suggestions for improving instruction in digital
literacy. The purpose of this objective is to develop precise and well-supported
recommendations that educational authorities might implement to mitigate the issue
of the digital divide.

1.4 Research Questions.

The five main research questions are below:

1- What disparities exist in digital literacy amongst Malaysian university students from
various socioeconomic backgrounds? IV1 to DV
2- How does Malaysian university students' access to internet resources affect their level
of digital literacy? IV2 to DV
3- What impact does educational background have on Malaysian university students'
proficiency in digital literacy? IV3 to DV
4-

1.5 Hypothesis

Based on the above research questions, this dissertation proposed the following five
research hypotheses:

H1: There is a significant relationship between socioeconomic background and

digital literacy competence among university students in Malaysia.

H2: There is a significant relationship between access to internet resources (IV2) and
digital literacy competence (DV) among university students in Malaysia.

H3: There is a significant relationship between educational background (IV3) and digital
literacy competence (DV) among university students in Malaysia.

H4: There is a significant relationship between educational background (IV3) and digital
literacy competence (DV) among university students in Malaysia, mediated by students'
engagement with digital literacy.

1.6 Significance of the Study.

The study aims to quantitatively examine digital literacy levels among Malaysian
university students, focusing on disparities due to socioeconomic backgrounds, access to
digital resources, and educational backgrounds. The research will be conducted across
multiple universities in Malaysia, aiming to capture a broad spectrum of digital access and
educational environments. The study targets Generation Z university students aged
between 18-24 years who are currently enrolled in higher education and have native
exposure to digital technologies.

The research will use a cross-sectional survey to assess students' digital literacy
competencies. Data will be collected through online surveys and analyzed using SPSS
techniques. The study aims to understand the relationship between students' socioeconomic
background, access to digital resources, educational background, and digital literacy levels.
 Ethical considerations for research include university approval, voluntary participation,
data anonymization, validity, reliability, survey refinement, established scales, and robust
sample size to reflect a diverse student population.

1.7 Limitations.

 Access to Detailed Information: Obtaining comprehensive information about

students' home internet quality or prior digital training may be difficult due to privacy
issues.
 Data Availability and Reliability: The truthfulness of students' survey responses
determines how accurate your study will be. Inaccuracies in the survey questions may
also affect the quality of the data.
 Student availability: Student availability can significantly impact study participation,
potentially leading to lower or rushed response rates.
 Voluntary Participation Refusal: Students may opt out of a survey, potentially skewing
results and limiting the representativeness of findings. This could be due to a lack of
interest, perceived irrelevance, or concerns about privacy and data usage.

1.8 Definition of terms.

Conceptual Definition Operational Definition

Socioeconomic Status Socioeconomic status (SES) In this study,

encompasses income, education, socioeconomic status
occupational prestige, and social refers to the
position, indicating societal respondents' family incom
quality of life traits and e range, their parents'
opportunities and predicting highest educational degree,
psychological consequences and the type of parental
(Socioeconomic Status, n.d.). profession.

Measurement: Using 4
items (as household
income, highest education
level in household,
occupational status of
 primary earner, home
ownership)of the
socioeconomic status from
the Panel study of income
dynamics (PSID Errata,
n.d.). Each item is
answered using multiple-
choice options, giving the
respondent a range of
options.
Access to digital resources Digital access refers to the ability Access to digital resources
to connect and utilize digital refers to the students'
technology and services, estimated access to
significantly transforming our personal computer devices,
daily lives, including education, internet connectivity at
work, communication, and home and university, and
information acquisition (GGI availability of academic-
Insights, 2024). related software,
which will be used to
quantify access to digital
resources.

Measurement: Using four

items (Availability of
devices,Quality of internet
connection,Accessibility of
learning
platforms,frequency of
internet use for educational
purposes). Each item is
measured with a Likert
scale of five points ranging
from low to high aspects of
 access and quality.
Educational background Determining an educational The education
background involves background variable refers
documenting formal education, to the information
including degree, institutions, collected by a survey on
majors, and minors, to determine the highest level of
an individual's academic education completed, the
qualifications and specialized types of elementary and
knowledge for a specific job secondary schools
(Summers & Lee, 2023). attended, and any formal
digital literacy education
obtained.

Measurement: using four

items from the national
longitudinal
survey(National
Longitudinal Survey of
Youth | 1997 | National
Longitudinal Surveys,
n.d.). Each item is
measured with multiple
options of highest to
lowest.
Student engagement with Engagement with digital learning Student engagement with
digital literacy refers to a student's level and digital learning will be
quality of interaction with conducted through the
educational digital tools, analysis of the frequency
including frequency, depth of with which digital learning
connection, time spent, cognitive tools are used (e.g., daily,
participation, and emotional and weekly) and participation
motivational components (Henrie in online learning
et al., 2015).
 platforms.

Measurement: Using three

items.Using a five-point
Likert scale to evaluate the
frequency of digital
literacy engagement in
each item.

Chapter 2: Literature review.

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews existing literature and research on digital literacy among university
students in Malaysia, focusing on disparities due to socioeconomic backgrounds, access to
digital resources, and educational backgrounds. It defines digital literacy and its importance
in education and professional environments, synthesizes previous studies' findings, and
identifies existing research gaps. The chapter analyses how socioeconomic status, access to
digital resources, and educational backgrounds contribute to variations in digital literacy
levels among students. It also identifies areas of controversy and disagreement within the
literature, such as differing opinions on critical factors affecting digital literacy and the
effectiveness of educational interventions. The scope of the research includes studies
addressing digital literacy in Malaysian universities, considering both local and global
perspectives. The review aims to tie findings back to the primary research questions,
providing a solid foundation for analysis and hypothesis testing. The chapter will define
concepts and variables crucial to understanding digital literacy disparities among Malaysian
university students, develop a theoretical framework, and formulate empirically tested
hypotheses.

2.2 Defining the concept of Socioeconomic status.

 Socioeconomic Status (SES) measures the social status of an individual or a family. It
greatly influences an individual/family's health, educational achievement, food, lifestyle,
etc (Wani,2019). It was previously opted by three critical components: income, which
indicates financial resources; education, which reflects the most significant degree of
schooling attained; and employment, which defines the sort of job and the related status.
Socioeconomic status (SES) is a complex and broad concept interpreted and defined
differently according to different theories. Each one offers a unique perspective on SES,
highlighting multiple facets. According to the Marxist view, social status is the
classification of society according to economic variables such as wealth, income, and
employment (Edwards, 2024). SES significantly influences access to opportunities and
resources, influencing many facets of life. Higher SES is frequently connected with
improved healthcare access, educational achievement, and secure and well-paying jobs. On
the other hand, a lower socioeconomic status might restrict access to these
essential resources, creating vicious cycles of poverty (Vadivel et al., 2023).

2.3 Defining the concept of Access to digital resources.

Access to digital resources refers to the equitable distribution and availability of critical tools,
opportunities, and support required for people or groups to succeed (Access to Ressources
DEI Dictionary, n.d.). Accessing to computers, mobile devices, and broadband internet is
crucial for students to engage in digital learning both inside and outside the classroom.
(National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.). Digital inequalities are a growing concern in
modern societies, relating to disparities in access, actual use, and use efficacy of digital
resources. These inequalities are crucial for the transition of societies towards sustainability,
and reducing digital inequalities is critical for sustainable digitalized societies. The term
"digital divide" encompasses all digital inequalities between individuals, households,
businesses, or geographic areas. The ongoing digitalization poses a challenge for individuals
incapable of using digital resources, who may feel partially excluded or entirely left out of
society (Vassilakopoulou & Hustad,2023).

2.4 Defining the concept of educational background.

Educational background refers to an individual's formal education that qualifies them for a
specific employment. This involves describing formal education, such as the highest degree
earned, the educational institutions attended, and the individual majors and minors pursued
(Summers & Lee, 2023b).

"Educational background encompasses not only personal learning experiences but also the
impact of social and societal factors." An individual's educational background is shaped
largely by social networks, cultural capital, and access to high-quality education (Cultural
Theory, n.d.).

2.5 Relationships Analysis.

2.5.1 Relationship between socioeconomic status and digital literacy competence.

The study conducted by Scherer & Siddiq (2019) demonstrates that digital literacy
competency is subtle and may be impacted by socioeconomic level through several aspects.
Having a higher socioeconomic status (SES) frequently means having access to superior
technical resources and educational opportunities, which may significantly improve one's
digital literacy abilities. Studies indicate that students from higher socioeconomic status
(SES) backgrounds exhibit superior digital literacy skills due to these advantages.
Nevertheless, the relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and digital literacy varies
in strength across different research. Certain studies reveal only tenuous or inconsequential
connections, indicating that elements such as the educational setting, availability of school
technology, and conducive learning environments also have significant impacts.

However, according to Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, learning occurs within a
social environment and can be enhanced through observational learning, imitation, and
modeling. According to this hypothesis, individuals in low socioeconomic status (SES)
contexts might acquire digital literacy by witnessing and emulating those skilled in these
skills. The theory suggests that individuals can acquire and adopt digital literacy from their
peers, family, or media without explicit training. This highlights the capacity of individuals to
surpass environmental constraints by employing social connections and self-motivation
(Simply Psychology, 2024). Hence, socioeconomic status might have an influence on digital
literacy competence, but the influence is not that strong, and there might be other alternatives.

H1: There is a relationship between socioeconomic status and digital literacy competence.
2.5.2 Relationship between Access to digital literacy competence and digital literacy
competence.

According to Everett Rogers' Diffusion of Innovations Theory, digital literacy proficiency is

influenced by the availability of digital resources. The theory emphasizes the importance of
the innovation-decision process, which includes knowledge acquisition, persuasion, decision-
making, execution, and confirmation. Digital literacy requires access to digital tools,
understanding their applications, cultivating a positive disposition towards using them,
making deliberate choices, employing them proficiently, and aiming to sustain and expand
their usage. The theory highlights the importance of having access to technology for
acquiring and developing digital literacy and the potential negative effects of a digital divide
(Dearing & Cox, 2018).

H2: There is a significant relationship between access to digital resources and digital literacy
competence.

2.5.3 Relationship between educational background and digital literacy

competence.

The relationship between a student's educational background and their digital literacy
competence can be explained using Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. This
framework categorizes educational goals into different levels of complexity and specificity.
At the foundational levels, students acquire basic computer skills, which form the
groundwork for more advanced digital literacy. As students’ progress through the taxonomy,
they apply and analyze information using digital tools, eventually synthesize new ideas, and
critically evaluate digital information (figure 1). Bloom's Taxonomy suggests that an
educational background not only imparts specific skills but also fosters the development of
thinking skills that are essential for digital literacy (Adams,2015).

Additionally, the theory of constructivism clarifies how a student's educational background

can influence their level of digital literacy competence. Constructivism prioritises the
engagement of learners, the provision of support, and the involvement of others in the process
of acquiring knowledge. It implies that students develop their comprehension and expertise in
digital tools by drawing upon their previous educational experiences. The theory also
advocates for using interactive and participatory technology platforms in the classroom to
augment digital literacy. Constructivism emphasizes the significance of educational
background and interactive learning experiences in developing students' proficiency in
utilizing digital technology (Kurt, 2021).

H3: There is a significant relationship between education background and digital literacy
competence.

2.4.4 Relationship between Access to digital resources and digital literacy competence
mediated by Student engagement with Digital Learning.

Student engagement with digital learning mediates the relationship between access to digital
resources and digital literacy competence. Based on the Technology Acceptance Model
(TAM), individuals' perception of technology's usefulness and ease of use directly affects
their adoption and usage. Additionally, this perception also influences the level of
engagement students have with digital learning platforms. When students perceive digital
resources as beneficial and manageable, their level of involvement increases, leading to
optimal learning. This deep engagement involves using digital tools to solve problems, create
content, and communicate, thereby enhancing digital literacy. Student engagement is crucial
in translating the availability of digital materials into practical proficiency. The more engaged
students are with these resources, the more likely they are to develop and improve their
digital literacy skills (Ma & Liu,2004).

H4: There is a significant relationship between access to digital literacy and digital literacy
competence mediated by student engagement with digital learning.

2.6 Theories and theoretical grounding.

2.6.1 Social cognitive theory.

The social cognitive theory by Albert Bandura - This theory is relevant as it explains how
individuals acquire digital literacy skills and how this process is influenced by socioeconomic
background. SCT emphasizes observational learning, where individuals observe the
behaviour of others and the consequences of their actions. In digital literacy, individuals learn
by observing their peers, teachers, or family members using technology and mastering digital
tasks. Students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds may have more opportunities to
observe positive digital-skill role models at home or school, giving them an advantage in
acquiring these skills. The social learning environment plays a crucial role in shaping
learning opportunities. Schools with well-equipped computer labs, qualified technology
instructors, and peer-to-peer learning opportunities can provide a positive social learning
environment reinforcing digital skill development (The Health Psychology Reader, n.d.-b).

2.6.2 Technology Acceptance Model.

The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) hypothesis reveals that students' digital literacy is
influenced by their perceptions of digital tools. Perceived utility and ease of use are key
factors in adoption and usage. Clear learning objectives, teacher preparation, and curricular
integration can improve perceived usefulness. User-friendly interfaces, appropriate training,
and technical assistance can enhance perceived ease of use. To close the digital divide, equal
access to digital resources should be established. Building fundamental digital literacy skills
across various tools and platforms is crucial. Teacher support and training are essential for
promoting good student perspectives. Combining TAM with access and digital literacy
development can lead to more equitable learning environments (Davis,1989).

2.6.3 Constructivist Learning Theory.

The constructivist theory, incorporating Piaget's and Vygotsky's ideas, can be applied to
digital literacy. Piaget's emphasis on prior knowledge suggests that students with a strong
educational background may find digital resources easier to engage with. Vygotsky's zone of
proximal development emphasizes interaction and collaboration in learning. Digital resources
can create a supportive environment, especially for disadvantaged students. Technology can
bridge gaps through differentiated instruction and access to high-quality resources. Pre-
assessments and professional development are essential for effective integration. By
incorporating constructivist principles, strategies can be developed to empower all students in
their digital literacy development (Piaget,1970).

2.7 Research framework.

The research model explores factors contributing to digital literacy competence among
Malaysian university students, addressing knowledge gaps in existing literature. It hypothesis
four fundamental relationships:
H1: Socioeconomic status impacts digital learning competency, as students from higher
socioeconomic backgrounds may be more exposed to and incentivized to utilize digital
learning tools and environments.
H2: Access to digital resources directly affects digital literacy competence. It argues that
digital literacy skills are enhanced when digital resources are more abundant or of higher
quality.

H3: Educational background has a direct effect on digital literacy competence. The degree
and quality of formal education are essential in providing students with the requisite digital
abilities.

H4: Student engagement with digital learning mediates the relationship between access to
digital resources and digital literacy competence. It asserts that engagement serves as a
channel for translating the benefits of access to digital resources into digital literacy skills.

Student engagement to
digital learning.

Socioeconomic Status H4
H1

H2
Access to digital Digital literacy
resources competence

H3

Educational
background

Summary.

The chapter thoroughly reviews the previous literature on the variables examined in the
study, showing a correlation between these variables. The chapter also discusses the relevant
theories, including social cognitive theory and the technology acceptance model.
Furthermore, a research framework is provided to illustrate the relationship between the
dependent and independent variables and the mediator in the study.

Chapter 3: Methodology.
 3.1 Introduction/Research Model.

This chapter introduces the methodology employed in a study on digital literacy disparities
among Malaysian university students. It outlines the research design, including the
philosophical underpinnings, approach, and strategy guiding the investigation. The chapter
also details the methods of data collection, sampling techniques, data processing, and analysis
procedures used to examine the research questions and test the hypotheses. The methodology
ensures rigorous data collection and analysis, enabling meaningful conclusions about the
factors influencing digital literacy. The chapter emphasizes the importance of articulating the
research design for reproducibility and upholding scientific inquiry standards. It also
addresses ethical considerations relevant to the study.

3.2 Research Philosophy.

Positivism is a research philosophy that prioritizes applying scientific procedures to

investigate phenomena, emphasizing objective, empirical, and quantitative findings. The
concept is rooted in the belief that knowledge can solely be acquired by careful observation
and precise measurement and that the researcher must maintain an impartial position
throughout the study (What Is Positivism Research Philosophy? | 4 Answers From Research
Papers, n.d.).

This study on digital literacy among Malaysian university students is based on the positivism
philosophy. Positivism emphasizes the significance of empirical evidence, observable
occurrences, and the ability to measure and quantify phenomena. This study demonstrates the
presence of positivism through the gathering of empirical evidence via surveys, the
implementation of a systematic methodology, the utilization of statistical analysis, the
examination of hypotheses, and the impartial interpretation of findings. The study seeks to
utilize positivism to generate dependable and accurate findings that enhance educational
policy and practice in digital literacy (Park et al., 2020).
3.3 Research Approach.

The research on digital literacy among Malaysian university students is explorative since
it examines the causal links between socioeconomic status, educational background, access to
digital resources, and digital literacy. Exploratory research is a flexible and open-ended
approach to investigating new research questions. It often involves collecting primary
qualitative data and is used when there is little prior research. It is low-cost and can lay the
groundwork for future studies. However, the results are not generalizable and do not provide
conclusive answers. It can also be time-consuming (Masud, 2023).

This study used a deductive research methodology, in which the theory and hypotheses
regarding these relationships were explicitly established from the beginning. The hypotheses
are methodically examined by analyzing quantitative data obtained from standardized
surveys. The deductive approach is distinguished by utilizing a theoretical framework to
direct the development of hypotheses, which are subsequently subjected to empirical testing
using obtained data. A deductive approach involves developing a hypothesis based on
existing theory and designing a research strategy to test the hypothesis. It involves reasoning
from the particular to the general and testing if a causal relationship or link holds in more
general circumstances (Deductive Approach (Deductive Reasoning), n.d.).

This approach guarantees that the examination remains concentrated on evaluating the
accuracy of the theoretical concepts within the context of Malaysian university students. It
offers a systematic approach comprehending the factors influencing digital literacy and
contributes to a broader understanding of its determinants in the educational field.

3.4 Research Strategy.

A survey is the chosen research strategy for studying digital literacy among Malaysian
university students. This approach is effective because it allows for data collection from a
large number of individuals efficiently, ensuring comprehensive information gathering.
Surveys align well with the quantitative nature of the research, facilitating statistical analysis
of numerical data. Survey research is the practice of doing research through questionnaires
that researchers send to survey respondents. Survey data is then statistically analyzed to
provide significant research conclusions (Bhaskaran, 2024).
The standardized nature of surveys ensures comparability across responses, minimizing
variability. The survey results are more likely to generalize to the broader population, making
them useful for policy and educational strategies. Surveys are also practical and cost-effective
compared to other research strategies. The survey strategy is integral to the study's design and
will provide valuable educational policy and practice insights.

3.5 Research Methodological Choices.

The study on digital literacy among Malaysian university students employed a quantitative
research approach based on the positivist philosophy. This method involves collecting and
analyzing quantitative data through standardized questionnaires, ensuring it is numerically
formatted for objective examination. The collected data is then analyzed using statistical
software like SPSS, which allows for large dataset management and complex statistical
analyses. The study also tests predetermined hypotheses derived from the theoretical
framework using the empirical data collected. This approach provides an impartial analysis of
findings, mitigating researcher bias and ensuring conclusions are based on empirical
evidence. Additionally, the quantitative method allows for the generalization of findings,
generating reliable results that can be applied to the specific sample and extrapolated to the
broader Malaysian university student population. Overall, the quantitative research approach
aligns with the positivist mindset and contributes to understanding digital literacy among
Malaysian university students (Masud, 2023).

3.6 Time Horizon.

The research on digital literacy among Malaysian university students used a cross-sectional
time frame, gathering data at a singular moment or during a brief duration.

This approach is helpful for practicality and efficiency, as it allows for efficient data
collection from a large sample of students without requiring follow-ups. It is suitable for
descriptive analysis, providing valuable insights into the current state of digital literacy and
its correlates among students. Cross-sectional studies are generally less expensive and time-
efficient than longitudinal studies, as they require fewer resources over a shorter period.
However, cross-sectional studies cannot definitively establish causality, as they cannot
determine whether one variable directly influences another over time. Despite this, the cross-
sectional design aligns with the goals of understanding the current relationships between
digital literacy and demographic and educational factors among Malaysian university
students. It provides a comprehensive overview at a specific time, which is ideal for policy
implications and educational strategy development. However, it does not provide information
on changes over time or the directionality of the relationships observed(Cross-sectional
Studies: Definition, Benefits, and Challenges, n.d.).

3.7 Data.

The study on digital literacy among Malaysian university students uses primary data collected
through online surveys, focusing on variables like socioeconomic status, access to digital
resources, and educational background. This method ensures that the data is current and
reflects the latest trends in digital literacy. The researchers can customize the survey to
explore new areas of interest or detail, especially in the Malaysian context, where local
factors and cultural aspects may uniquely influence digital literacy. Using primary data
enhances the reliability and validity of the research findings, making them more applicable to
educational policy and interventions in Malaysia. The study uses administrative
questionnaires to gather primary data, assess various aspects of digital literacy, and collect
demographic information. This method allows for efficient and scalable data collection,
providing quantitative insights for statistical analysis. The choice of administrative
questionnaires is appropriate for analyzing correlations across a wide demographic in an
economical and time-efficient manner.

3.8 Questionnaire.

This study employed a self-administered questionnaire to collect information from

the respondents. The researcher formulated most of the questions. The survey encompasses
the following areas:

Demographic Information: This section collects essential personal details, including age,
gender, university, field of study, and academic year.

Assessing Socioeconomic Background: Inquiries aimed at determining socioeconomic

status by examining factors such as household income, parents' educational attainment, and
employment situation.
Access to digital resources: Evaluate the availability and quality of personal computing
devices, internet connectivity, and academic software at home and school to assess access to
digital resources.

Digital literacy competence: assesses students' proficiency and self-assurance in utilizing

digital technologies using self-evaluation and real-life situations.

Educational background: inquiring about the educational background of individuals,

including any previous digital literacy education they may have received. Additionally,
seeking information about students' engagement with digital learning tools and environments.

Table 1: Survey questionnaire for demographic.

N* Questions Answers

1 What is your age? Open-ended

2 What is your gender? Male, Female or prefer

not say
3 What is your university? Open-ended

4 What is your course of study? Open-ended

5 What is your year of study? 1er year,2nd year,3th year,

4th year, Postgraduate.
6 What is your ethnic background? Malay, Chinese, Indian,
Other

Table 2: Survey questionnaire for socioeconomic status.

N* Questions Answers

1 What is your household's total annual income? Below RM10.000; RM10.000;

RM20.000; RM50.000; Above
RM50.000
2 What is the highest level of education completed by No formal education, primary
your parents? education, secondary
education, diploma
education, bachelor's degree,
postgraduate degree.
3 What is your parents' employment status? Mother? Employed full-time, employed
Father? part-time, Self-employed,
Unemployed, Retired,
Homemaker.

Table 3: Survey questionnaire for Access to digital resources.

Questions Options
 -None
How many personal computing devices do you -One
have access to at home? -Two
-Three or more

-Very poor
How would you rate the quality of your internet -Poor
connection at home? -Average
-Good
-Excellent
-None
How would you rate the availability of academic -Limited
software at home? -Adequate
-Comprehensive

-None
How many personal computing devices are -One
available to you at school? -Two
-Three or more

-Very poor
How would you rate the quality of the internet -Poor
connection at school? -Average
-Good
-Excellent
-None
How would you rate the availability of academic -Limited
software at school? -Adequate
-Comprehensive

Table 4: Survey questionnaire for digital literacy competence:

Questions Options
How confident are you in using basic digital tools -No confident
like word processors and spreadsheets? -Somewhat confident
-Confident
-Very confident
Rate your ability to troubleshoot common hardware -No ability
and software issues. -Limited ability
-Moderate ability
-High ability
How effectively can you use digital tools to -Not effectively
complete academic assignments? -Somewhat effectively
-Effectively
-Very effectively
Describe your experience with using digital -No experience
platforms for online learning. -Limited experience
-Good experience
-Extensive experience
Assess your skill level in using advanced digital -No skills
tools(database software, programming languages) -Basic skills
-Intermediate skills
-Advanced skills
 Table 5: Survey questionnaire for educational background.
Questions Options

Have you received any formal education in digital -Yes

literacy? -No

If Yes, at what level did you receive digital literacy -Primary school
training? -Secondary school
- Tertiary education
How often do you use digital tools for learning -Never
purposes? -Rarely
-Sometimes
-Often
-Always
Rate your comfort level with online learning -Very uncomfortable
platforms. -Uncomfortable
-Neutral
-Comfortable
-Very comfortable

3.9 Data Collection.

For this study, data was collected using an internet-mediated approach. A questionnaire was
distributed to a sample of 200 participants. The questionnaire was designed and deployed
using Google Forms. Before full deployment, a pilot test was conducted with a small group to
ensure clarity and reliability. Feedback from the pilot test, particularly regarding the rating
scale, was used to refine the questionnaire. A two-pronged approach was used to reach the
target sample. The questionnaire link was distributed via email invitations to a pre-selected
group and shared through WhatsApp messages to another portion of the sample. The data
collection period lasted for one month. To maximize participation, follow-up emails and
WhatsApp messages were sent to encourage those who still needed to respond. These details
provide a more detailed picture of the data collection process, including the specific platform
used, the pilot test, the distribution methods, and the follow-up efforts.
3.10 Sampling.

The study utilized non-probability convenience sampling to select participants, specifically

Malaysian university students with access to digital tools and resources. This method was
chosen for its quick data collection from a specific subset of the target population. While
convenience sampling may introduce biases, it is commonly used in exploratory research.
The sampling frame was established through digital platforms like university email lists and
social media groups to capture a diverse sample. Targeting 100 participants was based on a
balance between statistical power and practical constraints, allowing for manageable data
analysis and subgroup analyses. Overall, this sampling approach provides a practical balance
between efficiency and comprehensiveness, considering the limitations of resources and time.

3.11 Data Preparation.

The data extraction process from Google Forms involved meticulous cleaning, including
identifying and removing incomplete responses, detecting and handling outliers, and
checking for inconsistencies. The data was then transformed into categorical data for
quantitative analysis, assigning numerical codes to each category and implementing data
normalization techniques to ensure consistency in representing non-numerical data. Data
quality checks were performed to verify the effectiveness of the process, such as examining
descriptive statistics to identify anomalies or unexpected patterns and using data visualization
techniques like histograms and boxplots to explore data distribution and identify potential
outliers. This comprehensive picture of the data preparation phase provides a more
comprehensive understanding of the steps to ensure data integrity, consistency, and suitability
for further analysis. The process ensures that the data is suitable for further analysis and
provides a comprehensive picture of the data preparation phase.

3.12 Data Analysis.

The study utilized SPSS software to comprehensively analyze a dataset, focusing on digital
literacy among Malaysian university students. The analysis involved generating descriptive
statistics, such as mean, median, mode, dispersion, and frequency tables, to provide a
foundational understanding of the data. Inferential statistics were then employed to test the
research hypotheses and explore relationships between variables. SPSS offers a suite of tools
for these analyses, including regression analysis, ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), and
strength of relationships. Regression analysis was employed to determine the elements that
can predict digital literacy outcomes, while ANOVA was utilised to compare digital literacy
outcomes among several subgroups categorised by demographic characteristics.The strength
of relationships was also calculated using SPSS, with the R-squared value indicating the
proportion of variance in digital literacy explained by the independent variables.
The analysis was explicitly focused on the context of Malaysian university students,
strengthening the interpretation of the results and allowing the researcher to conclude that
they are relevant to this specific population. This expanded version of the analysis provides a
clearer picture of the analytical approach and highlights the software's capabilities in
investigating digital literacy among Malaysian university students.

3.13 Ethical Consideration.

The research prioritized ethical conduct, protecting participants' rights and well-being. The
university's ethics committee approved the study before initiating data collection, ensuring it
adhered to established guidelines. The study employed electronic informed consent
procedures, providing participants with a clear explanation of the research objectives, data
collection methods, and potential risks and benefits of participation. Respondents were also
informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any point without facing negative
consequences.

Participant privacy was safeguarded through anonymity and confidentiality measures, with
data collected securely stored and maintained confidentially. The study adhered to the ethical
principle of voluntary participation, allowing participants to participate or decline without
pressure or coercion.
The research's transparency and credibility were strengthened by addressing each ethical
consideration, demonstrating the researchers' commitment to ethical research practices and
respect for participants' rights.

3.14 Conclusion.
Appendices.

 Figure 1:
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