Artificial Intelligence

BY
DR. ANUPAM GHOSH DATE: 19.08.2023

Email: [email protected]

LinkedIn Profile:
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Research Profile:
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m_Ghosh14
What is Artificial Intelligence?

 The power of a machine to copy intelligent human behaviour

Artificial Intelligence Tests: Turing Test
 Developed by Alan Turing
 Involves an interpreter, a human, and a computer.
 The computer and human have separate conversations with the
interpreter.
 If the interpreter can’t guess which is the computer or if the interpreter gets
it wrong then the computer has Artificial Intelligence.
 Turing Test in AI
 In 1950, Alan Turing introduced a test to check whether a
machine can think like a human or not, this test is known as
the Turing Test. In this test, Turing proposed that the
computer can be said to be an intelligent if it can mimic
human response under specific conditions.
 Consider, Player A is a computer, Player B is human, and
Player C is an interrogator. Interrogator is aware that one of
them is machine, but he needs to identify this on the basis of
questions and their responses.
The questions and answers can be like:
 Interrogator: Are you a computer?
 Player A (Computer): No
 Interrogator: Multiply two large numbers such as
(256896489*456725896)
 Player A: Long pause and give the wrong answer.
 In this game, if an interrogator would not be able to identify
which is a machine and which is human, then the computer
passes the test successfully, and the machine is said to be
intelligent and can think like a human.
 Features required for a machine to pass the Turing test:

 Natural language processing: NLP is required to communicate with Interrogator in general human
language like English.
 Knowledge representation: To store and retrieve information during the test.
 Automated reasoning: To use the previously stored information for answering the questions.
 Machine learning: To adapt new changes and can detect generalized patterns.
 Vision (For total Turing test): To recognize the interrogator actions and other objects during a test.
 Motor Control (For total Turing test): To act upon objects if requested.
 Intelligence - some definitions

 Intelligence:- ability to adapt oneself adequately to relatively new situations in life. (R. Pintner).
 Intelligence:- having learned or the ability to learn to adjust oneself to the environment. (Colvin)
 Intelligence:- the ability to carry out abstract thinking. (Terman)
 Intelligence:- innate general cognitive ability (Burt)
 Intelligence:- appropriate and adaptable behaviour in given circumstances. (Psihologija, group of
authors, SK, Zagreb, 1992)
 Intelligence:- manifests itself only relative to specific social and cultural contexts. (J. Weizenbaum,
1975)
 A branch of computer science: Mathematical Sciences -> Computer Science -> Artificial Intelligence
 The branches of Artificial Intelligence (according to Association of Computing Machinery, ACM):
(1) General AI (cognitive modelling, philosophical foundations)
(2) Expert systems and applications
(3) Automated programming
(4) Deduction and theorem proving
(5) Formalisms and methods for knowledge representation
(6) Machine learning
(7) Understanding and processing of natural and artificial languages
(8) Problem solving, control methods, and state space search
(9) Robotics
(10) Computer vision, pattern recognition, and scene analysis
(11) Distributed artificial intelligence
 Goals of AI

 To Create Expert Systems: The systems which exhibit intelligent behaviour, learn, demonstrate,
explain, and advice its users

 To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines: Creating systems that understand, think,

learn, and behave like humans
 Agents in Artificial Intelligence
 Artificial intelligence is defined as the study of rational
agents. A rational agent could be anything that
makes decisions, as a person, firm, machine, or
software. It carries out an action with the best
outcome after considering past and current
percepts(agent’s perceptual inputs at a given
instance). An AI system is composed of an agent and
its environment. The agents act in their environment.
The environment may contain other agents.
An agent is anything that can be viewed as :
 perceiving its environment through sensors and
 acting upon that environment through actuators
 Agent = Architecture + Agent Program
 Architecture is the machinery that the agent executes
on. It is a device with sensors and actuators, for example,
a robotic car, a camera, a PC. Agent program is an
implementation of an agent function. An agent function
is a map from the percept sequence(history of all that an
agent has perceived to date) to an action.
Examples of Agent:
 A software agent has Keystrokes, file contents, received
network packages which act as sensors and displays on
the screen, files, sent network packets acting as
actuators.
 A Human-agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which
act as sensors, and hands, legs, mouth, and other body
parts acting as actuators.
 A Robotic agent has Cameras and infrared range finders
which act as sensors and various motors acting as
actuators.
 Types of Agents

Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived intelligence and
capability :
 Simple Reflex Agents
 Model-Based Reflex Agents
 Goal-Based Agents
 Utility-Based Agents
 Learning Agent
 Simple reflex agents
 Simple reflex agents ignore the rest of the percept
history and act only on the basis of the current
percept.
 Percept history is the history of all that an agent has
perceived to date.
 The agent function is based on the condition-
action rule. If the condition is true, then the action
is taken, else not. For simple reflex agents operating
in partially observable environments, infinite loops
are often unavoidable. It may be possible to
escape from infinite loops if the agent can
randomize its actions.
Problems with Simple reflex agents are :
 Very limited intelligence.
 No knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the
state.
 Usually too big to generate and store.
 If there occurs any change in the environment,
then the collection of rules need to be updated.
 Model-based reflex agents
 It works by finding a rule whose condition
matches the current situation. A model-based
agent can handle partially observable
environments by the use of a model about the
world. The agent has to keep track of
the internal state which is adjusted by each
percept and that depends on the percept
history. The current state is stored inside the
agent which maintains some kind of structure
describing the part of the world which cannot
be seen.
Updating the state requires information about :
 how the world evolves independently from the
agent, and
 how the agent’s actions affect the world.
 Goal-based agents

 These kinds of agents take decisions based on

how far they are currently from
their goal(description of desirable situations).
 Their every action is intended to reduce its
distance from the goal. This allows the agent a
way to choose among multiple possibilities,
selecting the one which reaches a goal state.
 The knowledge that supports its decisions is
represented explicitly and can be modified,
which makes these agents more flexible.
 They usually require search and planning. The
goal-based agent’s behavior can easily be
changed.
 Utility-based agents
 The agents which are developed having their
end uses as building blocks are called utility-
based agents.
 When there are multiple possible alternatives,
then to decide which one is best, utility-based
agents are used.
 They choose actions based on a preference
(utility) for each state. Sometimes achieving the
desired goal is not enough.
 We may look for a quicker, safer, cheaper trip
to reach a destination. Agent happiness should
be taken into consideration.
 Utility describes how “happy” the agent is.
Because of the uncertainty in the world, a utility
agent chooses the action that maximizes the
expected utility.
 A utility function maps a state onto a real
number which describes the associated degree
of happiness.
 Learning Agent
 A learning agent in AI is the type of agent
that can learn from its past experiences or
it has learning capabilities.
 It starts to act with basic knowledge and
then is able to act and adapt
automatically through learning.
 A learning agent has mainly four
conceptual components, which are:
 Learning element: It is responsible for
making improvements by learning from the
environment
 Critic: The learning element takes
feedback from critics which describes how
well the agent is doing with respect to a
fixed performance standard.
 Performance element: It is responsible for
selecting external action
 Problem Generator: This component is
responsible for suggesting actions that will
lead to new and informative experiences.
 Applications of AI

 Gaming: AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-toe, etc., where machine can think of large
number of possible positions based on heuristic knowledge.
 Natural Language Processing: It is possible to interact with the computer that understands natural language spoken by
humans.
 Expert Systems: There are some applications which integrate machine, software, and special information to impart reasoning
and advising. They provide explanation and advice to the users.
 Vision Systems: These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend visual input on the computer. For example,
o Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.
o Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal with the stored portrait made by forensic artist.
 Speech Recognition: Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and comprehending the language in terms of
sentences and their meanings while a human talks to it. It can handle different accents, slang words, noise in the
background, change in human’s noise due to cold, etc.
 Handwriting Recognition: The handwriting recognition software reads the text written on paper by a pen or on screen by a
stylus. It can recognize the shapes of the letters and convert it into editable text.
 Intelligent Robots: Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human. They have sensors to detect physical data from
the real world such as light, heat, temperature, movement, sound, bump, and pressure. They have efficient processors,
multiple sensors and huge memory, to exhibit intelligence. In addition, they are capable of learning from their mistakes and
they can adapt to the new environment.
 Types of Intelligence

 Linguistic intelligence: The ability to speak, recognize, and use mechanisms of phonology (speech sounds), syntax
(grammar), and semantics (meaning). Ex: Narrators, Orators
 Musical intelligence: The ability to create, communicate with, and understand meanings made of sound,
understanding of pitch, rhythm. Ex: Musicians, Singers, Composers
 Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability of use and understand relationships in the absence of action or
objects. Understanding complex and abstract ideas. Ex: Mathematicians, Scientists
 Spatial intelligence: The ability to perceive visual or spatial information, change it, and re-create visual images
without reference to the objects, construct 3D images, and to move and rotate them. Ex: Map readers, Astronauts,
Physicists
 Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to use complete or part of the body to solve problems or fashion products,
control over fine and coarse motor skills, and manipulate the objects. Ex: Players, Dancers
 Intra-personal intelligence: The ability to distinguish among one’s own feelings, intentions, and motivations.
 Interpersonal intelligence: The ability to recognize and make distinctions among other people’s feelings, beliefs, and
intentions. Ex: Mass Communicators, Interviewers
What’s involved in Intelligence?

 Ability to interact with the real world:

To perceive, understand, and act
e.g., speech recognition and understanding and synthesis, image understanding, ability to
take actions, have an effect
 Reasoning and Planning:
Modelling the external world, given input solving new problems, planning, and making
decisions, ability to deal with unexpected problems, uncertainties
 Learning and Adaptation:
we are continuously learning and adapting our internal models are always being “updated”
e.g., a baby learning to categorize and recognize animals
What Contributes to AI?

Programming Without AI Programming With AI

 A computer program without AI can  A computer program with AI can
answer the specific questions it is answer the generic questions it is
meant to solve. meant to solve.

 Modification in the program leads to  AI programs can absorb new

modifications by putting highly
change in its structure. independent pieces of information
 Modification is not quick and easy. It together. Hence you can modify even
may lead to affecting the program a minute piece of information of
adversely. program without affecting its structure.
 Quick and Easy program modification.
 Example: Water Jug Problem

 Consider the following problem: A Water Jug Problem: You are given two jugs, a 4-gallon one
and a 3-gallon one, a pump which has unlimited water which you can use to fill the jug, and the
ground on which water may be poured. Neither jug has any measuring markings on it. How can
you get exactly 2 gallons of water in the 4-gallon jug?
 Solution: Phase-I

 State Representation and Initial State { we will represent a state of the problem as a tuple (x, y)
where x represents the amount of water in the 4-gallon jug and y represents the amount of
water in the 3-gallon jug. Note 0 <= x <= 4, and 0 <= y<= 3. Our initial state: (0,0)
 Goal Predicate state = (2,y) where 0 <= y <= 3.
 Solution: Phase-II:--Operators

1. Fill 4-gal jug: (x,y) -> (4,y) 6. Pour water from 4-gal jug to fill 3-gal jug : (x,y) ->
(x-(3-y), 3)
2. Fill 3-gal jug: (x,y) -> (x,3)
7. Pour all of water from 3-gal jug into 4-gal jug:
3. Empty 4-gal jug on ground: (x,y) -> (0,y)
(x,y) ->(x+y, 0)
4. Empty 3-gal jug on ground: (x,y) ->(x,0)
8. Pour all of water from 4-gal jug into 3-gal jug:
5. Pour water from 3-gal jug to fill 4-gal jug : (x,y) (x,y) ->(0, x+y)
-> (4, y - (4 - x))
Solution: Phase-III:--Rules

Gals in 4-gal jug Gals in 3-gal jug Rule Applied

0 0

4 0 1. Fill 4

1 3 6. Pour 4 into 3 to fill

1 0 4. Empty 3

0 1 8. Pour all of 4 into 3

4 1 1. Fill 4

2 3 6. Pour into 3
 Why Searching algorithms in AI?

 In 1997 ‘Deep Blue’ an AI beat the legendary Gary Kasparov in Chess , and in 2016 ‘Alpha Go’ defeated the
champion of the game Go. The ability of artificial intelligence to mimc humans and surpass their mental
capabilities has exceeded over time.
 Searching algorithms form the base of such programs , they are utilized in areas like course and cost optimization,
action planning, information mining, mechanical technology, independent driving, computational science,
programming and equipment check, hypothesis demonstrating and so on.
 As it were, a considerable lot of the AI issues can be considered such that the objective is to reach the final goal from an
initial point by means of state change rules. So the search space or options are characterized as a diagram (or a tree) and
the point is to arrive at the objective from the underlying state through the shortest path.
 The searching algorithms can be classified into two types:
 Uninformed methods : in this method no additional information is provided
 Informed methods : also known as Heuristic method where search is carried out by using additional
information to find out the next step to take.
 Breadth-first Search:

 Breadth-first search is the most common search strategy for traversing a tree or graph. This algorithm
searches breadth wise in a tree or graph, so it is called breadth-first search.
 BFS algorithm starts searching from the root node of the tree and expands all successor node at the
current level before moving to nodes of next level.
 The breadth-first search algorithm is an example of a general-graph search algorithm.
 Breadth-first search implemented using FIFO queue data structure.
 Advantages:
 BFS will provide a solution if any solution exists.
 If there are more than one solutions for a given problem, then BFS will provide the minimal solution
which requires the least number of steps.
 Disadvantages:
 It requires lots of memory since each level of the tree must be saved into memory to expand the next
level.
 BFS needs lots of time if the solution is far away from the root node.
 Example
 In the below tree structure, we have shown the
traversing of the tree using BFS algorithm from the root
node S to goal node K. BFS search algorithm traverse
in layers, so it will follow the path which is shown by the
dotted arrow, and the traversed path will be:
 S---> A--->B---->C--->D---->G--->H--->E---->F---->I---->K
 Time Complexity: Time Complexity of BFS algorithm
can be obtained by the number of nodes traversed in
BFS until the shallowest Node. Where the d= depth of
shallowest solution and b is a node at every state.
 T (b) = 1+b2+b3+.......+ bd= O (bd)
 Space Complexity: Space complexity of BFS algorithm
is given by the Memory size of frontier which is O(bd).
 Completeness: BFS is complete, which means if the
shallowest goal node is at some finite depth, then BFS
will find a solution.
 Optimality: BFS is optimal if path cost is a non-
decreasing function of the depth of the node.
 Depth-first Search

 Depth-first search is a recursive algorithm for traversing a tree or graph data structure.
 It is called the depth-first search because it starts from the root node and follows each path to its greatest depth node before
moving to the next path.
 DFS uses a stack data structure for its implementation.
 The process of the DFS algorithm is similar to the BFS algorithm.
Advantage:
 DFS requires very less memory as it only needs to store a stack of the nodes on the path from root node to the current node.
 It takes less time to reach to the goal node than BFS algorithm (if it traverses in the right path).
Disadvantage:
 There is the possibility that many states keep re-occurring, and there is no guarantee of finding the solution.
 DFS algorithm goes for deep down searching and sometime it may go to the infinite loop.
 Example
 In the below search tree, we have shown the flow of depth-first
search, and it will follow the order as:
 Root node--->Left node ----> right node.
 It will start searching from root node S, and traverse A, then B,
then D and E, after traversing E, it will backtrack the tree as E has
no other successor and still goal node is not found. After
backtracking it will traverse node C and then G, and here it will
terminate as it found goal node.
 Completeness: DFS search algorithm is complete within finite
state space as it will expand every node within a limited search
tree.
 Time Complexity: Time complexity of DFS will be equivalent to
the node traversed by the algorithm. It is given by:
 T(n)= 1+ n2+ n3 +.........+ nm=O(nm)
Where, m= maximum depth of any node and this can be much
larger than d (Shallowest solution depth)
 Space Complexity: DFS algorithm needs to store only single path
from the root node, hence space complexity of DFS is
equivalent to the size of the fringe set, which is O(bm).
 Optimal: DFS search algorithm is non-optimal, as it may
generate a large number of steps or high cost to reach to the
goal node.
BFS and DFS
 Depth-Limited Search Algorithm
 A depth-limited search algorithm is similar to depth-first search with a predetermined limit.
Depth-limited search can solve the drawback of the infinite path in the Depth-first search.
In this algorithm, the node at the depth limit will treat as it has no successor nodes further.
 Depth-limited search can be terminated with two Conditions of failure:
 Standard failure value: It indicates that problem does not have any solution.
 Cutoff failure value: It defines no solution for the problem within a given depth limit.
Advantages:
 Depth-limited search is Memory efficient.
Disadvantages:
 Depth-limited search also has a disadvantage of incompleteness.
 It may not be optimal if the problem has more than one solution.
 Example:

 Completeness: DLS search algorithm is complete if

the solution is above the depth-limit.
 Time Complexity: Time complexity of DLS algorithm
is O(bℓ).
 Space Complexity: Space complexity of DLS
algorithm is O(b×ℓ).
 Optimal: Depth-limited search can be viewed as a
special case of DFS, and it is also not optimal even
if ℓ>d.
 Uniform-cost Search Algorithm

 Uniform-cost search is a searching algorithm used for traversing a weighted tree or graph. This
algorithm comes into play when a different cost is available for each edge. The primary goal of
the uniform-cost search is to find a path to the goal node which has the lowest cumulative cost.
Uniform-cost search expands nodes according to their path costs form the root node. It can be
used to solve any graph/tree where the optimal cost is in demand. A uniform-cost search
algorithm is implemented by the priority queue. It gives maximum priority to the lowest
cumulative cost. Uniform cost search is equivalent to BFS algorithm if the path cost of all edges is
the same.
Advantages:
 Uniform cost search is optimal because at every state the path with the least cost is chosen.

Disadvantages:
 It does not care about the number of steps involve in searching and only concerned about
path cost. Due to which this algorithm may be stuck in an infinite loop.
 Example
Completeness:
 Uniform-cost search is complete, such as if there is a
solution, UCS will find it.
Time Complexity:
 Let C* is Cost of the optimal solution, and ε is each
step to get closer to the goal node. Then the
number of steps is = C*/ε+1. Here we have taken +1,
as we start from state 0 and end to C*/ε.
 Hence, the worst-case time complexity of Uniform-
cost search isO(b1 + [C*/ε])/.
Space Complexity:
 The same logic is for space complexity so, the worst-
case space complexity of Uniform-cost search
is O(b1 + [C*/ε]).
Optimal:
 Uniform-cost search is always optimal as it only
selects a path with the lowest path cost.
 Iterative deepening depth-first Search

 The iterative deepening algorithm is a combination of DFS and BFS algorithms. This search
algorithm finds out the best depth limit and does it by gradually increasing the limit until a goal is
found.
 This algorithm performs depth-first search up to a certain "depth limit", and it keeps increasing
the depth limit after each iteration until the goal node is found.
 This Search algorithm combines the benefits of Breadth-first search's fast search and depth-first
search's memory efficiency.
 The iterative search algorithm is useful uninformed search when search space is large, and
depth of goal node is unknown.
Advantages:
 It combines the benefits of BFS and DFS search algorithm in terms of fast search and memory
efficiency.
Disadvantages:
 The main drawback of IDDFS is that it repeats all the work of the previous phase.
 Example:
 1'st Iteration-----> A
2'nd Iteration----> A, B, C
3'rd Iteration------>A, B, D, E, C, F, G
4'th Iteration------>A, B, D, H, I, E, C, F, K, G
In the fourth iteration, the algorithm will find the goal
node.
Completeness:
 This algorithm is complete is ifthe branching factor is
finite.
Time Complexity:
 Let's suppose b is the branching factor and depth is
d then the worst-case time complexity is O(bd).
Space Complexity:
 The space complexity of IDDFS will be O(bd).
Optimal:
 IDDFS algorithm is optimal if path cost is a non-
decreasing function of the depth of the node.
 Bidirectional Search Algorithm

 Bidirectional search algorithm runs two simultaneous searches, one form initial state called as
forward-search and other from goal node called as backward-search, to find the goal node.
Bidirectional search replaces one single search graph with two small sub graphs in which one
starts the search from an initial vertex and other starts from goal vertex. The search stops when
these two graphs intersect each other.
 Bidirectional search can use search techniques such as BFS, DFS, DLS, etc.
Advantages:
 Bidirectional search is fast.
 Bidirectional search requires less memory
Disadvantages:
 Implementation of the bidirectional search tree is difficult.
 In bidirectional search, one should know the goal state in advance.
 Example
 In the below search tree, bidirectional
search algorithm is applied. This algorithm
divides one graph/tree into two sub-
graphs. It starts traversing from node 1 in
the forward direction and starts from goal
node 16 in the backward direction.
 The algorithm terminates at node 9 where
two searches meet.
 Completeness: Bidirectional Search is
complete if we use BFS in both searches.
 Time Complexity: Time complexity of
bidirectional search using BFS is O(bd).
 Space Complexity: Space complexity of
bidirectional search is O(bd).
 Optimal: Bidirectional search is Optimal.
Informed search methods
 Definition

known as Heuristic method where search is carried

out by using additional information to find out the
next step to take.
 A* Search Algorithm
 A* search is the most commonly known form of best-first search. It uses heuristic function h(n),
and cost to reach the node n from the start state g(n). It has combined features of UCS and
greedy best-first search, by which it solve the problem efficiently. A* search algorithm finds the
shortest path through the search space using the heuristic function. This search algorithm
expands less search tree and provides optimal result faster. A* algorithm is similar to UCS except
that it uses g(n)+h(n) instead of g(n).
 In A* search algorithm, we use search heuristic as well as the cost to reach the node. Hence we
can combine both costs as following, and this sum is called as a fitness number.
 Algorithm of A* search
 Step1: Place the starting node in the OPEN list.

 Step 2: Check if the OPEN list is empty or not, if the list is empty then return failure and stops.

 Step 3: Select the node from the OPEN list which has the smallest value of evaluation function (g+h), if
node n is goal node then return success and stop, otherwise

 Step 4: Expand node n and generate all of its successors, and put n into the closed list. For each
successor n', check whether n' is already in the OPEN or CLOSED list, if not then compute evaluation
function for n' and place into Open list.

 Step 5: Else if node n' is already in OPEN and CLOSED, then it should be attached to the back pointer
which reflects the lowest g(n') value.

 Step 6: Return to Step 2.

 Advantages:
 A* search algorithm is the best algorithm than other search algorithms.
 A* search algorithm is optimal and complete.
 This algorithm can solve very complex problems.
 Disadvantages:
 It does not always produce the shortest path as it mostly based on heuristics and
approximation.
 A* search algorithm has some complexity issues.
 The main drawback of A* is memory requirement as it keeps all generated nodes in the
memory, so it is not practical for various large-scale problems.
 Example:
 In this example, we will traverse the given graph using the A* algorithm. The heuristic value of all
states is given in the below table so we will calculate the f(n) of each state using the formula
f(n)= g(n) + h(n), where g(n) is the cost to reach any node from start state.
 Here we will use OPEN and CLOSED list.
Initialization: {(S, 5)}
Iteration1: {(S--> A, 4), (S-->G, 10)}
Iteration2: {(S--> A-->C, 4), (S--> A-->B, 7), (S-->G, 10)}
Iteration3: {(S--> A-->C--->G, 6), (S--> A-->C--->D, 11), (S--> A-->B, 7), (S-->G, 10)}
Iteration 4 will give the final result, as S--->A--->C--->G it provides the optimal path with cost 6.
The numbers written on edges represent the distance between the nodes.

The numbers written on nodes represent the heuristic value.

Find the most cost-effective path to reach from start state A to final state J using A* Algorithm.