METAL FORMING

 Mechanical properties determine a material’s behavior

when subjected to mechanical stresses
 Properties include elastic modulus, ductility, hardness,
and various measures of strength
 Metal forming processes are deformation processes in
which applied loads cause plastic (permanent) strains.
 The ability to form metals increases with the increase of
its ductility.
 Metal Forming

General classification of metal forming processes

 Metal Forming

Classification of basic bulk forming processes

 Metal Forming

Classification of basic sheet forming processes

 True Stress-Strain Curve
True stress-strain curve for a typical metallic material is
shown

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Strain Hardening in Stress-Strain Curve
 Note that true stress increases continuously in the plastic
region until necking
 It means that the metal is becoming stronger as strain
increases
 This is the property called strain hardening

Strain hardening is a process to cause the metal harder and

stronger due to plastic deformation
 Material Behavior in Metal Forming
 Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest
because material is plastically deformed
 In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed:
Where:
  K n
K = strength coefficient; Έ = strain
n = strain hardening exponent and

Flow Stress
 For most metals at room temperature, strength increases
when deformed due to strain hardening
 Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to
continue deforming the material
Where: Yf  K n

Yf = flow stress, that is, the yield strength as a function of strain

 Average Flow Stress

 Determined by integrating the flow curve equation between

zero and the final strain value defining the range of interest

_
K n
Yf 
_ 1 n
 Yf = average flow stress; and
 = maximum strain during deformation process
 Cold Working
 Performed at room temperature or slightly above
 Many cold forming processes are important mass production
operations
 Minimum or no machining usually required
 These operations are near net shape or net shape
processes

Advantages of Cold Forming

 Better accuracy, closer tolerances
 Better surface finish
 Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
 Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable
directional properties in product
 No heating of work required
 Disadvantages of Cold Forming
 Higher forces and power required in the deformation operation
 Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of scale and dirt
 Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that can
be done
 In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow further deformation
 In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold worked

Hot Working
 Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization temperature
 Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of melting point on
absolute scale
 In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.5Tm
 Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.5Tm,
enhancing advantage of hot working above this level
 Advantages of Hot Working
 Work-part shape can be significantly altered
 Lower forces and power required
 Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed
 Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
 No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening

Disadvantages of Hot Working

 Lower dimensional accuracy
 Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy to
heat the work-piece)
 Work surface oxidation , poorer surface finish
 Shorter tool life
 Bulk Deformation Processes

These processes are characterized by massive deformation of

the material.
Only two processes of this category will be considered:
1. Rolling
2. Extrusion
 Rolling
Deformation process in which work thickness is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

The Rolls
Rotating rolls perform two main functions:
 Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between
workpart and rolls
 Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross section
 Types of Rolling

 Based on work-piece geometry :

 Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular
cross section
 Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a
shape such as an I-beam
 Based on work temperature :
 Hot Rolling – most common due to the large amount of
deformation required
 Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate stock
 Rolled Products Made of Steel

Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill.

 Diagram of Flat Rolling

Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after thicknesses, work
velocities, angle of contact with rolls, and other features.
 Flat Rolling Terminology
Draft = amount of thickness reduction

d t o t f
Where:
d = draft; to = starting thickness; and
tf = final thickness

Reduction = draft expressed as a fraction of starting stock thickness

d
r 
to
Where :
r = reduction
 Shape Rolling
Work is deformed into a contoured cross section rather than flat
(rectangular)
 Products include:
 Construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams, and
U-channels
 Rails for railroad tracks
 Round and square bars and rods
A rolling mill for hot
flat rolling. The
steel plate is seen
as the glowing
strip in lower left
corner (photo
courtesy of
Bethlehem Steel).
 Extrusion
Compression forming process in which work metal is forced
to flow through a die opening to produce a desired
cross-sectional shape
 Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a
toothpaste tube
 In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of
uniform cross sections
 Two basic types:
 Direct extrusion
 Indirect extrusion
 Direct Extrusion

Comments on Direct Extrusion

 Also called forward extrusion
 As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of billet remains that
cannot be forced through die opening
 This extra portion, called the butt, must be separated from extrudate by
cutting it just beyond the die exit
 Starting billet cross section usually round
 Final shape of extrudate is determined by die opening
 Hollow and Semi-Hollow Shapes

Figure
(a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow cross sections;
(b) hollow and
(c) semi-hollow cross sections.
 Indirect Extrusion

Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section and (b) a hollow cross section.

Comments on Indirect Extrusion

 Also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion
 Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by
 Lower rigidity of hollow ram
 Difficulty in supporting extruded product as it exits die
 Advantages of Extrusion
 Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot extrusion
Limitation: part cross section must be uniform throughout length
 Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold and warm
extrusion (good properties)
 Close tolerances possible, especially in cold extrusion
 In some operations, little or no waste of material
Hot vs. Cold Extrusion
 Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above its
recrystallization temperature
 Reduces strength and increases ductility of the metal,
permitting more size reductions and more complex shapes
 Cold extrusion - generally used to produce discrete parts
 The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high speed cold
extrusion
 Extrusion Ratio
It is defined as the reduction ratio,
Ao
rx 
Where: Af
rx = extrusion ratio;
Ao = cross-sectional area of the starting billet; and
Af = final cross-sectional area of the extruded section

Complex Cross Section

 Sheet Metal Forming Processes
- Sheets produced by flat rolling are used in secondary sheet
metal forming processes:
1. - Cutting
 Shearing to separate large sheets
 Blanking to cut part perimeters out of sheet metal
 Punching to make holes in sheet metal
2. Drawing
 Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes
 Sheet and Plate Metal Products
Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and industrial products
such as:
 Automobiles, trucks, and Airplanes
 Railway cars and locomotives
 Farm and construction equipment
 Small and large appliances
 Office furniture, Computers, and office equipment
Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts
 High strength
 Good dimensional accuracy
 Good surface finish
 Relatively low cost
 Economical mass production for large quantities
 Sheet Metal Cutting

Figure 20.1 Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges:

(1) just before the punch contacts work; (2) punch begins to
push into work, causing plastic deformation;

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Sheet Metal Cutting

Figure 20.1 Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges:

(3) punch compresses and penetrates into work causing a
smooth cut surface; (4) fracture is initiated at the opposing
cutting edges which separates the sheet.

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Shearing, Blanking, and Punching

Three principal operations in press-working that cut sheet metal:

 Shearing
 Blanking
 Punching
 Shearing
Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line between two
cutting edges
 Typically used to cut large sheets

Figure 20.3 Shearing operation:

(a) side view of the shearing operation;
(b) front view of power shears equipped with inclined upper cutting blade.
 Blanking and Punching
Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece (called a
blank) from surrounding stock
Punching - similar to blanking except cut piece is scrap,
called a slug

Figure 20.4 (a) Blanking and (b) punching.

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Punch and Die Components

Figure 20.30 Components of a punch and die for a blanking operation.

 Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting
Distance between punch cutting edge and die cutting edge
 Typical values range between 4% and 8% of stock thickness
 If too small, fracture lines pass each other, causing double
burnishing and larger force
 If too large, metal is pinched between cutting edges and
excessive burr results
 Recommended clearance is calculated by:
c = at
where:
c = clearance; a = allowance; and
t = stock thickness
 Allowance a is determined according to type of metal
 Sheet Metal Groups Allowances

Metal group a
1100S and 5052S aluminum alloys, all tempers 0.045

2024ST and 6061ST aluminum alloys; brass, soft 0.060

cold rolled steel, soft stainless steel

Cold rolled steel, half hard; stainless steel, half 0.075

hard and full hard
 Punch and Die Sizes
 For a round blank of diameter Db:
 Blanking punch diameter = Db - 2c
 Blanking die diameter = Db
Where: c = clearance
 For a round hole of diameter Dh:
 Hole punch diameter = Dh
 Hole die diameter = Dh + 2c
Where: c = clearance

Figure 20.6 Die size determines blank size Db;

punch size determines hole size Dh.;
c = clearance
 Cutting Forces

(stress= Force/ Area) Force= stress* Area

Important for determining press size

F=StL
where
S = shear strength of metal;
t = stock thickness, and
L = length of cut edge

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Deep Drawing

Sheet metal forming to make cup-shaped,

box-shaped, or other complex-curved,
hollow-shaped parts
 Sheet metal blank is positioned over die
cavity and then punch pushes metal into
opening
 Products: beverage cans, automobile body
panels
 Drawing

(a) Drawing of cup-shaped part:

(1) before punch contacts work,
(2) near end of stroke;
(b) workpart:
(1) starting blank,
(2) drawn part.
 Clearance in Drawing
 Sides of punch and die separated by a clearance c given by:
c = 1.1 t
where: t = stock thickness

Tests of Drawing Feasibility

 Drawing ratio
 Reduction
 Thickness-to-diameter ratio
 Drawing Ratio DR
Most easily defined for cylindrical shape:
Db
DR 
Dp
where:
Db = blank diameter; and Dp = punch diameter
 Indicates severity of a given drawing operation
 Upper limit: DR  2.0

Reduction r
 Defined for cylindrical shape:
Db  Dp
r 
Db
 Value of r should be less than 0.50
 Blank Size Determination
 For final dimensions of drawn shape to be correct, starting
blank diameter Db must be right
 Solve for Db by setting starting sheet metal blank
volume = final product volume
 To facilitate calculation, assume negligible thinning of part wall