School of Engineering and Architecture

Civil Engineering Department

General Civil Engineering

Soil Compaction
Module 2 Chapter 5 – Geotechnical Engineering – Soil Mechanics

After this chapter, the student should be able to:

Objective  To know the importance of soil compaction to civil
engineering.
 To master methods used in the computation of soil
compaction in the laboratory and in the field

Content This chapter focuses on

 Compaction
 Optimum Moisture Content
 Field Equipment
 Methods for determining Field Unit Weight

Related These are supplemental content necessary for this chapter

 ASTM Test Designations D-4253 and D-4254 (2014)
Readings  B.M. Das, 2011. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (7 th
Edition) Stamford, Connecticut, USA : Cengage Learning

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Module 5 – Soil Compaction

SOIL COMPACTION
In the construction of highway embankments, earth dams, and many other engineering
structures, loose soils must be compacted to increase their unit weights. Compaction increases the
strength characteristics of soils, which increase the bearing capacity of foundations constructed over
them. Compaction also decreases the amount of undesirable settlement of structures and increases
the stability of slopes of embankments. Smooth-wheel rollers, sheepsfoot rollers, rubber-tired rollers,
and vibratory rollers are generally used in the field for soil compaction. Vibratory rollers are used
mostly for the densification of granular soils. Vibroflot devices are also used for compacting
granularsoil deposits to a considerable depth. Compaction of soil in this manner is known as vibro-
otation

COMPACTION-GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil by removal of air, which requires
mechanical energy. The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its dry unit weight.
When water is added to the soil during compaction, it acts as a softening agent on the soil particles.
The soil particles slip over each other and move into a densely packed position. The dry unit weight
after compaction first increases as the moisture content increases:

𝜸 = 𝜸𝒅(𝒘=𝟎) = 𝜸𝟏

When the moisture content is gradually increased and the same compactive effort is used for
compaction, the weight of the soil solids in a unit volume gradually increases.

𝜸 = 𝜸𝟐

However, the dry unit weight at this moisture content is given by

𝜸 = 𝜸𝒅(𝒘=𝒘𝟏 ) = 𝜸𝒅(𝒘=𝟎) + ∆𝜸𝒅

Beyond a certain moisture content w=w2, any increase in the moisture content tends to reduce the
dry unit weight. This phenomenon occurs because the water takes up the spaces that would have
been occupied by the solid particles. The moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight is
attained is generally referred to as the optimum moisture content
The laboratory test generally used to obtain the maximum dry unit weight of compaction and
the optimum moisture content is called the Proctor compaction test

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STANDARD PROCTOR TEST

1
In the Proctor test, the soil is compacted in a mold that has a volume of 944𝑐𝑚3 (30 𝑓𝑡 3 ) The
diameter of the mold is 101.6mm (4in.). During the laboratory test, the mold is attached to a
baseplate at the bottom and to an extension at the top. The soil is mixed with varying amounts of
water and then compacted in three equal layers by a hammer (Figure 6.2b) that delivers 25 blows to
each layer. The hammer has a mass of 2.5 kg (5.5lb) and has a drop of 305 mm (12 in.).Is a
photograph of the laboratory equipment required for conducting a standard Proctor test. For each
test, the moist unit weight of compaction,𝛾, can be calculated as:

𝑊
𝛾=
𝑉𝑚

Where
W= weight of the compacted soil in the mold
1
𝑉𝑚 = volume of the mold 944𝑐𝑚3 (30 𝑓𝑡 3 )

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Standard Proctor test equipment: (a) mold; (b) hammer; (c) photograph of laboratory equipment
used for test (Courtesy of Braja M. Das, Henderson, Nevada)

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For each test, the moisture content of the compacted soil is determined in the laboratory.
With the known moisture content, the dry unit weight can be calculated a

𝜸
𝜸𝒅 =
𝒘(%)
𝟏+
𝟏𝟎𝟎

Where 𝑤(%)=5 percentage of moisture content.

The values of d determined from the equation can be plotted against the
corresponding moisture contents to obtain the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum
moisture content for the soil.

The procedure for the standard Proctor test is elaborated in ASTM Test Designation
D-698 (ASTM, 2014) and AASHTO Test Designation T-99 (AASHTO, 1982).

In order to avoid a large number of compaction tests, it is desirable to begin the first
test at a moisture content that is about 4 to 5% below the approximate optimum moisture
content.be used to estimate the approximate optimum moisture content (Johnson and
Sallberg, 1962) if the liquid and plastic limits of the soil are known. As an example, for a given
soil (if the liquid limit is 50 and plastic limit is 20), the approximate average optimum moisture
content will be 19.

Standard Proctor compaction test results for a silty clay

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Approximate optimum moisture content for a soil using the standard Proctor compaction test

For a given moisture content w and degree of saturation S, the dry unit weight of
compaction can be calculated as follows.

𝑮𝒔 𝜸𝒘
𝜸𝒅 =
𝟏+𝒆
Where
Gs= specific gravity of soil solids
𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water
e = void ratio
𝑺𝒆 = 𝑮𝒔 𝒘
Or

𝑮𝒔 𝒘
𝒆=
𝑺
Thus

𝑮𝒔 𝜸𝒘
𝜸𝒅 =
𝑮 𝒘
𝟏+ 𝒔
𝑺

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For a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry unit weight is obtained
when no air is in the void spaces that is, when the degree of saturation equals 100%. Hence,
the maximum dry unit weight at a given moisture content with zero air voids can be obtained
by substituting S=1.
𝑮𝒔 𝜸𝒘 𝜸𝒘
𝜸𝒅 = =
𝟏 + 𝒘𝑮𝒔 𝒘 + 𝟏
𝑮𝒔

Where
𝜸𝒛𝒂𝒗 = zero-air-void unit weight.
To obtain the variation of 𝜸𝒛𝒂𝒗 with moisture content, use the following procedure:
1.) Determine the specific gravity of soil solids.
2.) Know the unit weight of water (𝜸𝒘 ).
3.) Assume several values of w, such as 5%, 10%,15%, and so on.
4.) Calculate 𝜸𝒛𝒂𝒗 for various values of w.

FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION

The preceding section showed that moisture content has a strong influence on the degree of
compaction achieved by a given soil. Besides moisture content, other important factors that affect
compaction are soil type and compaction effort (energy per unit volume). The importance of each of
these two factors is described in more detail in the following two sections

EFFECT OF SOIL TYPE

The soil type that is, grain-size distribution, shape of the
soil grains, specific gravity of soil solids, and amount and
type of clay minerals present has a great influence on
the maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture
content.

Maximum value with further increase of moisture.

The initial decrease of dry unit weight with increase of
moisture content can be attributed to the capillary
tension effect. At lower moisture contents, the capillary
tension in the pore water inhibits the tendency of the soil
particles to move around and be compacted densely.

Suedkamp (1972) studied compaction curves for

35 soil samples. They observed that four types of
compaction curves can be found

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Type of Compaction cure Description of curve Liquid limit

A Bell Shaped Between 30 to 70
B 1- ½ peak Less then 30
C Double peak Less than 30 and those
greater than 70
D Odd shaped Greater than 70

EFFECT OF COMPACTION EFFORT

The compaction energy per unit volume used for the standard Proctor test described.

(𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒓)𝒙 ( 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑳𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒓𝒔 )

𝒙 (𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓)𝒙 ( 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 𝒐𝒇 𝑯𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓)
𝑬=
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒅

Or, in SI units,

𝟐. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏
(𝟐𝟓)(𝟑) ( 𝒌𝑵) (𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟓𝒎) 𝒎 𝒎
𝑬= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟓𝟗𝟒𝒌𝑵 − → 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒌𝑵 −
𝟗𝟒𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒎𝟑 𝒎𝟑 𝒎𝟑

In English Units,

(𝟐𝟓)(𝟑)(𝟓. 𝟓)(𝟏) 𝒍𝒃 𝒍𝒃
𝑬= = 𝟏𝟐, 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒇𝒕 − 𝟑 → 𝟏𝟐, 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒇𝒕 − 𝟑
𝟏 𝒇𝒕 𝒇𝒕
(𝟑𝟎)

If the compaction effort per unit volume of soil is changed, the moisture unit weight
curve also changes. The standard Proctor mold and hammer were used to obtain these
compaction curves. The number of layers of soil used for compaction was three for all cases.
However, the number of hammer blows per each layer varied from 20 to 50, which varied the
energy per unit volume.

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From the preceding observation we can see that

1.) As the compaction effort is increased, the maximum dry unit weight of compaction is also
increased.
2.) As the compaction effort in increased, the optimum moisture content is decreased to some
extent.

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The preceding statements are true for all soils. Note, however, that the degree of compaction
is not directly proportional to the compaction effort

MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST

With the development of heavy rollers and their use in field compaction, the standard
Proctor test was modified to better represent field conditions. This revised version sometimes is
referred to as the modified Proctor test (ASTM Test Designation D-1557 and AASHTO Test
Designation T-180). For conducting the modified Proctor test, the same mold is used with a volume
1
of 944𝑐𝑚3 (30 𝑓𝑡 3 ), as in the case of the standard Proctor test. However, the soil is compacted in -
five layers by a hammer that has a mass of 4.54 kg (10lb). The drop of the hammer is 457 mm (18
in.). The number of hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the case of the standard Proctor
test.

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The compaction energy for this type of

compaction test can be calculated as 2700 kN-
m/m3 (56,000 ft-lb/lb3). Because it increases the
compactive effort, the modified Proctor test
results in an increase in the maximum dry unit
weight of the soil. The increase in the maximum
dry unit weight is accompanied by a decrease in
the optimum moisture content.

In the preceding discussions, the specifi-

cations given for Proctor tests adopted by ASTM
and AASHTO regarding the volume of the mold
and the number of blows are generally those
adopted for ne-grained soils that pass through
the U.S. No.4 sieve. However, under each test
designation, there are three suggested methods
that reflect the mold size, the number of blows
per layer, and the maximum particle size in a soil
aggregate used for testing

Comparison between standard Proctor hammer (left)

and modified Proctor.

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Description Method A Method B Method C

Physical data Material Passing No.4 sieve Passing 9.5mm Passing 19mm (3/4in).
for the tests (3/8in.) sieve. sieve
Used if 20% or less
Use by weight of Used if more than Used of more than
materials is 20%by weight of 20% by weight of
retained on No.4 material is retained material is retained
(4.75mm) sieve on No.4 (4.75mm) on 9.5mm (3/8in)
sieve and 20% or sieve and less than
less by weight of 30% by weight of
materials is materials I retained
retained on on 19mm(3/4in)sieve.
9.5mm(3/8in)
sieve.

1 1 1
944𝑐𝑚3 ( 𝑓𝑡 3 ) 944𝑐𝑚3 ( 𝑓𝑡 3 ) 2124𝑐𝑚3 ( 𝑓𝑡 3 )
30 30 13.33
Mold volume
101.6mm (4in.) 101.6mm (4in) 152.4mm (6in.)
Mold diameter

Mold height 116.4mm(4.584in.) 24.4N (5.5lb) 116.4m (4.584in.)

Standard Weight of 24.4N (5.5lb) 24.4N (5.5lb) 24.4N (5.5lb)
Proctor test hammer

Height of drop 305mm (12in) 305mm (12in) 305mm (12in)

Number of soil
layers 3 3 3

Number of
blows/layer 25 25 56
Modified Weight of 44.5N (10lb) 44.5N (10lb) 44.5N (10lb)
Proctor test hammer

Height of drop 457 mm (18in) 457 mm (18in) 457 mm (18in)

Number of soil
layers 5 5 5

Number of
blows/layer 25 25 56

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COMPACTION EQUIPEMNT

1.) Smooth-wheel rollers (smooth-drum rollers)

2.) Pneumatic rubber-tried rollers
3.)Sheepsfoot rollers
4.) Vibratory rollers

Vibratory Rollers

- Efficient in compacting granular soils.

-Vibrators can be attached to smooth wheel,
pneumatic rubber-tired or sheepsfoot rollers to
provide vibratory effects to the soil.

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COMPACTION EQUIPEMNT

1.) Sand cone Method

2.) Rubber balloon Method
3.) Nuclear Method

Sand Cone Method (ASTM Designation D-1556) The sand cone device consists of a
glass or plastic jar with a metal cone attached at its top. The jar is filled with uniform dry
Ottawa sand. The combined weight of the jar, the cone, and the sand filling the jar is
determined (W1). In the field, a small hole is excavated in the area where the soil has been
compacted. If the weight of the moist soil excavated from the hole (W2) is determined and the
moisture content of the excavated soil is known, the dry weight of the soil can be obtained as

𝒘𝟐
𝒘𝟑 =
𝒘(%)
𝟏+
𝟏𝟎𝟎

Where w is the moisture content. After excavation of the hole, the cone with the sand-
filled jar attached to it is inverted and placed over the hole. Sand is allowed to flow out of the
jar to fill the hole and the cone. After that, the combined weight of the jar, the cone, and the
remaining sand in the jar is determined (W4),

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𝑾𝟓 = 𝑾𝟏 − 𝑾𝟒

Where
𝑾𝟓 = weight of sand to fill the hole and cone.

The volume of the excavated hole can then be determined as

𝑾𝟓 − 𝑾𝒄
𝑽=
𝜸𝒅(𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅)
Where
𝑾𝟓 = weight of sand to fill the cone only
𝜸𝒅(𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅) = dry unit weight of Ottwawa sand used

The Values on 𝑾𝒄 and 𝜸𝒅(𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅) are determined from the calibration done in the
laboratory. The dry unit weight of compaction made in the field then can be determined as follows:

𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝑾𝟑

𝜸𝒅 = =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝑽

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RUBBER BALOON METHOD (ASTM DESIGNATION D-2167)

The procedure for the rubber balloon method is similar to that for the sand cone method; a
test hole is made and the moist weight of soil removed from the hole and its moisture content are
determined. However, the volume of the hole is determined by introducing into it a rubber balloon
filled with water from a calibrated vessel, from which the volume can be read directly.

NUCLEAR METHOD
Nuclear density meters are often used for determining the compacted dry unit weight of soil.
The density meters operate either in drilled holes or from the ground surface. It uses a radioactive
isotope source. The isotope gives off Gamma rays that radiate back to the meter’s detector. Dense
soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil. The instrument measures the weight of wet soil per unit
volume and the weight of water present in a unit volume of soil. The dry unit weight of compacted
soil can be determined by subtracting the weight of water from the moist unit weight of soil

SPECIAL COMPACTION TECHNIQUES

1.) Vibroflotation
2.) Dynamic Compaction
3.) Blasting

VIBROFLOTATION
It is a technique for in situ densification of thick layers of loose granular soil deposits.The
process involves the use of a Vibroflot unit (also called the vibrating unit).

DYNAMIC COMPACTION
This process consists of primarily of dropping a heavy weight repeatedly on the ground at
regular intervals.

The weight of the hammer used varies over a range of 80 to 360 kN, and the height of the
hammer drop varies between 7.5 and 30.5 m.
.

BLASTING
The general soil grain sizes suitable for compaction by blasting are the same as those for
compaction by vibroflotation.

The process involves the detonation of explosive charges, such as 60% dynamite at a certain
depth below the ground surface in saturated soil..

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BACK FILL
The grain-size distribution of the backfill material is an important factor that controls the rate of
densification. Brown (1977) has defined a quantity called the suitability number for rating backfill

Sample Problem
For a silty clay soil given LL=43 and PL=18. Estimate the maximum dry unit weight of compaction
that can be achieved by conducting a modified Proctor test.

Solution:
For modified Proctor test, E 5 2696 kN-m/m3
.
L=14.34 +1.195 ln E=14.34+1.195 ln (2696) 5 23.78
M= -0.19+ 0.073 ln E= -0.19 + 0.073 ln (2696) = 0.387
𝒘𝒐𝒑𝒕 (%) = (1.99 – 0.165 ln E) (PI)
= [1.99 – 0.165 ln (2696)] (43-18)
= 17.16%
𝟏𝟒𝒌𝑵
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝐿 − 𝑀𝑤𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 23.78 − (𝑜. 387)(17.16) = 𝟏𝟕.
𝒎𝟑

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References

Das, B. M., et al. (2018). Principles of geotechnical engineering (9th ed.). Australia: Cengage Learning

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