 INTRODUCTION OF LASER

Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, and no other
scientific discovery of the 20th century has been shown to have as many fascinating uses.
American physicist Charles Hard Townes and two Soviet scientists, Alexander Mikhailovich
Prokhorov and Nikolai Gennediyevich Basov, who shared the coveted Nobel Prize (1964),
were the first to present the fundamental ideas of laser technology. But the first scientist to
demonstrate a laser in an experiment by flashing light through a ruby crystal was TH
Maiman of the Hughes Research Laboratory in California in 1960 . A laser is a strong light
source with unique qualities not seen in other common light sources like mercury lamps or
tungsten lamps. The ability of laser light beams to travel great distances with very little
divergence makes them special. When light is emitted from a typical source, it does so as a
tangle of distinct waves that randomly cancel one other and can only travel extremely short
distances. An instance where numerous pebbles are simultaneously tossed into a pool can be
used as an analogy. Every stone creates a unique wave. Given that the stones are When the
stones are hurled randomly, the waves they create cancel each other out and only go a very
short distance. Conversely, when stones are dropped into a pool one by one at the same
location and at regular intervals, the resulting waves build upon one another and spread out
across a large area. The waves are said to move coherently in this instance. The light waves
in a laser have a fixed phase connection because they are exactly in step with one another.
This coherence is what gives all the way to make the laser light so strong, so focused, and so
easy to direct onto a certain target. Nature does not contain this kind of light. These light
beams also have a high degree of directionality and monochromatic properties. As a result,
the light waves in a laser beam are not only in the same they travel in the same phase and
maintain the same color (wavelength). A regular light source's beam rapidly expands.
Nevertheless, the laser beam is extremely collimated and expands very little as it moves
through space; even after reaching the moon's surface, it has been discovered that the
laser's light spread is only roughly 3 km across. If standard light could have reached the
moon, it would have theoretically fanned out to such an extent that it would have had a
circumference of up to 40,000 km on the moon. Since the initial laser demonstration in 1960,
nearly daily announcements of novel laser applications in various fields have been made.
Applications for lasers in the domains of industry, science, medicine, military operations,
and communication . In addition, lasers have already produced significant advances in data
storage, holography, photography, engineering, and surgery. The main significant laser
applications are discussed in the Chapters on Laser Applications, even if it is not possible to
demonstrate every one that has been reported to date in this little book.

 How does it Works ???

 QUANTUM THEORY & LASER OPERATION
The foundation of laser action is established quantum theory. The greatest scientist of
modern times, Albert Einstein, proposed that when an electromagnetic wave, such as light,
stimulates an excited atom or molecule, it will release photons, or packets of light, with the
same wavelength as the incoming wave. The first individual to use this stimulated emission
technique as an amplifier was Charles Townes, who designed and created the first
microwave amplifier via stimulated emission of radiation, or maser. At a wavelength of 1.25
cm, ammonia vapor was used to create the first maser. Townes and Arthur Leonard
Schawlow invented the idea of employing a laser amplifier and an optical mirror cavity to
generate the many reflections required for the rapid amplification of the light signal into a
strong visible beam, extending the maser principle to optical wavelengths. The quantum
theory states that all atoms can only have energies in specific discrete states or energy levels.
The atoms are typically at their lowest energy ground state or state. An intense light source,
such as a flash lamp or a mercury arc, can excite atoms in the ground state of a material to
move to one of the higher states. We refer to this procedure as absorption. Following a brief
stay there (on the order of 10-8 seconds), the atom returns to its original ground state,
during which it releases a photon. We refer to this phenomenon as spontaneous emission .
The quantum theory states that all atoms can only have energies in specific discrete states or
energy levels. The ground state, or lowest energy state, is where atoms are normally found.
The atoms in a substance can be energized to move to one of the higher states when light
from a strong source, such as a flash lamp or mercury, falls on it. Absorption is the term for
this procedure. Following a brief stay there (on the order of 10-8 seconds), the atom returns
to its original ground state, during which it releases a photon. This phenomenon is referred
to be spontaneous or emission. Both the spontaneous emission and absorption processes
occur in a typical light source. If the atom is still in When it enters an excited state, an
external photon with exactly the right amount of energy for spontaneous emission strikes it;
this outside photon is then increased by the energy that the excited atom releases;
additionally, both photons are released from the same excited state in the same phase. The
fundamental mechanism of laser action is stimulated emission. The laser functions similarly
to a spring that has been wound up and cocked; in order to release it, a key must be used. In
this case, the key is a photon that has precisely the same wavelength as the light that is to be
released. As a result, the atom is stimulated or induced to give up its photon earlier than it
would have done normally under spontaneous emission.

 STIMULATED EMISSION
As we have previously covered, an atom can be stimulated from one energy level to another
by absorbing a photon whose energy is the difference between the two levels' energies. The
process known as spontaneous emission will eventually cause the atom to release a photon in
an attempt to return to a lower energy state. While we are able to estimate the average time
it will take for de-excitation to happen (i.e., the duration of the state), it is hard to pinpoint
the precise moment at which a certain excited atom would release a photon on its own.
Moreover, the photon's direction of emission is similarly random.
Additionally, atoms can undergo stimulated emission, which is a process that lowers their
energy level. When an atom is excited, it can release a second photon that oscillates precisely
in synchrony with the first one due to the oscillating electric field from a passing photon that
is occurring at the same frequency as the excited electron's transition frequency, or very
close to it (Figure 56). The most important thing to note is that the second photon is exactly
like the first one in terms of frequency, phase, and orientation. A laser beam consists of
these same photons.

 Constructing a Laser
In general, a laser needs three things to work: (a) an active medium, such as a laser rod,
with energy levels that can be selectively populated; (b) a pumping mechanism to create
population inversion between some of these energy levels; and (c) the active medium itself in
the form of a resonant cavity, which stores the radiation that is emitted and provides
feedback to keep the radiation coherent. Creating a large enough population of excited
atoms is the primary challenge in laser design. For this, a great deal of creative solutions
have totally grown . The most popular technique for centre excitation involves passing a
strong light beam through the material in the shape of a cylindrical rod or a container tube
filled with an appropriate gas. Another option is to use a flash lamp or other continuous
light source. To produce laser radiation, only substances that can be pumped to cause a
population inversion are employed. To assist accumulate a significant amount of energy in
the stimulated levels, states with comparatively lengthy mean life periods must exist.
Extended lifespan of a level and the precision of the Since spectral lines tend to coincide,
crystals with crisp lines and low-pressure gases make the finest materials for producing
laser radiation. The design of a resonator cavity to optimize the process of stimulated
emission is a crucial component of laser operation. At either end of the cavity holding the
laser rod and flash lamp are two precisely aligned mirrors, one with a reflectivity of more
than 99 percent and the other with a lower reflectivity. By repeatedly bouncing between the
two mirrors and traveling into the laser medium, the stimulated radiation multiplies. A
narrow pencil-shaped beam of laser light emerges through the semi-transparent mirror as
the laser light intensity above a predetermined threshold.

 POPULATION INVERSION
A complete cascade that continuously produces a stream of stimulated emission photons is
necessary for a functional laser, not just a few individual stimulated emission events. The
majority of atoms in a collection tend to be in the lowest possible energy state when it is in
thermodynamic equilibrium, which is when it is not exchanging energy with its
surroundings. This is problematic because an emitted photon will almost certainly be
absorbed by a ground state atom rather than causing an excited atom to emit light. It is
obvious that the atoms must be prepared so that a greater proportion of them are in an
excited state than in the ground state in order to maintain the chain reaction of stimulated
emission events. This population inversion is the term for this situation . As long as
population inversion persists in the active medium, stimulated emission will continue; but, if
most of the atoms are no longer in the higher-energy state, it will slow down and eventually
cease.
  ENERGY LEVELS
Achieving population inversion and sustaining a chain of stimulated emission events
requires a configuration of energy levels with specified properties. There will not be a
sustained beam of similar photons going in the same direction if the excited atoms
spontaneously emit before stimulated emission can occur. In order to guarantee that atoms
will stay in the excited state for a sufficient amount of time to support a population
inversion, the excited state needs to be metastable. While some spontaneous emission is
inevitable, it is easier to guarantee that stimulated emission will predominate the longer the
state lasts. Atoms cannot be excited directly into a metastable state, but this is theoretically
possible in some situations and makes two-level lasers impractical. Three energy states—a
ground state, an excited state with a brief lifetime (compared to the other two transitions),
and a metastable state with a somewhat lower energy—are involved in a more workable
method (Figure 58). Higher energy atoms are "pumped," or stimulated, into existence. level,
after which they de-excite to the metastable level quite fast. The lifespan of the metastable
level is often selected to be a thousand times longer than that of the higher energy level. By
building up a sizable atomic population in the metastable state, this mechanism creates a
population inversion between it and the ground state.

 OPTICAL CAVITY
A single atom going through de-excitation releases a photon that starts a chain reaction of
stimulated emission events once population inversion (i.e., most of the atoms are excited) is
reached. That photon triggers stimulated emission in a nearby atom, which triggers the
emission of another photon, and so on. An optical cavity (also called a laser cavity or optical
resonator) must encircle the active medium in order to maintain the sequence of stimulated
emission events and amplify the laser beam. Two parallel mirrors make up the most basic
optical cavity; one of them is slightly transmitting to allow the output of the beam of the
laser. Two mirrors have different coatings: one is fully reflective (with a 100% chance of
reflection) and the other is somewhat reflective (with a 95% chance of reflection). The laser
beam is made up of photons that "leak" from the partially reflecting mirror. Before leaving
the resonator, light may reflect back and forth many hundred times.

 LASER LIGHT PROPERTIES

Due to its many advantageous qualities, laser light finds various practical uses. Laser light
has coherent, directed, and monochromatic properties. In contrast, regular white light is
composed of many light wavelengths, emits isotropically (in all directions) , and is a blend
of multiple out-of-phase wavelengths. The ability of laser light to deposit a large amount of
energy in a tiny area is one of its three characteristics that can make it more dangerous than
regular light. We shall delve deeper into each of these characteristics.

Monochromatic
A laser emits photons that all have the same frequency because they all correspond to the
same energy transition. This kind of single-frequency light is frequently referred to as
monochromatic. Remember, however, that thermal radiation—like the light emitted by an
incandescent light source—produces a continuous spectrum of varying intensities of
frequencies. The motion of atoms or molecules within the active medium causes Doppler
shifts, which cause some "spread" in the otherwise completely monochromatic laser light.
The spread of a laser's spectrum of emitted frequencies is described by its line width, also
known as bandwidth. In contrast to the spectrum of frequencies radiated by, say, an
incandescent lightbulb, this dispersion is incredibly limited.

 Directional
A laser beam has extremely minimal divergence, or spread, and emerges as a very narrow
beam. A beam having this characteristic is commonly referred to as collimated. You are
familiar with lasers' capacity to project a point of light, even from a reasonably vast
distance, if you have ever used one to distract a feline companion or during a presentation.
The exact alignment of the parallel mirrors that create the optical cavity is what gives a
laser its high degree of collimation. Upon several reflections within the cavity, the light
waves are restrained by the mirrors to an axis that is perpendicular to the surfaces of both
mirrors. A little amount of light that is "off-axis" will be lost from the cavity and won't ever
be included in the finished beam. A laser beam's highly collimated nature makes it both
extremely helpful and extremely harmful. It is never advisable to stare straight into a laser
beam as the intensely parallel beams can focus to a practically minuscule dot on your retina,
damaging it almost instantly. However, a large number of industrial and medical uses are
made possible by the precise focusing ability of lasers. Lasers can be utilized as powerful,
quick, and computer-controlled cutting instruments in industry as well as as sharp scalpels
in medicine.

 Coherent
Coherent light is defined as consisting of waves that are "in-phase" with respect to one
another. Put otherwise, the wave peaks and troughs line up precisely (Figure 61). Light
from a common light source, such an incandescent light bulb, is incoherent, meaning its
waves alternate between arbitrary phases. If the waves are out of phase with each other,
even a group of waves with the same frequency can become incoherent. For instance, the
light emitted by LEDs is coherent yet single-frequency. Stimulated emission directly leads to
coherence in laser light. For the purpose of studying interference effects, which has
significant applications in precision measurement, laser light coherence is crucial.
Superimposed waves are used in interferometry, a technique that allows for incredibly
precise measurements of minute displacements, surface imperfections, and refractive index
changes. A simple interferometer overlaps light beams from a coherent source, like a laser,
using mirrors and a beam splitter. The observed interference pattern will shift when the
relative phases of the two beams change, and this can be accomplished by slightly modifying
the path length difference between the two beams. This method makes it possible to measure
the wavelength of light being used on a length scale.
  TYPES OF LASER
GAS LASER
The light-amplifying material in gas lasers is either a gas or a combination of gases. The
most often utilized gas lasers are carbon dioxide, argon ion, and helium-neon lasers. A few
months after Maiman discovered the ruby laser, in late 1960, Javan, Bennett, and Herriott
managed to demonstrate the first gas laser. They employed 90% helium and 10% neon as
the active ingredient in a helium-neon combination. Most of the time, the gas is excited in an
electric glow discharge and is contained in a glass or quartz tube that is between 25 and 100
cm long. Except in a select cases , these lasers get their energy intake through gas atom
collisions with electrons of high energy. In order to accelerate the electrons to the required
high energies, a high voltage is applied between electrodes situated within the gaseous
medium to provide this energy. Continuous-type gas lasers often have great coherence.
However, when measured against pulsed solid-state lasers, their power is significantly
lower.

HELIUM NEON LASER

The helium-neon laser is the most commonly used type of laser due to its lower cost
compared to solid-state lasers and ability to produce extremely coherent light, which is
necessary for numerous applications. In this setup, an electrical discharge is applied to
helium at a pressure of roughly 1 torr via a discharge tube, along with a 0.1 torr neon
mixture. The helium atoms are stimulated to their first excited level above their ground
state by the discharge. The excited energy of the helium atoms is transmitted to the neon
atoms because their excited levels are very nearly equivalent to each other. neon atoms by
resonance transmission as a result of their collisions. With an output power of milli watts
(10-3 W), these excited states decay radiatively to lower energy neon levels, resulting in
continuous laser light in the red area at 632 nm. There are more wavelengths at which the
helium-neon laser can produce laser radiation, including infrared and invisible areas.
Applications for this laser include holography, printers, supermarket checkout scanners,
engineering construction, surveying, and many more.

ARGON AND KRYPTON ION LASER

The Argon ion gas laser, like the He-Ne laser, is pumped by electric discharge and has a
wavelength of 488.0, 514.5, 351, 465.8, 472.7, and 528.7 nm. It is utilized for lithography,
retinal phototherapy for diabetes, and other laser pumping applications. Similar in
wavelength to the Argon gas laser, the Krypton ion gas laser has the following: 416 nm,
530.9 nm, 568.2 nm, 647.1 nm, 676.4 nm, 752.5 nm, and 799.3 nm. Applications include
everything from scientific studies. It can be used with argon to create "white-light" lasers
for light displays.

CARBON DIOXIDE LASER

The laser transitions in the carbon dioxide (CO2) gas laser are associated with vibrational-
rotational excitations. CO2 lasers have an efficiency of almost 30%. The primary
wavelengths of emission are 9.4µm and 10.6µm. Electrical discharge, either longitudinal or
transverse, pumps them. It is widely utilized in the medical field for surgery as well as in the
material processing business for steel cutting and welding. Electrical discharge powers
carbon monoxide (CO) gas lasers, which have wavelengths between 2.6 and 4 µm and 4.8
and 8.3 µm. They are employed in photoacoustic spectroscopy, welding, and other material
processing techniques. Up to 100kW of output power have been demonstrated.

EXCIMER LASER
Excimer lasers are a subset of gas lasers that operate by excitation of "dimer" molecules,
which are only stable when excited, like argon fluoride. Excimer lasers, which broke
molecular bonds without burning or heating the surrounding area, were originally
demonstrated in the mid-1970s and are capable of eliminating incredibly small layers of
surface material . Excimer lasers are therefore ideal for delicate eye surgery like LASIK
as well as precise etching of polymers or semiconductor circuits. Excimer lasers can repeat
up to 1000 times per second and generate brief pulses with a peak output of 10–20 MW.
These lasers possess exceptional effective (up to 50%) and supply valuable energy in the
wavelength ranges when more potent laser kinds aren't available. Helium gas and laser gas
are combined to create a combination with a pressure of roughly 2-4 atm. To create argon,
krypton, or xenon ions, the gas molecule is excited by electron dissociation and ionization.

 LIQUID (Dye lasers)

Organic dyes dissolved in ethyl, methyl alcohol, glycerol, or water serve as the laser gain
medium. These dyes emit light at a variety of wavelengths, including 390–435 nm, 460–515
nm, 570–640 nm, and others, when optically activated by Argon lasers, for instance. These
lasers' broad tuning ranges have made them useful for spectroscopy and research
applications. Sadly, dyes are carcinogenic, and dye lasers vanished as soon as tunable solid
state laser medium became accessible.

 SOLID STATE LASERS

An active medium for solid-state lasers is a solid crystalline or glass rod (referred to as the
host) that contains light-emitting atoms (the active species). Synthetic ruby, which is
corundum (aluminum oxide crystal) with chromium as an active species, was used in the
first solid-state laser ever created. The active species is recognized first (usually by its
chemical symbol) in the majority of solid-state laser materials, and then the host material.
For instance, the titanium atoms in sapphire crystal serve as the host for the Ti:sapphire
laser, which is significant in solid-state lasers. The species in use as well as the. Although the
laser transition is set by the active species, its interactions with the host may cause a little
wavelength change.
 RUBY LASER
Ruby, the first laser, is a solid-state laser that emits light at 694.3 nm8. Ruby is composed of
corundum, an aluminum oxide (Al2O3) crystal that forms naturally. Some of the Al3+ ions
in the crystal are swapped out for Cr3+ ions. Ruby's pinkish tint, or its fluorescence, which
is connected to the laser transitions, is caused by chromium ions. These days, artificially
formed crystals from molten material that crystallizes into sapphire are used to make rubies
for use in lasers. The top laser level lasts for 3 milliseconds. Typically, flash lamps are used
to accomplish pumping. The first laser to be found in history is the ruby laser, which emits
laser radiation with a pulse length of 1 nm, or 10-9 meters. It is made consisting of a high
voltage power supply that provides the flash tube with electrical energy, a ruby rod xenon
flash tube, and an appropriate cavity for reflecting light from the flash tube onto the ruby
rod.
 Neodymium YAG laser

Neodymium YAG is composed of Yttrium-Aluminum-Garnet (YAG) Y3Al5O12, whereby

Nd3+ ions have partially replaced some of the Y3+ ions. The shielded inner 4f states of
neodymium, a rare earth metal, are the active electronic states. Nd: YAG lasers have four
levels. Nd:YAG's primary emission occurs at 1.064µm. Frequently employed as an active
species in solid-state laser crystals is neodymium (Nd). Neodymium-yttrium aluminum
garnet, or Nd:YAG, is one of the most widely used laser types, with uses in manufacturing,
research, and other sectors (Figure 63). Although they can emit light at different
wavelengths, Nd:YAG lasers normally emit infrared light with a wavelength of 1064 nm.
Other neodymium host materials are glass and YLF (yttrium lithium fluoride). The
mechanical, thermal, and optical characteristics of the host material are taken into
consideration.
 YTTERBIUM YAG LASER

The quasi-three level laser ytterbium yAG emits light at 1.030µm. Due to its low altitude of
500-600 cm-1 above the ground state, the lower laser level is substantially thermally
populated at ambient temperature. Laser diodes are used to pump the laser at 941 or 968
nm in order to obtain the high pumping brightness required for gain 9.
 Nd: GLASS LASER
Glass nd: is a crucial laser material for high-energy uses. It is available in big, uniform
chunks and allows for a great deal of shape and size versatility. Glass is mostly composed of
non-metal oxides , including silicon dioxide , phosphorus pent oxide , and boron oxide.
Because different metal oxides exist and modify the structure in different ways, a wide
range of characteristics can be obtained. When it is necessary to make laser glass, these
ingredients are combined with the laser activators and heated to melt in a furnace. The
GSGG : Cr 3:Nd3+ laser is an additional kind of neodymium laser. It makes use of a crystal
of co-doped chromium and neodymium ions in gadolinium-scandium-gallium garnet. Due to
chromium's beneficial pumping efficiency is raised by absorption bands in the visible
region, and the CW laser action is considerably easier to perform than with Nd :YAG or
Nd:Cr :YAG lasers because of the effective energy transfer from chromium to neodymium.
 Semiconductor Diode Lasers

Semiconductor diode With a few significant exceptions, light-emitting diodes and lasers, also
referred to as laser diodes, function according to the same fundamental principles. Similar
to an LED, a laser diode is made up of two semiconductor layers: a p-type that needs to
have its electron "holes" filled and an n-type that has too many electrons. The active layer,
which also functions as the optical resonator, is a tiny area that divides the semiconductor
layers. Usually 10 times higher than LEDs, laser diodes run at substantially higher currents.
Whereas a laser diode is designed with reflective ends to create an optical resonator in the
space between the semiconductor layers, an LED emits photons from its junction layer in all
directions. Stimulated emission happens in a laser diode when a photon released by one a
coherent beam of light emerges from one side of the diode when one electron transfer causes
another to fill a hole, and so on. Laser diodes can be mass-produced with ease and are small.
Strictly speaking, they are the most prevalent kind of laser. Due to their compact size, they
are ideal for low-power applications including CD/DVD players, laser pointers, and laser
printers (Figure 64). Moreover, compared to other laser types, laser diodes may run at
lower voltages. Laser diodes may function at voltages as low as a few volts, but gas and
solid-state lasers require input voltages on the order of kilovolts.

 HISTORY OF LASERS

1900–1950:Foundations
Albert Einstein's concept from the early days of quantum theory is where the laser got its
start. After his explanation of the photoelectric effect in 1905, which established him as an
early visionary in twentieth-century physics, Einstein continued to contribute to the theory
of light emission (Figure 65). The idea of stimulated emission was first presented by Einstein
in a 1917 work titled Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung, or "On the Quantum Theory of
Radiation." The first time stimulated emission was demonstrated experimentally was in
1947 by Willis Lamb and R.C. Retherford. The method of optical pumping, which was
introduced in 1950 by French physicist Alfred Kastler, allowed a group of atoms to be
stimulated to a higher energy state by absorbing incident light. Kastler received the 1966
Nobel Prize in Physics for this contribution, which would later have enormous ramifications
for laser operation.

Charles Towers and the Maser in the Early 1950s Due to the difficulties of producing the
required population inversion, stimulated emission appeared to be a fascinating
phenomenon with limited practical uses by 1950. That was to change after Charles H.
Townes made a breakthrough. Townes had developed radar devices that used microwave
frequencies during World War II. Townes used his knowledge of microwaves to examine
the structure of molecules and atoms in the field of molecular spectroscopy after the war. In
1948, Townes began teaching at Columbia University. 1950 saw him become a professor.
While seated on a park bench in Washington, D.C., in 1951, Townes came up with a
technique for creating stimulated emission at microwave frequencies. Townes proposed the
notion of directing an excited ammonia molecule beam through a reflecting chamber so that
the molecules would release microwaves. The waves would be contained and amplified by
the cavity as they were released, creating a condition for stimulated emission. The coherent
microwave beam could escape through a tiny opening in one side of the chamber. The
acronym for Townes' invention, "maser," stands for "Microwave Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation."

 APPLICATIONS OF LASERS
 SCIENTIFIC APPLICATIONS

 LASER SPECTROSCOPY
We discussed how to identify elements using their distinctive absorption and emission
spectra in the previous section; this analysis method is called spectroscopy. A laser is used to
illuminate the sample under study in laser spectroscopy, a subfield of spectroscopy that
aims to determine an accurate absorption spectrum. Nicolaas Bloembergen and Arthur
Schawlow shared a portion of the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physics for their contributions to the
field of laser spectroscopy. Lasers emit a far smaller band of wavelengths than traditional
light sources because of their high degree of monochromaticity, which gives researchers
better accuracy in pinpointing the exact wavelengths that have been absorbed. For instance,
a standard light source could reveal that, for a particular sample, absorption happens at 750
nm. . However, a laser could demonstrate that light was indeed absorbed at two of those
wavelengths: 750.13 and 749.87 nm. Moreover, absorption lines that are too faint to be seen
with other methods can also be detected by lasers. The most common method used in laser
absorption spectroscopy is the use of tunable lasers, which may be "swept" over a certain
range of emission wavelengths. A titanium-sapphire laser, for instance, sweeping once every
thirty seconds between 740 and 770 nm, might be used in an absorption experiment (Figure
69). The exact absorption wavelength can be found by timing the sensor's absorption
measurement if the wavelength changes consistently over time. A detection of absorption
took 20.37 seconds in the configuration given, which used a Ti:Sapphire laser with a 30-
second scan at a uniform rate. following the sweep's beginning would show 760.37 nm as the
absorption wavelength. Even faster sweeps throughout that wavelength range are possible
with tunable semiconductor lasers.

 CONFOCAL LASER SCANNING MICROSCOPY

Although the way an image is created differs greatly from that of a typical microscope,
lasers can also be utilized as part of a microscope. A method for recreating a three-
dimensional image of the specimen is called confocal laser scanning microscopy, or CLSM.
A two-dimensional "slice" of the sample to be scanned is first subjected to a single point
focus of a laser beam. After then, mirrors are utilized to move the laser back and forth over
the entire two-dimensional plane. The light from the laser causes molecules it illuminates to
fluoresce, and this light is then refocused through a pinhole aperture and recorded by a
sensor. Subsequently, an amplifier is employed to transform the light's intensity into an
electrical signal (Figure 70). The three-dimensional model of the specimen is then made
using the data gathered about every part of the thing. In the middle of the 1950s, Harvard
postdoctoral student Marvin Minsky created the fundamentals of confocal scanning
microscopy. However, because Minsky's method required a powerful light source and a lot
of computing power, it was first only partially useful. During the subsequent ten years, the
advancement of laser technology sparked a fresh fascination with confocal scanning
microscopy.

 LASER COOLING
Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, Bill Phillips, and Steven Chu won the 1997 Nobel Prize in Physics
for their work on laser cooling, which is another application of lasers used to control and
slow down a group of atoms. Any substance's temperature is a measurement of the average
kinetic energy of its constituent particles. Atoms and molecules in the air travel at an
average speed of about 500 meters per second at room temperature. Because of quantum
mechanics, it is naturally challenging to perform experiments on individual atoms traveling
at this speed and quantify the results. Quantum and classical concepts can be combined to
understand the fundamentals of laser cooling. A photon is absorbed by an atom when it
Because of conservation of momentum, the photon "recoils" in the direction it was
traveling. After that, the excited atom will spontaneously expel light, sending a photon in
any direction. The atoms will eventually push out from the laser beam after hundreds of
these absorption and emission operations. Thus, we can consider the laser to be applying a
general "pressure" to the gas.

 Atomic Clocks
The capacity to manipulate atoms through techniques like laser cooling has resulted in
significant advancements in uniformity and precise timekeeping. The primary method used
by early clocks to measure time was mechanical, such as a pendulum swinging. These
devices are not appropriate as a standard for precise timekeeping because they are often
sensitive to slight changes in the environment or energy loss through friction or air
resistance. On the other hand, all atoms of the same element have the same, incredibly
stable atomic transition frequency. The second has been defined since 1967 as the amount of
time that occurs precisely throughout 9,192,631, 770 cycles of radiation resulting from
transitions between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of cesium-133. (Hyperfine
splitting is the outcome of the electron spin and nuclear spin's magnetic interaction, which
causes an incredibly tiny shift in ground state energy.) A variety of elements, such as
aluminum, hydrogen, rubidium, mercury, and strontium, have been used to make atomic
clocks. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), which oversees
measuring standards in the US, now uses cerium as the benchmark.

 MEDICAL APPLICATIONS
 LASER SURGERY
In medical, lasers have had a huge impact. The understanding of how laser light interacts
with biological tissue—which is contingent upon both the type of tissue being operated on
and the wavelength of light being used—is the foundation of laser surgery procedures.
Water is the most significant component of biological tissue and has a considerable
electromagnetic spectrum absorption. Actually, a large portion of the bulk would be made
up of infrared water because it is such a potent absorber of infrared light. About 80% of a
CO2 laser's incident 10.6-micrometer wavelength is absorbed by water in the first 20
micrometers, which corresponds to the surface of exposed skin or tissue. At shorter
wavelengths of 3-6 µm, absorption is significantly more intense, however it is not uniform.
via the band of infrared. Because carbon dioxide lasers are widely accessible and produce
light with an absorbable wavelength of 10.6 µm, they are frequently used for laser surgery.
When a high enough intensity CO2 laser beam is directed onto tissue, the energy absorption
of the laser will cause the cells to evaporate. The lower layer of cells survives with minimal
damage because the absorption is so great that only the upper layer of cells evaporates;
these cells absorb almost all of the light. (Figure10). A 3 µm laser beam causes considerably
less damage to the lower layer because water absorbs that wavelength even more effectively.
Additional laser wavelengths within the There are additional benefits to using ultraviolet,
visible, and near infrared light for specific medical procedures. For instance, "port-wine
stains," a sort of dark red birthmark brought on by damaged blood vessels close to the
skin's surface, can be treated using lasers. In this instance, the laser is chosen to coincide
with the blood vessel's peak absorption that is responsible for the imperfection. As another
illustration, the human lens greatly absorbs the 193-nm wavelength of the argon-fluoride
excimer laser, which makes it perfect for refractive surgery. By adjusting the laser's power
level and wavelength to particular therapeutic requirements, recent advancements in laser
medicine have been made possible.

 REFRACTIVE EYE SURGERY

Today, the most widely publicized kind of laser surgery reshapes the lens of the eye using an
argon-fluoride excimer laser to repair refractive flaws that would otherwise need the use of
contact lenses or corrective spectacles. Refractive surgery is used to treat astigmatism, or
blurred vision caused by unequal light focus by the eye, as well as myopia, or
nearsightedness, and hyperopia, or farsightedness. The application of lasers in refractive
eye surgery was made possible with the invention of the excimer laser in 1970. Researchers
in the first part of the 1980s found that tissue from the cornea, the transparent front layer of
the eye, could be very effectively ablated, or dissolved, by 193-nm pulses from argon-
fluoride excimer lasers. The concept of utilizing surgical lasers to reshape the cornea in
order to correct eyesight followed nearly immediately, since the cornea supplies a large
portion of the eye's refractive power (Figure 77). After the top layer of the cornea, known as
the epithelium, has been chemically removed, the first kind of laser refractive surgery,
known as photorefractive keratectomy (PRK), employs an excimer laser to ablate material
from the cornea. Due of worries about the consequences of removing the epithelium,
LASIK, or laser-assisted in-situ keratomileusis, was developed. Before the excimer laser
ablates tissue from the underlying layer, the epithelium is peeled back and subsequently
repositioned (Figure 78). After receiving approval in the US in 1999, LASIK was already the
most popular elective surgery worldwide by 2002.18 While LASIK has become the most
popular procedure for refractive surgery, PRK is still a viable option, and new versions are
being developed.

 LASER DERMATOLOGY
Dark-red birthmarks known as "port wine stains," which frequently occur on the face or
neck, were successfully treated in the early stages of laser dermatology operations. Just
beneath the skin's surface, a network of aberrant blood vessels contains blood, which causes
these discolorations. Concealing port wine stains with cosmetics was frequently the only
option because they tend to be diffused over the skin's surface and cannot be healed by
traditional surgery. Early attempts by dermatologists to cure port wine stains with blue-
green argon laser light resulted in unpleasant operations that only worked on dark lesions
and could leave scars. These difficulties were reduced by switching to pulsed dye lasers set
to emit close to the blood's maximum hemoglobin absorption peak, which occurs at roughly
580 nm (Figure 79). This wavelength is useful for children or birthmarks that are milder
because it concentrates light absorption in blood vessels, preventing skin blisters. Scars
from acne are among the numerous skin imperfections that lasers are used to address.
Lasers are also commonly used in medicine for the removal of tattoos. Ink that has been
colored is placed to create tattoos. into the skin's dermal layer. In order to bleach a tattoo,
laser tattoo removal works by shining light on the ink at a wavelength that the ink absorbs.
This breaks down the pigment molecules in the tattoo. The ink used determines how
effective the process is; some tattoos fade very slightly, while others hardly show at all.
Where a traditional tattoo once was, a successful laser therapy will usually leave a slightly
discolored patch. A new class of encapsulated laser tattoo removers may make the process
easier.

 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
High-power lasers are used in many industrial and manufacturing applications to connect,
cut, and shape materials. The absorption at the laser wavelength, which varies greatly
among materials, determines how much energy the laser transfers to the object (Figure 80).
Metals typically absorb a greater percentage of laser energy at shorter wavelengths and
reflect more light at longer wavelengths. As a result, cutting most metals requires shorter
laser light wavelengths. Titanium is a noteworthy exception from this trend since it is nearly
impossible to cut with traditional saws and absorbs a comparatively high 8% of the light
from a CO2 laser. Whether lasers or traditional tools are better suited for a machining task
depends on a number of other criteria as well. assignment. Aluminum, for instance, is rarely
cut with lasers because it is malleable enough to be easily cut with common saws or blades
and reflects strongly throughout the spectrum. The depth to which the laser can pierce the
material is determined by the optics used to focus the laser beam. Short focal length lenses
concentrate light into a smaller area, but beyond the focal spot diameter, the beam spreads
out more quickly, decreasing the concentration of light further into the hole. Longer focal
length lenses can drill deeper holes and cut through thicker materials because they provide
a less concentrated focal spot and their beam spreads more slowly. Machinists need to pay
close attention. taken into consideration while choosing the right lens for the cutting or
drilling task.

 LASER DRILLING
One or more brief laser pulses, each of which removes a little amount of material, are used
to do laser drilling. Drilling is best performed with a series of brief, repeated pulses that
have a high peak power requirement. (If the energy is applied over an extended period of
time in a lengthy pulse, the peak power might not increase to a point where the material
vaporizes and is removed from the hole.) The wavelength, peak power, type of material, and
repetition rate are some of the variables that determine how many pulses are needed. It is
also possible to make laser pulses strong enough to pierce through diamond, which is one
among the planet's hardest materials. It could be required to adjust the optical focus when
drilling in order to penetrate deeper into the drilled hole for the most effective drilling. The
spot being drilled can also be adjusted by moving the object or the laser beam. Ensuring
that the vaporized material is extracted from the drilling site is also crucial.

 LASER CUTTING
One way to conceptualize laser cutting is as multiple overlapping hole drilling in a material.
When cutting, the item or the laser beam move continuously, and the beam typically runs
continuously rather than pulsating. A jet of air, oxygen, or dry nitrogen is usually used to
assist in laser cutting. The purpose of the jet for nonmetals is to enhance the cut quality by
expelling debris from the cutting zone. Sheets of plastic, paper, and wood can all be easily
sliced with a laser; thick materials are more challenging. When cut , food also has a
tendency to burn, creating an unappetizing black layer. Put otherwise, lasers aren't the best
instruments for slicing bread. Unless you like your toast crispy-burnt . Metal cutting with a
laser operates quite differently and employs a different kind of jet. In this instance, the
metal is heated by the laser beam to such a temperature that it burns when the oxygen from
the jet passes over it. Since the oxygen in the jet really initiates the combustion process that
results in the cut, this procedure is more appropriately referred to as "laser-assisted
cutting." Laser cutting is a frequent application for carbon dioxide lasers. When compared
to mechanical cutting methods such using a saw, blade, or drill, the main benefits of laser
cutting are its speed and accuracy. Laser Cutter control is accurate and can be automated
in many situations. The primary drawback of laser cutting is the comparatively elevated
power usage of industrial lasers. The affordability and accessibility of laser cutting
technologies have increased recently, giving enthusiasts greater access to it.

 LASER BEAM WELDING

Welding is essentially the antithesis of cutting, as welding unites several elements into a
single whole, while cutting divides an object into two or more pieces. Though the precise
circumstances vary, both procedures need for heating the material through to its full
thickness. To provide a strong weld, the components need to be carefully fitted together
with minimal space between them. After that, the two plates fuse together at the points
where they come into touch because the laser beam heats their edges to the point of melting.
The weld will be defective if there is not contact between the parts throughout the
connection. The laser beam needs to additionally To create a good joint, the weld must go all
the way through the material's thickness, or its full depth. Welding heat changes the metal
in a zone that extends on both sides of the actual connection as well as throughout the weld
depth. The characteristics of the materials being welded, the laser's power, and the speed at
which the laser beam travels along the joint determine the breadth of the weld zone. Heat
has a decreasing effect on the metal the further one is from the weld's midpoint.
Nonetheless, it has been widely accepted in the production of an extensive range of products
in various sizes, such as heart pacemaker cases and razor blades. High-volume applications
frequently use laser beam welding. applications that require automation, such as in the
automotive sector. For welding, CO2 and Nd:YAG lasers are both often utilized.

 LASER MARKING, ENGRAVING, AND ETCHING

Lasers can be used to permanently alter materials in addition to drilling or cutting
through them completely. This can be achieved by melting the outer layer, oxidizing the
surface, or carving out a shallow indentation. The process of laser marking involves
heating and oxidizing the substance beneath the surface with a low-power laser beam,
leaving behind a black discoloration. Although the surface is unaltered, this procedure
leaves behind long-lasting, stark contrast imprints. By vaporizing a tiny bit of the
material's surface, a higher-power laser is used in laser engraving to effectively "drill" a
shallow indentation in the outer layer of the material. Similar to To make deeper
markings during the laser drilling process, multiple laser passes may be used.
Permanently marking logos or serial numbers on goods or electronic components is a
popular usage for laser engraving (Figure). A variation of laser engraving is called laser
etching, in which the material's surface is melted by the heat from the laser beam, causing
it to slightly expand and leave a raised imprint. Lasers can be used to etch stone, glass,
metal, plastic, and wood.

 PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY
The everyday digital devices we use, such as computers, tablets, and smartphones, all
depend on integrated circuits, sometimes known as microchips, to operate. These
integrated circuits are created using a laser technique called photolithography, which
creates patterned layers of semiconductor material. A light-sensitive substance known as a
photoresist is applied to the surface of a semiconductor wafer as the initial stage in the
photolithography process. Subsequently, patterns in the photoresist are exposed when an
ultraviolet light source shines through a mask to illuminate the photoresist. The kind of
photoresist used will determine whether the Areas that are exposed or not are chemically
etched away. To produce another layer of designs on the wafer, deposit another layer of
photoresist and continue the process if more circuit layers are required The number of
circuit elements that can be integrated on a single chip, which depends on the smallest
feature size that can be produced, is the primary driver of integrated circuit power and
complexity increases. Photolithography has shifted in order to reduce the feature size. to
progressively smaller wavelengths. UV excimer lasers are now the recommended light
sources for creating microchips as a result. The current standard is the 193-nm
wavelength of argon-fluoride (ArF) excimer lasers, however 248-nm wavelength of
krypton-fluoride excimer lasers was employed in the past.

 MILITARY AND DEFENCE APPLICATIONS

 ANTI MISSILE DEFENCE SYSTEM (STAR WARS)

An antimissile defense system uses a laser to destroy the warhead's energy, not by melting
or vaporizing it, but by partially harming the missile, like by making a hole in it. It is not
feasible to burn the missile fully since it would take a tremendous amount of energy. A
missile's air frame will vibrate many times if its guided vane breaks, which will cause the
missile's most sensitive component to disintegrate. There are two kinds of anti-missile
defense systems that can be seen. One such system is the laser kill system, which is entirely
located on Earth (Fig.). An early warning microwave radar provides an approximate
position here. of the missile that is coming. The missile's exact location is then provided by a
lidar that has been synchronized with the target by the tracking radar. The real killing is
done by another intense laser beam that receives this info. A sophisticated focusing system
and a high speed servo system are necessary to fully utilize the laser's killing power.

LASER SIGHT FIREARMS

In the majority of gun uses, the laser has been employed as a tool to improve other weapon
systems' targeting. A laser sight, for instance, is a tiny, typically visible-light laser that is
mounted on a pistol or rifle and oriented to produce a beam parallel to the barrel. A laser
beam's low divergence makes it appear as a small spot even at a great distance. The user
places the spot on the intended target, and the gun's barrel aligns itself (though this may not
account for bullet drop, windage, the distance between the beam's direction and the barrel's
axis, or the target's mobility during the bullet's flight). A red laser diode is used in most
laser sights. Others create a dot that is visible to night vision systems but invisible to the
unaided eye using an infrared diode. Infrared and visible laser diodes are combined in the
weapons adaptive target acquisition module LLM01 laser light module. Green diode
pumped solid state laser (DPSS) laser sights (532 nm) were introduced in the late 1990s.
These days, laser sights can be mounted on guns because they are lightweight and compact.
In 2007, the first mass-produced green laser was released by LaserMax, a business that
specializes in producing lasers for police and military weaponry. little arms can use the
available laser. This laser fits on the accessory rail on the underside of a long arm or
handgun. Because green light appears brighter than red light at the same wattage, the green
laser is meant to be more visible than the red laser in bright illumination.

 LIDAR
LiDAR, or light detection and ranging, is a remote sensing technology that uses light energy
transmitted in the form of a pulsed laser to measure changeable distances on Earth or the
distance to a target. It illuminates the target with a laser beam, and the target's distance is
determined by timing the laser's reflection and calculating the difference in time. It is often
referred to as 3-D or laser scanning. It is useful in many fields, including atmospheric
physics, geometry, geodesy, geology, and archeology. LiDAR has a fascinating history; it
was first used in applications in the early 1960s, shortly after the invention of the laser. It
uses a combination of laser and focussed imagery, and with the right sensors and data
gathering circuitry, it can determine distances by timing the return of a signal. Most
notably, it was utilized during the Apollo-15 Mission when the astronauts mapped the
moon's surface using a laser altimeter. LiDAR is being used in the military; one example is
the Air Borne Laser Mine Detection System. The enemy's land is mapped using airborne
multi-laser LiDAR, which helps find their tanks and warheads.

SPACE DEFENCE
It uses a combination of laser and focussed imagery, and with the right sensors and data
gathering circuitry, it can determine distances by timing the return of a signal. Most
notably, it was utilized during the Apollo-15 Mission when the astronauts mapped the
moon's surface using a laser altimeter. LiDAR is being used in the military; one example is
the Air Borne Laser Mine Detection System. The enemy's land is mapped using airborne
multi-laser LiDAR, which helps find their tanks and warheads. framework. Even a little,
one-kilometer-sized asteroid can cause more havoc on Earth than an attack on Hiroshima
or Nagasaki, or even more than an energetic weapon.

 OTHER LASERS APPLICATIONS

 LASER POINTERS
Small, handheld laser pointers run on batteries and can shoot a low-power laser beam into
the visible light spectrum (Figure 86). Although laser pointers are usually used for
highlighting specific objects during presentations, they can also be utilized for other
purposes. For instance, laser pointers are frequently used by construction businesses as a
component of surveying or leveling apparatuses. In order to orient and guide a robot
toward a goal, robotics systems also employ laser pointers as a guidance device.
Entertainment venues employ laser pointers for their dazzling laser light shows. To
maximize the full laser beam's visibility due to Rayleigh scattering, these pointers are
sometimes coupled with smoke generators. Due to Although laser pointers are commercially
accessible, their output strength is tightly regulated to avoid overuse that could result in
inadvertent eye harm. The US Food and Drug Administration states that no laser can be
sold or promoted as a laser pointer if its output power is greater than 5 mW. It's crucial to
remember that prolonged direct eye exposure to even "safe" low-power laser light can harm
the eyes. It is always advisable to use caution when operating a laser equipment, regardless
of its output power.

 BARCODE SCANNER
One common use for laser technology is in barcode readers, sometimes referred to as
barcode scanners. Barcode readers operate by passing light through a sequence of black,
variable-thickness lines. Light is absorbed by the black bars and reflected by the white areas
in between the bars. When reflected light is measured by a photodiode, it converts it into a
string of data, such as a product code for a grocery store scanner or a book identification
number for a library. In 1974, the first laser barcode scanner was deployed. HeNe lasers
were initially used for this purpose, but more affordable and compact diode lasers have
rapidly taken their place.

 LASER PRINTERS
A laser beam is used by laser printers to guide the placement of ink on paper. Your
computer delivers a stream of data, usually consisting of millions of bytes or single
characters that encode the information you want printed, to the laser printer when you click
"Print." This data is interpreted by an electronic circuit inside the printer. A positive
electric charge builds up inside a revolving drum. A laser diode is turned on by the circuit,
and it reflects light off a revolving hexagonal mirror to scan the rotating drum back and
forth. A region of negative charge replaces the positive charge wherever the laser beam hits
the drum. The location of the The circuit carefully directs the laser beam to print pages with
positive charge where they should be white and negative charge where they should be black
(Figure ). Gary Starkweather at Xerox created the laser printing concept in 1969. The
Xerox 9700 was the company's first commercial laser printer, released in 1977. The Xerox
9700, for example, was about the size of four contemporary photocopiers placed together.
Early laser printers were typically costly and large (Figure 88). Major computer
manufacturers, such as IBM, Hewlett-Packard, and Canon, were vying to provide
reasonably priced laser printers for the general public by the late 1970s. Hewlett-Packard
debuted the HP in May 1984. At $3,495 retail, LaserJet was the first desktop laser printer.

The following year saw the introduction of the Apple LaserWriter printer. The
mainstreaming of desktop publishing is attributed to these printers.

 OPTICAL DISCS: CDs, DVDs, AND OTHERS

When it comes to sheer quantity, the recording and playing of data on optical discs, like
digital versatile discs (DVDs) or compact discs (CDs), is the most common use of laser
technology. Now, let's have a deeper examination of this operation. A typical CD has a 4.7-
inch diameter and is made of plastic and metal. Three layers make up a CD: a clear
polycarbonate layer that shields the track information, a reflective aluminum layer, and a
plastic base with the track information.A disc player can decode data from a CD or DVD
into a sequence of ones and zeros that represents a song or movie. A "pit," or bump,
represents a single information byte. These pits are set up to be one-quarter the wavelength
of the laser light in the plastic (keep in mind that transparent materials fluctuate in
wavelength relative to to broadcast). Consequently, the beam will experience destructive
interference and be displaced by half the wavelength of the rest of the wave when it reflects
back from the pit's surface. The matching low light intensity is subsequently read by the
photodetector as a zero (Figure ). An infrared laser with a wavelength of 780 nm powers a
typical CD player. Because DVD players use lasers with shorter wavelengths—roughly 650
nm—the pit length, track separation, and pit depth can all be reduced correspondingly
(Figure 90). This means that compared to a CD, a conventional DVD can hold about thirty
times more information. Blu-ray discs and HD DVDs, two more modern technologies, use
lasers with even shorter wavelengths (405 nm, at the violet end of the visible spectrum). As a
result, the storage capacity of these media is roughly 300 times greater than that of a CD
and 10 times that of a DVD.

 COMMUNICATION
With its broad bandwidth and narrow beam width, lasers are used in communications,
which is an extremely practical and fascinating use over great distances. From the
ultraviolet to the infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, a variety of
wavelengths for the laser beams can be produced. In comparison, the color of the light that
is released is unimportant. The military prefers the infrared region because it is harder to
detect. The use of lasers for signal transmission has been made possible by the development
of semiconductor lasers. Electric current directly excites them, producing a laser beam in
the infrared spectrum that is invisible. One feature of laser communication that sets it apart
from regular radio waves for military applications is the tight confidentiality offered by the
limited beam width. An interception-proof communication network can be realized since a
high degree of secrecy can be maintained between two places and no undesired reception
outside the small bundles of rays is possible. Furthermore, spurious radio noise and
jamming cannot affect a laser communication system. The optical laser offers a lot of
potential for long-distance applications. exchange of ideas. At optical frequencies, the
information carrying capacity is many times more than that which is feasible at lower
frequencies since the capacity of a communication channel is related to the frequency band
width. The laser is perfect for communications because of this as well as the fact that it
produces powerful, precisely directed beams of highly coherent energy. Given that
microwave technology has already reached a high level of perfection, it presents a direct
rival to laser technology in this regard. In addition, the optical frequency waves are
significantly weakened by snow, fog, and rain, which is a significant disadvantage in the
event of air transmission. As a result, only clear weather with no obstructions obstructing
the beam between the transmitting and receiving stations may facilitate laser
communication across the atmosphere.

 HOLOGRAPHY
A technique for creating a three-dimensional image of an item called holography. The
hologram is not an image in and of itself, and in many circumstances it is not visible in
normal lighting. Laser light is necessary for both recording and seeing holograms. The
creation of holograms depends on the coherent quality of laser light. Instead of recording
light from a single direction, as in a photograph, holograms capture light distributed from
several directions. As a result, the hologram has apparent depth and can be seen from many
perspectives (Figure 91). Holography is not to be confused with stereoscopic imagery from
3D movies or lenticular 3D imagery, which interlaces images from several angles to provide
the impression of depth. A laser beam is split into two beams, one of which illuminates and
scatters off the item that has to be recorded to create a hologram (Figure ). The other beam
is directed via a mirror to shine on a photographic plate, which is where the hologram will
be captured on camera. Recent developments in holography techniques have produced
holograms that can be seen without a laser in typical white light. These holograms are most
commonly known as rainbow holograms because they reflect a color spectrum that changes
based on the viewing angle, resembling a rainbow. As an added layer of security, credit
cards, passports, and even foreign cash frequently have rainbow holograms. Dennis Gabor,
a Hungarian-British physicist, won the 1971 Nobel Prize in Physics for developing
holography. Years before lasers were created, in the late 1940s, Gabor developed the
holography technique.