1.

1 universally known and common to all men"

MEANING AND NATURE OF ETHICS like telling the truth, honoring the parents, etc. C. Definition and Purpose of Ethics
Ethics is about the study of moral behavior or
I. Historical Glimpse B. Difference Between Ethics and Morality conduct of man as viewed from ultimate
Pre-Socratics desires to know the principle about Although there is an undeniable affinity between principles, which are discernible by human
reality, focused on nature’s processes. ethics and morality based on their etymology, reason alone. In other words, "ethics is a
there is a slight difference between the two. It philosophical science dealing with the
Investigation Process: Natural World to Human can be traced, if not asserted, by way of applying morality of human acts."
Person because of Socrates. the concept of theory and practice in ethics.
Purpose of Ethics: a guide to the intellect in
Socrate’s street dialogue: centered on what kind Ethics – normative philosophical science, a acquiring and applying moral principles. It
of person one needs to be. theoretical science of good and bad or right and points out the way to right living.
wrong actions. Provides the principles on the
Plato: developed the ethical orientation of morality of human acts; it equips man with a D. Material and Formal Object of Ethics
Socrate’s discipline to describe humans as (theoretical) knowledge of the morality of Human Acts – material object (subject-matter of
struggling to live according to a defined form or human acts. the science of Ethics’ investigation.)
ideal way of living. Right Conduct of Man – formal object
Knowing is different from doing. Ethics does not (particular point of view which Ethics considers
Aristotle: envisioned an ethical person as one actually guarantee that man will be moral or in dealing with the subject matter; the rectitude
who practices moderation and uses reason to good. One can only become moral (or good of his actions.)
achieve happiness. human person) when one applies ethics.
When one does the theories of ethics and actually Ethics’ point of view is to consider all human acts
II. Meaning of Ethics performs the theory, meaning one is actually in reference to right reason which is the
A. Etymological Meaning of “Ethics” and “Morality” doing ethics. immediate norm of morality. Ethics demonstrates
Based on etymology, there is no difference this by means of the natural light of human
between ethics and morality. Morality - the praxis of the theory (ethics). If reason (Panizo, 1964).
morality, therefore, is the practice of ethics,
Ethics - Greek word ethos, which means then, should be properly called applied ethics. III. Types of Ethics
“custom.” A. Meta-ethics or Analytical Ethics
Sambajon pointed out the distinctions and Looks into the nature, meaning, scope, and
Morality - Latin word mos or moris, which also relations between ethics and morality: foundations of moral values and discourses. From
means “custom.” Relation Distinction
the term “meta” that means after or beyond;
 Both ethics and morality  Ethics pertains to the meta-ethics asks about what is morality.
Babor - ethics is also called moral philosophy. deal with human act or
human conduct.
acquisition of knowledge of
what to study about; Morality
 Ethics studies about morality. pertains to the application of Meta-ethics is often in argument with ethical
 Morality gives ethics a this knowledge in the
Panizo clarified Ethics are not the social manners, perspective of what to performance of human act. relativism.
conventions, and fashions, which differ according study about – that is the
rectitude of whether an
 Ethics provides learning about
the morality of a human
to nation and change from time to time. The word act is good or bad. conduct; Morality provides Cultural ethical relativism or conventionalism
 Morality provides ethics ways of practicing what is
custom in traditional Ethics means "a more or with a quality that learned. justifies that the rightness or wrongness of an
less permanent moral behavior following the determines and
distinguishes right conduct
 Ethics is the ‘word’; Morality is
the ‘flesh’.
action depends on the society’s norm.
precepts of the natural moral law, which is from wrong conduct.  Ethics indicates the ‘theory’;
Morality indicates the
‘practice.’
Individual ethical relativism or subjectivism on D. Ethics is also linked but distinct from other during conferences. His behavior may seem
the other hand rationalizes an act to be morally disciplines such as biology, economics, history, unconventional or uncustomary but not unethical
right or wrong depending on individual’s politics, psychology, theology, etc. Compared to or immoral.
commitments. such fields which provide us factual knowledge C. Technique and Technical - Greek word
about reality, ethics helps determine the techne, used to refer to a proper way (or right
Examples of issues in conventionalism: nature of normative theories and their way) of doing things. But a technical valuation (or
1. Muslim societies practice polygamy, Christians application to moral issues. These disciplines right and wrong technique of doing things) may
consider it wrong. are not considered in the area of moral not necessarily be an ethical issue like baking
2. Eskimo customs allow infanticide which is philosophy, they are categorized under cake or learning.
condemnable to most cultures. Descriptive Ethics.
MORAL VS NON-MORAL STANDARDS
Examples of issues in subjectivism: IV. Kinds of Valuation Moral standards are characterized by the
1. A policeman believes that it is permissible to A. Aesthetics – from the Greek word aisthesis following features:
kill a suspected drug user. (“sense” or “feeling”) and refers to the judgments
2. Adolf Hitler’s obsession to annihilate the Jews of personal approval or disapproval that we make 1. They deal with matters that we think can
is morally right because he believes it is right. about what we see, hear, smell, or taste. In fact, seriously harm or benefit human
we often used the word “taste” to refer to the beings.
Meta-ethics consists in the attempt to answer the personal aesthetic preferences (taste in music or 2. They have universal validity.
fundamental philosophical questions about the clothes.) 3. They are generally thought to have a
nature of ethical theory itself. Meta-ethics is particularly overriding importance, that
analytical; it studies the validity of an argument, B. Etiquette – set of rules or customs that is they prevailing over other values
and it looks beyond facts and relativism. determine the accepted behaviour in a 4. They are not established by the decisions of
particular social group. It is concerned with the authoritarian bodies nor are they solely
B. Normative Ethics proper behaviour or manners (table manners, determined by appealing to consensus tradition,
It is concerned with the moral standards to greeting,..) but they are accepted based on the adequacy of
determine right from wrong conduct. Involves the reasons that support or justify them.
the formulation of moral norms or rules that can A person may appear to be a learned man who
serve as a basis of the kind of actions, acts morally when he/she practices social V. Sources of Authority
institutions, and ways of life that we should etiquette. On the other hand, Shaw (2002) as It is possible to assume that ethics is a standard
pursue. Consequentialism, deontology, and virtue mentioned in of valuation based on certain authorities that
ethics are the three categories of theories that Evangelista and Mabaquiao (2020 p.9) declared demands obedience, such as the authority of law,
will be tackled in the proceeding lessons. “scrupulous observance of rules of etiquette can religion, and culture. (Bulaong et al., 2018). Let us
Normative ethics asks what is moral. camouflage moral issues.” clarify their differences in ethics and find the
significance of ethics in the conception of the
C. Applied Ethics Example: good.
Uses philosophical methods to determine the A Filipino congressman attends a national
moral permissibility of specific actions and conference in Manila wearing “bahag” A. Law
practices. Some issues in applied ethics pertain to (traditional Ifugao clothing) as he wants to Law regulates human conduct; it codifies a
public policy and the professions. represent their own tribe. He does not conform to society’s moral ideals and values. However, a
the usual Barong Tagalog that law makers wear legal action can be morally wrong and breaking
the law is not always an immoral act. According the good or what ought to be. Some cultures can
to Shaw (2002) as mentioned in Evangelista and be destructive to human beings. For instance,
Mabaquiao (2020 p. 10), “Law cannot cover the some cultures tend to encourage war and colonial
wide variety of possible individual and group plunder. Others encourage over-consumption and
conduct, and in many situations, it is too blunt an exploitation of the poor for profit. Because of
instrument to provide moral guidance.” these people's cultures, they are oriented toward 1.2
violent behavior and do not even realize that they HUMAN PERSON AS A MORAL AGENT
Example: During COVID 19 pandemic lock down do violence toward their neighbors. Most corrupt Ethics is the study of man as a moral being. What
period, senior citizens 65 years old and above are government officials do not think that they are goals we assign to ourselves, what actions we
not allowed to go out of their house. A 69 year old doing harm because they were formed in a choose to do, and how we treat others - depend
retiree lives alone in her house and she needs to culture where self-interest allows for the on how we understand ourselves as human
buy her maintenance medicine as well as food violation of rules of governance and the common beings.
supply. She may be breaking the law when she good. Thus, one cannot rely solely on one's
goes out but her act will not be considered as culture to come to a genuine understanding of Socrates is wise indeed for proposing that the
immoral. the good. There is always the possibility that starting point of wisdom is “to know oneself.”
one's cultural conception of the good can lead to
B. Religion destructiveness and violence. I. Human Person
Religion gives moral basis and direction to A. Human Person as the “Imago Dei”
people. Although religion is generally observed The discipline of ethics is significant because it For Judaeo-Christian philosophers, the human
as the basis of morality there is a difference provides people with a basis to discern their own person is the “image of God (Imago Dei).” God
between the two. Religions are general and accepted ethical systems and a foundation for favors us with divine attributes. These
imprecise, moral doctrines and practices vary broadening their own conceptions of the good. characteristics bring all men to a common bond,
from one religion to another, and we cannot base forming essentially one family. We share the same
our judgement of what is right and wrong basic features that make us human and enable us
according to what our religion dictates. to know and love one another.

Example: There are religions that forbids The Principle of Human Dignity
touching of cadavers or dead bodies. This has The root cause of all unjust discrimination is the
been an issue for students who are taking-up failure to understand the foundation of human
medical courses because they could not examine dignity (upon the single fact that a human person
human anatomy which is highly essential in their is the image of God.)
studies.
Firm holding on to this principle, there will be no
C. Culture shame or personal inferiority in being blind,
Culture is a system of codes that gives the world crippled, homosexually oriented, poor, or
meaning, shapes human behavior, and influences illiterate. All human beings are equal, with the
the conception of the good. same human rights, and have the same claim to
justice and dignity. Thus, it is contrary to the
This could be dangerous in a way because not all Gospel to refuse to respect the rights of others
cultures and their conception of the good reflect
because of their nationality, race, sex, age, or Intellect Will Acts of Man - actions committed by an
physical or mental impairment. Wisdom Highest Goal Virtue unconscious and insane person, infants, or
Truth Goal Good those who are physically forced to do something.
Human person – a being with a radical capacity Thinking Function Doing Actions which merely happen in the body or
for embodied intelligence and freedom, whether Knowing Purpose Choosing through the body without the awareness of the
that capacity is still undeveloped or has been mind or the control of the will. To see, to hear, to
frustrated by accident, disease, or neglect, and Intellect - makes the human person capable of touch, to scratch oneself, when these acts are
thus has inalienable rights that should be understanding right or wrong actions. Search for done without deliberation, are called acts of man.
ethically respected. Truth that practices what he knows like wisdom.
Nutritive Process of the Body
B. Human Person as a Rational Being Will - makes him capable of doing (or  Circulation
For classical philosophers, a human person is expressing) his choice, either good or bad  Respiration
composed of body and soul and imbued with actions. Search for Good that makes him  Growth
rational faculties of intellect and free will. Man virtuous.  Chemical Reactions
is a rational being. Were also acts of man because the will has no
In the fundamental moral option between right direct control here.
Rationality / rational faculty - makes him a or wrong and good or bad actions, man is will-
moral agent. People who are not capable of bound to choose what is right and what is Only acts performed with knowledge and
rationality are not moral agents, but it does not good. It is the moral imperative demanded in freedom are properly human and consequently
mean they cease to be human beings. ethics. moral, for only then are they either good or evil.

Abstraction - His knowledge as a rational being II. Human Acts and Acts of Man III. The Greatest Good
does not stop in the senses since his perception is Human Acts - acts from man as a rational Human Activity – tendency towards the
further “processed” by his intellect in this form. being. They are the very means man possesses to attainment of something good.
arrive at his moral perfection. A man is a man by
Perceptual knowledge - draw judgment as he his intellect and by his rational will. Human life, the sum of all activities, is a
compares ideas to engage in reasoning. Man, movement towards the possession of the greatest
therefore, does not just perceive things but also Intellect and Will - two faculties distinguish good.
analyzes, assesses, criticizes, or, in a word, man from the rest of animals and place him at
intellectualizes things. the zenith of this visible creation, for man alone is Greatest good – also known as “summum
intellectual, moral, and religious. bonum” (in the words of Scholastic philosophers)
As a rational animal, man strives for something is perfect in itself and capable of satisfying all
not only through his instincts but also through Only the human person is responsible for his human desires. It is also the ultimate good
his will. Man, indeed has instinctive drives, but actions; he alone is aware of what he is doing and because it is the final thing seek for its own
man can transcend them into a higher dimension. is free to act or not to act. When he does not sake.
Man, therefore, is capable of disciplining his know what he is doing or when he is no longer
physiological impulses because he has intellect free to act, the responsibility for his actions is no Purpose of Human Existence: to attain the
and will. longer attributed to him. greatest good and this is happiness (Aristotle).

Intellect Compare with Will

2.1 situation before acting while considering immoral act but by proactively seeking justice for
THE MORAL ACT emotions. Feelings provide an initial reckoning the disadvantage people who are pushed by
of the circumstance but should not be the sole poverty and societal injustice to feed themselves
Intellect and free will are the distinguishing basis for our motives and actions. by stealing. In other words, reason, while a
faculties setting us apart from the rest of the reliable ground for moral judgment, needs the
animals and placing us at the pinnacle of visible If we are in a state of rage towards a perceived feelings of empathy to come up not just with a
creation. enemy or competitor, we are likely unable to moral but also a just decision.
process the possible consequences of our actions
Actions performed with knowledge and done impulsively. Feelings seek immediate Martha Nussbaum - argued in favor of the
freedom are properly human and consequently fulfillment, but reason tempers these relevance of emotions. She claimed that they have
moral. compulsions. Hence, feelings without reason are rational elements. For instance, the victim's
blind. resentment is an appropriate response if directed
Therefore, "All human acts are moral acts," toward the right person and for the right reason.
according to St. Thomas of Aquinas. Reason and feelings must constructively The community's moral indignation is an
complement each other whenever we are endorsement of the victim's resentment and a
Aside from our rational capacity, which allows us making choices. When emotions such as anger, condemnation of the criminal act that has
to view reality creatively and analytically, our jealousy, and shame are out of control or without attempted to deprive the victim of moral value.
feelings also play a crucial part in determining the proper guidance of reason, one's moral
how we manage the various situations we capacities become short-sighted and limited. II. Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirements
encounter. We do not simply know the world and for Morality
others; we also feel their existence and value. Rationality puts these emotions in their suitable Impartiality – means even-handedness or fair-
places seeking not to discredit their validity but mindedness. Requires that we give equal and
I. Feelings and Moral Decision-Making calibrating them in such a way that they do not adequate consideration to the interests of all
 Man is not a robot devoid of feelings. become the primary motive in making moral concerned parties because every person is
Every human act involves a person decisions. equally important.
emotionally.
 Emotions are natural and beneficial. The However, reason in and by itself is also not a Our decisions have consequences affecting the
positive tendencies of love, kindness, sufficient instrument in assessing moral condition of other people. What is beneficial for
humility, reverence, and justice express situations. Reason can sometimes implement us may not be the case for others. Hence, it is
approval of what is good and worthy in an and follows its own strict rules that it necessary to analyze matters of moral import
object. becomes incapable of empathy for the other. with a perspective considering the welfare and
 The negative tendencies of anger, horror, feelings of others.
and hatred express disapproval and Complex act - not to say that the act is deemed
repudiation of evil. right after one finds out why someone stole. It is Morality involves impartiality because it ensures
connected to a web of various circumstantial that all interests are accounted for, weighed
Humans may act based on feelings, and this factors and motives. rationally, and assessed without prejudice. After
tendency is something we partake in with all, the study of ethics is about thinking about our
animals to a certain level. However, unlike A person's act of stealing may appear to be a well-being concomitantly with the well-being of
animals (instinctively programmed to act based symptom of a greater injustice in one's society others.
on how they feel), humans can assess a prompting one to do good by simply punishing an
 regret your choice in the future once various a decision well enough. As you become more
aspects of the situation come to light. Never make aware of the consequences of your actions,
a choice on the basis of hearsay. Make sure your especially on the lives of others, summon the
III. Seven-Step Moral Reasoning sources are credible and have integrity. strength and determination to make changes to
Pasco provided the seven-step moral reasoning 4. Develop Options rectify any shortcomings. Do not hesitate to
model that serves as a guide in making choices of Once you are clear in terms of your goals and revise your decisions in light of new
moral import. It is one of the ways to ensure facts, try to come up with alternative options to developments in the situation.
the rationality and impartiality of ethical exhaust all possible courses of action. Most of the
decisions. time, the pressure of a situation may make you These seven steps can help you ensure that you
feel you have less options than you think. Clear do not take moral decisions lightly. They shed
1. Stop and Think your mind and try to think of other creative ways light on the various aspects of moral situations
Before making any decisions, it is best to take a of clarifying your motives and implementing your that you have to consider before making a
moment to think about the situation itself, your actions with the least ethical compromise. decision. An important element, though, is your
place in it, and other surrounding factors which will to commit to an action based on moral
merit consideration, such as the people involved 5. Consider Consequences principles. You must have the necessary resolve
and the potential effects of your decisions on Filter your choices and separate the ethical to put your choice in motion after a long process
them. This involves a step-back from the from the unethical choices bearing in mind of deliberation.
situation to make sure that you do not act out of both your motives and the potential
impulse. consequences of your action. Think of long-term While feelings and reason set up the theoretical
consequences and act in accordance with the basis for moral action, it is the will which
2. Clarify Goals principles of justice and fairness. Consequences implements your decision and projects your
It is also necessary to clarify your short-term are historical realities that bear upon the lives of motives into reality. It is not enough to want to
and long-term aims. One often decides on the others. A decision turns something in your mind do the good, you must actually do it not only for
basis of what he/she wants to accomplish. into reality. Make sure you do not regret the your sake but for the benefit of those that may
Sometimes, in the heat of the moment, short- decision you have conferred reality upon. bear the consequences of your decision. To a
term wants eclipse long-term goals. Thus, you great extent, you owe it to others to do the right
must determine if you are willing to sacrifice 6. Choose thing. It shows how much you respect them that
more important life goals to achieve your short- Make a decision. If the choice is hard to make, you cannot allow yourself to not do something
term goals. If you, for example, are seeking try consulting others who may have knowledge that may benefit them.
retribution for harm caused by another person, or experience of your situation. Find people with
you have to think about the long-term a virtuous character and compare your reasoning IV. Moral Courage
consequence of revenge on your character in the with your moral analysis. Once you make up your Morally courageous individuals act upon their
long run. mind, summon the will to do the right thing even ethical values despite trials and difficulties. To
if it is hard and seemingly counter-intuitive. show moral courage is to stand up for what you
3. Determine Facts believe, even when it means that you do so alone.
Make sure you gather enough information 7. Monitor and Modify (Murray, 2015).
before you make a choice. An intelligent choice is Monitor what happens after your decision and
one that is supported by verified facts. You must have enough humility to modify your action or Moral courage – result of a morally developed
first make sure that what you know is enough to behavior as necessary. Pride may get in the way will.
merit action. Without verifying facts, you may of admitting that you might have not thought out
It is the capacity to initiate and sustain your helps determine how we make sense of our world
resolve whenever you are certain of doing the and our function in it (Cole, 2018). 1. DEDICATION TO SOMETHING BIGGER THAN
good. Many factors can derail you from SELF
consistently standing by your moral principles, A. CULTURAL RELATIVISM  Supreme Being
such as intimidation from others, but remember Asserts that all beliefs, practices, and morals are  Justice
that a person of moral courage is not afraid to relative depending on their origin and context. It  Truth
stand his/her ground in matters that involve holds the idea that no absolute standard of
doing what is right and just. Moral courage is morality exists; judging the customs of other 2. BALANCED SELF-RESPECT
what some of our heroes displayed in the face of societies is immoral.  Respect and care to self, avoiding self-
dictators and colonizers. Moral courage is a kind centeredness and overindulgence
of virtue that enables one to be ethical not just in Contemporary anthropologists see cultures from
thought but, more importantly, in deed. a purely neutral perspective. Believing that each 3. ACCEPTANCE OF PERSONAL
society has its way of expressing itself, their RESPONSIBILITY
conflicting moral beliefs should not be judged in  Following one's conscience, accepting
terms of right and wrong or good or bad. responsibility for one's behavior

B. TRUTHS ABOUT CULTURAL RELATIVISM 4. RESPECT AND CARE FOR OTHERS

1. Relativism is self-defeating.  Helping and serving others, caring,
A relativist places himself at the top of absolute respecting others, not hurting others
truth as he relativizes other claims (Geisler, as
cited in Bell, 2018) 5. CARING FOR THE ENVIRONMENT
 Caring for plants and animals, preserving
2. When objective truth dies, ethics dies. nature
Cultural relativism undermines man's value.
III. FILIPINO MORALITY
"The death of truth in our society has created a Childbearing, society, religious worldview, and
2.2 moral decay in which 'every debate ends with a historical roots helped make us what we are now
CULTURAL IDENTITY barroom question, 'Says, who?' When we (Buenaflor, n.d.). Mindsets, hopes, and habits
abandon the idea that one set of laws applies to initiated by these factors enabled many to survive
I. Culture every human being, all that remains is subjective, and achieve amid hardship and change.
Culture - refers to a collection of huge, diverse, personal opinion (Koukl, as cited in Bell, 2018)."
intangible aspects of social life. It consists of Filipinos' strengths and weaknesses can also be
the values, beliefs, communication systems, and II. UNIVERSAL VALUES traced back to these given elements. Media,
practices people commonly share. It is essential In our changing world, there needs to be shared educational, and political trends additionally
in molding social relationships and maintaining values that bind societies together to avoid hone our sensibilities and contribute to the
society's order. violence, manage diversity, and promote dynamic change affecting our moral fiber.
harmony.
Composed of material like food and non- Strengths of the Filipino Character (Buenaflor,
material aspects like praying before eating, it LIST OF UNIVERSAL VALUES (Dautheribes, n.d.):
Kernes, & Kinnier, 2000):
1. High regard for others
2. Family orientation
3. Cheerful approach to life
4. Flexibility, adaptability, and creativity
5. Hard work and industriousness
6. Religiosity
7. Resourcefulness