BSC EEE Y2 2021

ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS I

EEE2202 By S. N. Chege
1
 Outline
• Conduction in solids, gases, and vacuum.
• Semiconductor materials; p-n junction, Zener diode, tunnel
diodes, photodiodes
• Rectification: filtering and Zener regulation.
• Bipolar junction transistors (BJT)
• Transistor parameters; transistor biasing, characteristics in
the common emitter, common base, and common collector
configuration.
• Field-effect transistors (FET), junction field-effect
transistors (JFET), and metal oxide semiconductor field-
effect transistors(MOSFET).

2
CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS, GASES, AND VACUUM

3
CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS

4
• All substances are made up of atoms, which
have charged particles called electrons and
protons.

• Electricity in all forms is due to the charges

on these particles.

• When charged particles move in an orderly

fashion, we get an electric current.

5
 Conduction in solids
• Among solids, metals are good conductors
of electricity.
• In metals, some electrons are not very
tightly bound to the atoms.
• They move about randomly in different
directions within the metal.
• When a voltage is applied across a piece of
metal, these electrons move in an orderly
fashion in one direction.
• This flow of electrons is the current in the
metal. 6
 Electric Current(Amperes)
• Electric Current characterizes the motion of
electrically charged particles within
conductors.
• An electric current may cause heating of
matter, electrochemical processes, and
magnetization.
• Definition of the direction of the current
corresponds to the direction of motion of
positive charges.

7
Direct current
• When the current direction and intensity
are constant in time, the current is known as
direct current (dc).
Alternating Current
• When the current direction and intensity of
the current change periodically with time,
the current is known as the alternating
current (ac).

8
 Electric resistance and conductance
• The resistance R is the ratio of voltage V to
current I :
V
R=
I
• Conductance, σ, reciprocal value of the
electric resistance, the quotient of current I,
and voltage V.
1 Current
conductance= =
resistance Voltage

9
 Resistivity and conductivity
• Resistivity, ρ (specific resistance), is a
material-dependent quantity independent
of the conductor's geometry. Ohm·meter, is
the SI unit of the specific resistance ρ.

• Conductivity, κ (specific conductance), is

the reciprocal value of the specific
resistance. Siemens/meter, S/m, is the SI
unit of the conductivity κ.
10
 Resistance of a wire

length l
Resistance=specific resistance · = r·
Area A

11
 Temperature dependence of the resistance
• The resistivity ρ, and hence the electric
resistance R, of a conductor, are
temperature-dependent.
resistance as a function of temperature

Symbol Unit Quantity

R(T) = R0 (1 + a D T ) R , R0 W resist ance at t emperat ure T , T0

r (T) = r 0 (1 + a D T ) r ,r 0 Wm resist ivit y at t emperat ure T , T0

DT K change of t emperat ure

- 1
a
K t emperat ure coefficient

12
 Resistors
Connection of resistors
• Series connection of resistors

13
 Resistors
Connection of resistors
• Parallel connection of n resistors

Ii = V
Ri

14
 Voltage divider
• A voltage divider is a simple series resistor circuit
• Its output voltage is a fixed fraction of its input
voltage.
• Two resistors determine the divide-down ratio.

æ 1 ÷ ö
Vout = Vin çç ÷
÷R2
çè R1 + R 2 ø 15
 Current divider circuit
• Current Divider circuits have two or more parallel
branches for currents to flow through, but the
voltage is the same for all components in the
parallel circuit.

æ R1 ÷ ö æ R2 ÷ ö
IR2 = I T ççç ÷
÷ and I R 1 = I T
çç ÷
çè R + R ÷
è R1 + R2 ÷
ø 1
÷
2ø

16
 Capacitors
• Capacitors and batteries both store electrical
energy.

• A capacitor is much simpler than a battery,

as it can't produce new electrons -it only
stores them.

• Inside the capacitor, the terminals connect to

two metal plates separated by a non-
conducting substance, or dielectric. 17
Capacitor Circuit

18
Uses of capacitors:
• Store charge for high-speed use. Big lasers use this technique as well
to get very bright, instantaneous flashes.

• Capacitors can also eliminate ripples

• A capacitor can block DC voltage. If you connect a capacitor to a

battery, then no current will flow between the battery poles once the
capacitor charges.

• However, an alternating current (AC) signal flows through a

capacitor unimpeded. That's because the capacitor will charge
and discharge as the alternating current fluctuates, making it
appear that the alternating current is flowing.
19
CONDUCTION IN GASES

20
 Current conduction in gases
• A rarefied neutral gas does not conduct
current as an ideal vacuum does.

• The rarefied gas can conduct only by the

input of charge carriers.

• Gas discharge is current conduction in

gases mainly at low pressure.

21
 Non-self-sustained discharge
• a gaseous discharge where some external
influence is needed to ionise the gas in
order to get current to flow. eg from
electron gun, X-ray, UV, Cosmic Radiation,
etc

22
Current-voltage characteristic of a gas
(non-sustained discharge)

I: recombination range
II: saturation range
III: proportional range

23
 Current-voltage characteristic of a gas
(non-sustained discharge)
• Recombination range: the range of voltage in
which the current increases proportionally with
the voltage applied. Ohm's law is valid in the form:
Current in the recombination range

Symbol Unit Quantity

I A Current

A g S/m Elect ric conduct ance

I= g V
d A m2 The cross-sect ional area of elect rodes
d m Dist ance of elect rodes
V V volt age

24
 Current-voltage characteristic of a gas
(non-sustained discharge)
• Saturation range: range of voltage in which
nearly all ions reach the electrode. The
current I is nearly independent of the voltage
V.
• Proportional range: the range of voltage in
which the ions' and electrons' energy is
sufficiently high to ionize neutral atoms and
molecules. The ionization current I
increases linearly with the voltage V.

25
 Self-sustained gaseous discharge

• In a self sustained discharge the potential

gradient is sufficiently high that free
electrons are accelerated hard enough to
ionise atoms they collide with.

• This means that as the current flows it keeps

a population of ions and free electrons
present.

26
 Types of Self-sustained gaseous discharge
• Glow discharge: A luminous discharge at mean current
densities of 10−9 A/m2 < J < 10−4 A/m2.

• The ions striking the cathode liberate electrons, which flow

towards the anode.

• Owing to the different mobility of the positive and negative

charge carriers, zones of different space charges build up in
the region between the electrodes.

• Therefore, the gas between the cathode and anode does not
glow uniformly.
Application: Fluorescent lamps
27
 Self-sustained gaseous discharge
• Arc Discharge:bright luminous discharge at current
densities J > 10−4 A/m2.

• The cathode is heated by the incident current and emits more

electrons by thermo-ionic emission or field emission.

Applications: Mercury-vapor lamp

28
 Self-sustained gaseous discharge
Dark Discharge
• This is a self-terminating arc discharge.
• It is a gaseous discharge at very low current
densities and low discharge voltages insufficient to
ignite a self-sustained discharge.
• Mainly it may be sustained only by external
ionization due to an external source of radiation.
• The dark discharge's ignition voltage depends on
the electrodes' shape and distance and the gas
pressure between the electrodes.

29
 Current-voltage characteristic of a gaseous
discharge (self-sustained)

Vz : ignition voltage. I: dark discharge, II: glow discharge, III: arc discharge.

30
 Current-voltage characteristic of a gaseous
discharge (self-sustained)
• Ignition voltage is the voltage at which a dark
discharge turns into a glow discharge.

• Self-sustained gaseous discharges have

decreasing resistance characteristics or even a
negative differential resistance dV/dI

• A dropping resistor (current limiter) is used to

prevent self-sustained gaseous discharges- an
induction coil may be used for alternating current.

31
CONDUCTION IN VACUUM

32
 Vacuum Tubes
• These are evacuated glass bulbs with
inserted electrodes that control the flow of
electrons by their electric potentials.
Cathode and anode in vacuum tubes
• The cathode is the negative electrode in the
tube that releases electrons by thermo-ionic
emission. It is heated either directly or
indirectly.
• The anode is the positive electrode opposed
to the cathode.
33
 Vacuum Tubes
• Vacuum tubes are evacuated to reduce as far
as possible the collisions of electrons with
gas molecules and to prevent oxidation of
the hot cathode.
• Anode potential, Va, is the voltage between
anode and cathode.
• Anode current, Ia, is the current between
anode and cathode.

34
 Vacuum Tubes
Plate resistance and characteristics
• Plate resistance, Ri, is the internal electric
resistance of a vacuum tube.
• By analogy to ohmic resistance, one defines:
Plate resistance

Symbol Unit Quantity

V Ri W Plat e resist ance

Ri = a
Ia Va V Anode pot ent ial

Ia A Anode current

• Vacuum tubes are being replaced by semiconductor components.

• Unlike semiconductors, tubes are relatively insensitive to overvoltages
and particle radiation. 35
 Vacuum Tubes
Application
• special tubes (television tubes, x-ray tubes)
• tubes for high electric and mechanical loads
• tubes for high power like transmitting
vacuum tubes.

36
 Vacuum Tube Devices
Vacuum-tube diode

• Residual current is the current flowing in a

vacuum-tube diode without an applied external
voltage.
• The electrons released by heating of the cathode
provide a current between the cathode and anode
even without an external voltage.
• The current stops only when a sufficiently high
counter-voltage is applied at the anode. 37
 Vacuum Tube Devices
Vacuum-tube triode

38
 Vacuum Tube Devices
Vacuum-tube triode
• Used for voltage amplification.
• The vacuum tube triode contains a grid between
anode and cathode
• The anode current's magnitude may be controlled
by applying a potential difference between grid
and cathode
• The grid remains almost free of current; hence the
current control works without power
consumption.
• The triode amplifies the voltage signal applied to
the grid. 39
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL

40
 Objective:
• Gain a basic understanding of a few
semiconductor-material properties, including
the two types of charge carriers that exist in
a semiconductor and the two mechanisms
that generate currents in a semiconductor.

41
• Electronic devices are fabricated by using
semiconductor materials along with
conductors and insulators.
• To better understand the behavior of
electronic devices in circuits, we must first
understand a few of the characteristics of
the semiconductor material.
• Silicon is by far the most common
semiconductor material used for
semiconductor devices and integrated
circuits.
42
• Other semiconductor materials are used for
specialized applications.
Elemental Compound Semiconductors
Semiconductor
Si Silicon GaAs Gallium Arsenide

Ge Germanium GaP Gallium Phosphide

AlP Aluminium Phosphide

AlAs Aluminium Arsenide

InP Indium Phosphide

43
Intrinsic Semiconductors

44
• An atom comprises a nucleus, containing
positively charged protons and neutral
neutrons, and negatively charged electrons
that orbit the nucleus.
• The electrons are distributed in various
"shells" at different distances from the
nucleus, and electron energy increases as
the shell radius increases.
• Electrons in the outermost shell are called
valence electrons, and the chemical
activity of a material is determined
primarily by the number of such electrons. 45
• Elements in the periodic table can be
grouped according to the number of valence
electrons.
III IV V
5 6
B C
Boron Carbon
13 14 15
Al Si P
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus
31 32 33
Ga Ge As
Gallium Germanium Arsenic
49 51
In Sb
Indium Ant imony

46
• Silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) are in
group IV and are elemental
semiconductors.
• In contrast, gallium arsenide is a group III–
V compound semiconductor.
• The elements in group III and group V are
also important in semiconductors.

47
Silicon Crystal

48
• At T = 0 K, silicon is an insulator; no charge
flows through it.
• When silicon atoms come together to form a
crystal, the electrons occupy particular
allowed energy bands.
• At T = 0 K, all valence electrons occupy the
valence energy band

49
• If the temperature increases, the valence
electrons may gain thermal energy.
• Any such electron may gain enough thermal
energy to break the covalent bond and move
away from its original position.

50
• To break the covalent bond, the valence
electron must gain minimum energy, Eg,
called the bandgap energy.
• The electrons that gain this minimum
energy now exist in the conduction band
and are said to be free electrons.
• These free electrons in the conduction band
can move throughout the crystal. The net
flow of electrons in the conduction band
generates a current.

51
• As the temperature increases, more covalent bonds are broken,
and more free electrons and positive empty states are created.
• A valence electron with a certain thermal energy and is adjacent
to an empty state may move into that position, making it appear
as if a positive charge is moving through the semiconductor.
• This positively charged "particle" is called a hole.

52
• Then, in semiconductors, two types of charged
particles contribute to the current: the
negatively charged free electron and the
positively charged hole.
• An intrinsic semiconductor is a single-crystal
semiconductor material with no other types of
atoms within the crystal.
• In an intrinsic semiconductor, the densities of
electrons and holes are equal since the
thermally generated electrons and holes are the
only sources of such particles.

53
Extrinsic Semiconductors

54
• Since the electron and hole concentrations
in an intrinsic semiconductor are relatively
small, only minimal currents are possible.
• However, these concentrations can be
significantly increased by adding controlled
amounts of certain impurities.

55
• A desirable impurity enters the crystal
lattice and replaces (i.e., substitutes for) one
of the semiconductor atoms, even though
the impurity atom does not have the same
valence electron structure.

• For silicon, the desirable substitutional

impurities are from the group III and V
elements.

56
• The most common group V elements used
for this purpose are phosphorus and
arsenic.

57
• For phosphorous, four valence electrons
are used to satisfy the covalent bond
requirements.
• The fifth valence electron is more loosely
bound to the phosphorus atom.
• At room temperature, this electron has
enough thermal energy to break the bond,
thus being free to move through the crystal
and contribute to the electron current in the
semiconductor.

58
• When the fifth phosphorus valence electron
moves into the conduction band, a positively
charged phosphorus ion is created

59
• The phosphorus atom is called a donor
impurity since it donates an electron that is
free to move.
• Although the remaining phosphorus atom
has a net positive charge, it is immobile in
the crystal and cannot contribute to the
current.
• Therefore, when a donor impurity is added
to a semiconductor, free electrons are
created without generating holes.

60
 Doping
• This process is called doping, and it allows
us to control the concentration of free
electrons in a semiconductor.
• A semiconductor that contains donor
impurity atoms is called an n-type
semiconductor (for the negatively charged
electrons) and has a preponderance of
electrons compared to holes.

61
• The most common group III element used
for silicon doping is boron.
• When a boron atom replaces a silicon atom,
its three valence electrons are used to
satisfy the covalent bond requirements for
three of the four nearest silicon atoms.

62
• This leaves one bond position open.
• At room temperature, adjacent silicon
valence electrons have sufficient thermal
energy to move into this position, thereby
creating a hole.

63
• Because the boron atom has accepted a
valence electron, the boron is therefore
called an acceptor impurity. Acceptor
atoms lead to the creation of holes without
electrons being generated.
• This process, also called doping, can control
the concentration of holes in a
semiconductor.

64
• A semiconductor that contains acceptor
impurity atoms is called a p-type
semiconductor (for the positively charged
holes created) and has a majority of holes
compared to electrons.
• The materials containing impurity atoms are
called extrinsic semiconductors or doped
semiconductors.
• The doping process, which allows us to control
the concentrations of free electrons and holes,
determines the material's conductivity and
currents.
65
P-n Junction Diode

66
• When p and n regions of semiconductor
materials are adjacent to one another, they
form a p-n Junction. The electronic device
so formed is called a diode.
• A diode conducts current in one direction
when it is operating in the forward-biased
mode.
• forward-biased mode: the p-region is
connected to the positive terminal of a
voltage source; the n-region to the negative
terminal of a voltage source.
67
• reverse biased mode: the p-region is connected
to the negative terminal of a voltage source
whereas the n-region is connected to the positive
terminal.
• For an ideal diode, the relationship between the
current and voltage is given as:

= −1

I s - reverse-bias saturation current (10- 18 -10- 12 A)

v T - Thermal voltage (26mV at room Temp)
n - Ideality Factor (1 £ n £ 2)
68
I-V Characteristics of a diode

69
Diode Symbols

70
 Diode circuits: DC analysis and Models

An ideal diode has the characteristics shown:

Task (Modelling a non-ideal Diode in Matlab

71
 Diode circuits: AC analysis and Models
• Diodes are often used in linear amplifier
circuits, where time-varying signals are
used.
• In such applications, we need to model the
diode behavior/characteristics because ac
signals may be superimposed on the dc
voltages and currents.

72
• The total source voltagev1 is the sum of the dc
voltage VPS and sinusoidal voltage vi

• We can apply both dc analysis and ac analysis

to this circuit.
73
Current-Voltage Relationships
• Since the source voltage contains both dc
and ac components superimposed, the
diode voltage and current will also contain a
dc and ac component superimposed.

74
 Model Development
• We can develop a linear model from a non-
linear diode by assuming that the ac signal
is small compared to the dc component.
• The relationship between the diode current
and diode voltage is (neglecting the -1 in the
diode equation):
æ ö
ççvD ÷
÷ ççæVDQ + vd ö
÷
÷
ççèV ÷ ÷ çç V ÷
÷
ø è ø
iD @ I S e T
= ISe T

é çççæVDQ ÷÷÷öù é ççævd ÷÷÷öù

ê çè VT ÷øú ê ççèVT ÷øú
iD = I S êe úgê e ú
ê úê ú
ë ûë û 75
• If the ac signal is “small”, then vd = VT and we
can expand the exponential function into a
linear series, as follows:

= 1+ + + +. . .
≅1+ 1! 2! 3!

• We may also write the quiescent diode

current as:
%

# = $

76
• The diode current-voltage relationship from can
then be written as:
#
= # 1+ = #+ ⋅ = # +

The diode ac current and voltage are

related as: #
= ⋅ =( ⋅

Diffusion
conductance
The diode ac voltage is given by:
= ⋅ = ⋅
#

Diffusion resistance 77
Full Analysis:

1. DC Analysis
 If the diode is forward biased, then the
voltage across the diode is the linear turn-on
voltage.

78
2. AC Analysis

The diode is replaced by its

equivalent resistance rd

79
• Analyze the circuit shown )$ =5

+ = 5,Ω

. = 0.6

1 = 0.1 sin 5 t .

DC Component of diode
DC Analysis: current AC analysis
− 5 − 0.6 vi = id rd + id R = id (rd + R )
)$ .
# = = = 0.88 8
+ 5 VT 0.026V
rd = = = 0.0295k W
I DQ 0.88mA
9 = #+ = 0.88 8 : 5,Ω = 4.4
vi 0.1sin wt (V )
id = = = 19.9 sin wt (mA)
rd + R (0.0295 + 5) k W
Dc value of
output voltage AC Component of diode current
vo = iD R = 5kW´ 19.9 sin wt (mA)= 0.0995sin wt (V )
AC Component of
80
output voltage
Diodes for Specialized application

81
 Solar Cell
• A solar cell is a p-n junction device with no
voltage directly applied across the junction.
• The p-n junction, which converts solar
energy into electrical energy, is connected to
a load.

82
• When light hits the space-charge region,
electrons and holes are generated. They are
quickly separated and swept out of the space-
charge region by the electric field, thus creating
a photocurrent.
• The generated photocurrent will produce a
voltage across the load, which means that the
solar cell has supplied power.
• Solar cells are usually fabricated from silicon but
may be made from GaAs or other III–V
compound semiconductors.
83
 Photodiode
• Photodetectors are devices that convert optical
signals into electrical signals. An example is a
photodiode, which is similar to a solar cell
except that the p-n junction is operated with a
reverse-bias voltage.
• Incident photons or light waves create excess
electrons and holes in the space-charge region.
These excess carriers are quickly separated and
swept out of the space-charge region by the
electric field, thus creating a “photocurrent.”
• This generated photocurrent is directly
proportional to the incident photon flux. 84
 Zener Diode
• When a reverse-bias voltage is increasingly
applied to a diode, at a certain voltage called
the breakdown voltage, the junction
breaks down and the reverse bias current
increases rapidly.

85
Diode I–V characteristics showing breakdown effects

86
 Characteristics of Zener Diode

• Zener diodes are designed and fabricated to

provide a specified breakdown voltage VZo
• A Zener diode can be used as a constant-
voltage reference in a circuit.
• rz (Zener Resistance) in the reverse
breakdown region is very small
• Circuit symbol:

87
 Simple Zener Diode Circuit

• If the current I is to be limited to 3mA (and neglecting

diode resistance)
VPS - VZ
I=
R
V - VZ 10V - 5.6V
R = PS = = 1.47 k W
I 3mA

• Power dissipated in the Zener Diode:

PZ = I Z VZ = 3mA´ 5.6V = 16.8mW
88
 Voltage regulator
• Zener Diode circuits are used in power
supplies to provide voltage regulation.

• A voltage regulator should:

1. Maintain a constant output voltage even if
the load varies.
2. Maintain a constant output voltage even if
the input voltage varies. 89
 Voltage Regulator Design
1. Determine the proper current limiting Resistor
V PS - VZ V PS - VZ
Ri = =
I1 IZ + IL

diode current IZ =
V PS - VZ
- IL and I L = VZ / RL
Ri

• For proper operation of this circuit, the diode must

remain in the breakdown region and the power
dissipation in the diode must not exceed its rated value.

90
 Design of Limiting Resistor
• The current in the diode is a minimum, I Z (min),
when the load current is a maximum, I L (max), and
the source voltage is a minimum, VPS (min).
• The current in the diode is a maximum, I Z (max),
when the load current is a minimum, I L(min), and
the source voltage is a maximum,VPS (max).
• Therefore: VPS (min) - VZ
Ri =
I Z (min) + I L (max)
And
VPS (max) - VZ
Ri =
I Z (max) + I L (min)

91
 Design of Limiting Resistor
• Equating the two equations:
)$ (min)− ? ⋅ ? (max) + B (min)
= )$ (max) − ? ⋅ ? (min) + B (max)

• We can assume that we know the range of input

voltage, the range of output load current, and the
Zener voltage.
• There are two unknowns, I Z (min)and I Z (max).
• As a minimum requirement, we can set the
minimum Zener current to be one-tenth the
maximum Zener current, or IZ (min) = 0.1IZ (max).

92
 Design of Limiting Resistor
B (max) ⋅ )$ (max) − ? − B (min) ⋅ )$ (min) − ?
? (max) =
)$ (min) − 0.9 ? − 0.1 )$ (max)

+1
)$ (max)
− ?
=
? (max) + B (min)

93
 Example
IL varies from 0 (off ) to 100 mA

D? (max) = ? (max) ⋅ V? = 300 : 9 = 2.7G

100 ⋅ 13.6 − 9 − 0
? (max) = ≅ 300 8
11 − 0.9 9 − 0.1(13.6)
13.6 − 9
+1 = = 15.3Ω
0.3 + 0
)$(JKL) − ? 13.6 − 9
DHI = = ≅ 1.4G
+1 15.3

11 − 9
M min()
15.3
94
Power supply circuits

95
 Diode Rectifier
• Rectification is the process of
converting an alternating (ac) voltage
into one that is limited to one polarity.

• There are two types of rectifiers: half

wave rectifier and full wave rectifier.

96
Half wave rectifier

v1 N1
=
vs N2

97
 Half wave rectifier
• To fully analyse the diode circuit, the
piecewise linear model of the diode is used.
Steps:
1. Determine the input voltage condition such
that a diode is conducting (on). Then find
the output signal for this condition.
2. Determine the input voltage condition such
that a diode is not conducting (off). Then
find the output signal for this condition.

98
Half wave rectifier

Voltage transfer characteristics

99
Half wave rectifier
When vs > Vg
vs - Vg
iD =
And R

vo = iD R = vs - Vg

For vs > Vg the slope of the transfer curve is 1.

If vs is sinusoidal, the output can be
determined using the voltage transfer
characteristics.
100
Half wave rectifier
Input Voltage

Output Voltage

Diode Voltage

101
Half wave rectifier
• Consequently, the diode must be capable of
handling the peak current in the forward
direction and sustaining the largest peak
inverse voltage (PIV) without breakdown.
• The current can be used to charge a battery.

[Task: Battery Charger]

102
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

103
 With Center Tap Transformer

• The primary winding connected to the ac

source has N windings, and each half of the
1

secondary winding has N windings.

2

N2
vs = v1 ×
N1
104
Waveforms

105
Full wave Bridge Rectifier

106
Full wave Bridge Rectifier

107
Waveforms

108
Differences between center-tap and bridge Full wave rectifiers

 Only half as many turns are required for the secondary

winding in the bridge rectifier. This is true because only half
of the secondary winding of the center-tapped transformer
is utilized at any one time.

 For the bridge circuit, the peak inverse voltage that any
diode must sustain without breakdown is only half that of
the center-tapped transformer circuit.

109
 Filter
• The output voltage from the diode rectifier,
though unipolar, contains ripples.
• These ripples can be reduced by
incorporating a filter circuit.

110
Waveforms

111
Filter Capacitor Value

VM
vr = Half wave rectifier
fRC
VM
vr = Full wave rectifier
2 fRC

112
The Bipolar Junction Transistor

113
• The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) has
three separately doped regions and contains
two pn junctions.
• The basic transistor principle is that the
voltage between two terminals controls the
current through the third terminal.
• Current in the transistor is due to the flow of
both electrons and holes, hence the name
bipolar.

114
npn bipolar transistor

pnp bipolar transistor

115
 npn Transistor: Forward-Active Mode Operation
• Since the transistor has two pn junctions,
four possible bias combinations may be
applied to the device, depending on whether
a forward or reverse bias is applied to each
junction.
• If the transistor is used as an amplifying
device, the base–emitter (B–E) junction is
forward biased and the base–collector (B–
C) junction is reverse biased, in a
configuration called the forward-active
operating mode.
116
Transistor Currents-forward-active mode

117
• Emitter Current:
= PQ / −1 ≅ PQ /
N NO NO

• Collector Current: Due to electrons

reaching the collector from the emitter
region.
= PQ /
S $

• The collector current is controlled by the B–

E voltage; in other words, the current at one
terminal (the collector) is controlled by the
voltage across the other two terminals. This
control is the basic transistor action. 118
 Current Relationship

 The parameter α is called the common-base

current gain whose value is always slightly
less than unity.

119
• Base Current: Since the B–E junction is forward
biased, holes from the base are injected across
the B–E junction into the emitter.
• However, because these holes do not contribute
to the collector current, they are not part of the
transistor action.
• Instead, the flow of holes forms one component
of the base current.

120
 Common-Emitter Current Gain
• Shows the relationship between the base
and collector current when the transistor
is biased in the Forward Active Mode.

121
common-emitter configuration

VCC = vCE + iC RC
122
• The base current is established by VBB and RB ,
and the resulting collector current is S = T U .
• If we set VBB = 0 , the B–E junction will have
zero applied volts; therefore, iB = 0, which
implies that iC = 0. This condition is called
cutoff.

123
 Current Relationships
iE = iB + iC
S =T U (Forward Active Mode)

iE Can therefore be written as:

N = T+1 U

T
∴ S = N
T+1

But we know: S =W N
W
Therefore, T Or,
T=
W= 1−W
T+1

124
 Example
• An npn transistor is biased in the forward-
active mode. The base current is U =
8.50X8 and the emitter current is N =
1.20 8. Determine T, W Z[\ S .

125
 pnp Transistor: Forward-Active Mode Operation

• The pnp transistor is complementary to the npn

transistor.

 The relationships between the terminal currents of

the pnp transistor are exactly the same as those of
126
the npn transistor.
 Circuit Symbols and Conventions

 The arrowhead in the circuit symbol is always placed on

the emitter terminal, and it indicates the direction of the
emitter current.
 For the npn device, this direction is out of the emitter.

127
Pnp Transistor

128
Common-Emitter circuit
configurations

129
 Current–Voltage Characteristics
common base circuit configuration

 The current sources provide the emitter

current.
130
• When the B–C junction becomes forward
biased, the transistor is no longer in the
forward-active mode, and the collector and
emitter currents are no longer related by:
S =W N

• When the collector–base junction is reverse

biased, then for constant values of emitter
current, the collector current is nearly equal
to iE

131
 Common-base current–voltage characteristics

C-B JUNCTION IS REVERSE BIASED

C-B JUNCTION IS FB

132
• When the collector–base junction is reverse biased,
then for constant values of emitter current, the
collector current is nearly equal to iE
• These characteristics show that the common-base
device is nearly an ideal constant-current source.
• When the collector–base junction becomes forward
biased in the range of 0.2 and 0.3 V, the collector
current is still essentially equal to the emitter current
iE.
• As the forward-bias C–B voltage increases, the linear
relationship between the collector and emitter
currents is no longer valid, and the collector current
very quickly drops to zero.
133
 common-emitter circuit configuration
• The collector current is plotted against the
collector–emitter voltage, for various
constant values of the base current.
• In the npn device, in order for the transistor
to be biased in the forward-active mode,
the B–C junction must be zero or reverse
biased, which means that VCE > VBE (on )
• For VCE > VBE ( on ) , there is a finite slope to the curves.
If, however, VCE < VBE ( on ) , the B–C junction becomes
forward biased, the transistor is no longer in the
forward-active mode, and the collector current
very quickly drops to zero. 134
135
DC Analysis of Transistor Circuits

136
Common-Emitter Circuit

137
 DC equivalent

• When the transistor is biased in the forward-

active mode, the collector current is
represented as a dependent current source
that is a function of the base current.
138
 VBB - VBE ( on )
• Base Current: I B =
RB
• In the collector–emitter portion of the
circuit, we can write: S = T U and
VCC = I C RC + VCE
or
VCE = VCC - I C RC
• The power dissipated in the transistor is
given by: PT = I BVBE (on) + I CVCE
• For I C > > I B and VCE > VBE ( on )

D ≅ S SN
139
 Example
• Calculate the transistor power dissipation.
V BB = 4V
R B = 220 k W
RC = 2 k W
VCC = 10V
b =. 200
V BE (on) = 0.7V

140
Pnp Transistor

141
 V BB - V EB ( on )
IB =
RB

S =T U

V EC = VCC - I C RC

142
 Note
• The equations for the common emitter pnp
transistor are exactly the same as those of
npn bipolar transistor in a similar circuit, if
we properly define the current directions
and voltage polarities

143
 Example
V BB = 1.5V
R B = 580 k W
V+ = 5 V,
V EB (on) = 0.6V
β = 100

` b
Find IB , IC , IE , and RC such that ]^_ =
a
]

144
Load Line and Modes of Operation
 The load line helps us visualize the characteristics of
a transistor.
 The load line is a graphical technique that represents
the transistor operations.
• Consider the common Emitter Circuit
Below:

145
• The input load line can be drawn from the
KVL equation of the B-E loop given as:
V BB V BE
IB = -
RB RB

146
• We can also write the KVL equation for the
output loop (C-E) and plot it on the
transistor output characteristics. The KVL
equation is:
VCE = VCC - I C RC
VCC VCE V
IC = - = 5 - CE mA
RC RC 2

dc load line equation

147
148
VCE = VCC = 10V
 The quiescent point, or Q-point, of the transistor is
given by the dc collector current and the collector–
emitter voltage.
• The Q-point is the intersection of the load line and
the I C versusVCE curve corresponding to the
appropriate base current.
• The load line is useful in visualizing the bias
point of the transistor.
• If the power supply voltage in the base circuit is
smaller than the turn-on voltage, then VBB < VBE ( on )
and I B = I C = 0, and the transistor is in the cutoff
mode.
• In this mode, all transistor currents are
zero, neglecting leakage currents. 149
 As VBB increases ( VBB > VBE (on) ), t he base current I B increases and t he Q-point

moves up t he load line.

 As I B cont inues t o increase, a point is reached where t he collect or current IC

can no longer increase.

 At t his point , t he t ransist or is biased in t he saturation mode; t hat is, t he
t ransist or is said t o be in saturation.
 The B–C junction becomes forward biased, and t he relat ionship bet ween t he
collector and base currents is no longer linear.
 The t ransist or C–E volt age in sat urat ion,VCE ( sat ) , is less t han t he B–E cut -in

volt age.
 The forward-biased B–C voltage is always less t han t he forward-biased B–E
volt age, so t he C–E volt age in sat urat ion is a small posit ive value. Typically,

VCE ( sat ) is in t he range of 0.1 to 0.3 V. 150

• Example
For the circuit shown in the Figure below, the transistor parameters are: β = 100,
and VBE(on) = 0.7V . If the transistor is biased in saturation, assume VCE(sat) = 0.2V .

Calculate the currents and voltages in the circuit.

151
 Summary
• Analyzing the of a bipolar transistor circuit
requires dc response knowing the mode of
operation of the transistor.
• In some cases, the mode of operation may
not be obvious, which means that we have
to guess the state of the transistor, then
analyze the circuit to determine if we have a
solution consistent with our initial guess.

152
• Steps
1. Assume t hat t he t ransist or is biased in t he forward-act ive mode in which
case VBE = VBE(on), IB > 0, and IC = bIB.
2. Analyze t he “linear” circuit wit h t his assumpt ion.
3. Evaluat e t he result ing st at e of t he t ransist or. If t he init ial assumed
paramet er values and VCE = VCE(sat ) , are t rue, t hen t he init ial assumpt ion is
correct . However, if t he calculat ion shows IB < 0, t hen t he t ransist or is
probably cut off, and if t he calculat ion shows VCE < 0, t he t ransist or is likely
biased in sat urat ion.
4. If t he init ial assumpt ion is proven incorrect , t hen a new assumpt ion must be
made and t he new “linear” circuit must be analyzed. St ep 3 must t hen be
repeat ed.

153
 Example

For the circuit shown, let β = 50, and determine VI such that VBC = 0.
Calculate the power dissipated in the transistor.

154
 Commonly Used Bipolar Circuits: dc Analysis
• In addition to the common emitter
configuration, there are other commonly
used transistor circuits.
• BJT circuits tend to be very similar in terms
of dc analysis procedures, so that the same
basic analysis approach will work
regardless of the appearance of the circuit.

155
 Example:

For the circuit shown, let VBE(on) = 0.7 V and β = 75. Note that the circuit has both

positive and negative power supply voltages. Calculate the Q-point values. Also,

sketch the load line and show the Q-point of the transistor. Comment on the mode

of operation of the transistor.

156
 Dc Load line Plot

Since the C–E voltage is 1.59 V, VCE > VBE (on) and the transistor is biased in the

forward-active mode

157
 example

Design the common-base circuit shown such that IEQ = 0.50 mA and VECQ = 4.0 V.

Assume transistor parameters of β = 120 and VEB(on) = 0.7 V.

158
Analysing a transistor with a load Resistor
• For the circuit shown, the transistor
parameters are: VBE(on) = 0.7 V, and β = 100.
• Determine the Q-point and sketch the dc
load line.

159
Dc Load line

160
BJT Biasing

161
• For a transistor to work as an amplifier, it
must be kept in the forward active mode.
• Also, we must establish the Q-point near the
center of the load line.

162
Single Base Resistor Biasing/Fixed-Bias
Configuration

163
Example
VCC = + 12V
I CQ = 1mA
VCEQ = 6V
The transistor used in the design has
nominal values of β = 100 and VBE(on) =
0.7 V, but the current gain for this type of
transistor is assumed to be in the range 50
≤ β ≤ 150 because of fairly wide fabrication
tolerances. Determine the values of and
. RB
RC
164
 Effects of varying the transistor current gain, b
• load line: VCE = VCC - I C RC = 12 - 6 I C

165
• In this circuit configuration with a single
base resistor, the Q-point is not
• stabilized against variations in β; as β
changes, the Q-point varies significantly.
• This variation in Q-point is not desirable for
amplifiers.

166
Emitter Bias Configuration

167
Example
For the emitter-bias network below , determine:

I B

IC
VCE
VC
VE
VB
VBC

168
Voltage Divider Biasing and Bias Stability

169
• B-E LOOP
- VTH + I BQ RTH + V BE ( on ) + I EQ R E = 0
N# = (1 + T) IU#

g − UN(9 )
IU# =
+ g + (1 + T) R N

− UN(9 ) g
IS# = T IU# =T
+ g + (1 + T) R N

+ g ≪ 1 + T +N
g− UN(9 )
IS# ≅T
(1 + T) R N 170
 T >> 1

T/(T + 1) ≅ 1

g − UN(9 )
IS# ≅
RN

• The general rule is that a circuit is

considered bias stable when:
+ g ≅ 0.1 1 + T +N

171
 • Determine ICQ and VCEQ for the circuit below:

let R1 = 56 kΩ, R2 = 12.2 kΩ, RC =2 kΩ, RE = 0.4 kΩ, VCC = 10 V,

VBE(on) = 0.7 V, and β = 100. 172
173
Comparing the variation in beta for voltage
divider bias and base resistor bias:
• The Change in I CQ and VCEQ is significantly
reduced in voltage divider bias when
compared to single base resistor bias.
• Including an emitter resistor RE has tended
to stabilize the Q-point. This means that
including the emitter resistor helps to
stabilize the Q-point with respect to
variations in β.

174
Positive and Negative Voltage Biasing

Design a bias-stable pnp transistor circuit to meet a set of specifications.

VECQ = 7 V, ICQ=0.5 mA, and VRE=1 V, β = 80 and

VEB(on) = 0.7 V.
175
 Collector Feedback Bias

Determine the quiescent levels of ICQ and VCEQ for the

network.
176
 Emitter follower Configuration
(Common Collector)

Determine VCEQ and IEQ for the network above:

177
 Common Base Configuration

Determine the currents IE and IB and the voltages VCE and

VCB for the common-base configuration above.

178
Field Effect Transistors(FETs)

179
• FETs are unipolar devices because, unlike BJTs
that use both electron and hole current, they
operate only with one type of charge carrier.
• The two main types of FETs are the junction
field-effect transistor (JFET) and the metal
oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor
(MOSFET).
• The term field-effect relates to the depletion
region formed in the channel of a FET as a result
of a voltage applied on one of its terminals
(gate).
180
• The BJT transistor is a current-controlled
device, whereas the JFET transistor is a
voltage-controlled device.
• One of the most important characteristics of
the FET is its high input impedance.
• FETs are more temperature stable than
BJTs, and FETs are usually smaller than BJTs,
making them particularly useful in
integrated-circuit (IC) chips.

181
 Construction of JFET
• The JFET is a three-terminal device with one
terminal capable of controlling the current
between the other two.

N-channel JFET

182
• the major part of the structure is the n -type material,
which forms the channel between the embedded layers of
p -type material.
• The top of the n -type channel is connected through an
ohmic contact to a terminal referred to as the drain (D) ,
whereas the lower end of the same material is connected
through an ohmic contact to a terminal referred to as the
source (S).
• The two p -type materials are connected together and to
the gate (G) terminal.
• In essence, therefore, the drain and the source are
connected to the ends of the n -type channel and the gate
to the two layers of p -type material.

183
Water Analogy

184
VGS = 0 V, VDS Some Positive Value

JFET at V GS = 0 V and V DS >0 V. Varying reverse-bias potentials

across the p–n junction of an n-
channel JFET.

185
• The result is a gate and a source terminal at
the same potential and a depletion region in
the low end of each p –material similar to
the distribution of the no-bias conditions
• The instant the voltage VDD (=VDS) is applied,
the electrons are drawn to the drain
terminal, establishing the conventional
current ID.
• The path of charge flow clearly reveals that
the drain and source currents are
equivalent (ID = IS).
186
• As the voltage V DS is increased from 0 V to a
few volts, the current will increase as
determined by Ohm’s law and the plot of I D
versus V DS will appear.
• As V DS increases and approaches a level
referred to as V P.
• the depletion regions will widen, causing a
noticeable reduction in the channel width.
• The reduced path of conduction causes the
resistance to increase

187
188
• If V DS is increased to a level where it
appears that the two depletion regions
would “touch”, a condition referred to as
pinch-off will result.
• The level of V DS that establishes this
condition is referred to as the pinch-off
voltage and is denoted by V P.

189
190
• At pinch-off, ID maintains the saturation
level, IDSS.

Current source equivalent for

V GS = 0 V, V DS >V P .

191
• The choice of notation IDSS is derived from
the fact that it is the drain-to- source current
with a short-circuit connection from gate
to source.
• IDSS is the maximum drain current for a JFET
and is defined by the conditions:
VGS =0 V and VDS = |VP| .

192
 VGS< 0 V
• The voltage from gate to source, denoted V
GS , is the controlling voltage of the JFET.
• curves of ID versus VDS for various levels of
VGS can be developed for the JFET.
• For the n -channel device the controlling
voltage VGS is made more and more
negative from its VGS =0 V level.
• In other words, the gate terminal will be set
at lower and lower potential levels as
compared to the source.
193
194
• The effect of the applied negative-bias VGS is to
establish depletion regions similar to those
obtained with VGS =0 V, but at lower levels of
VDS.
• Therefore, the result of applying a negative
bias to the gate is to reach the saturation level
at a lower level of VDS.
• The level of VGS that results in ID =0 mA is
defined by VGS =VP, with VP being a negative
voltage for n-channel devices and a positive
voltage for p-channel JFETs.
195
196
• On most specification sheets the pinch-off
voltage is specified as VGS(off) rather than VP.
• The region to the right of the pinch-off locus of
is the region typically employed in linear
amplifiers (amplifiers with minimum distortion
of the applied signal) and is commonly referred
to as the constant-current, saturation, or linear
amplification region.

197
 Voltage-Controlled Resistor
• The region to the left of the pinch-off locus is
referred to as the ohmic or voltage-controlled
resistance region.
• In this region the JFET can actually be
employed as a variable resistor (possibly for
an automatic gain control system) whose
resistance is controlled by the applied gate-to-
source voltage. 9
=
k$
1−
)

where ro is the resistance with VGS =0 V and r d is the resistance at a particular level of V GS
.
198
p -Channel Devices

199
200
Symbols

n-channel

p-channel

201
 Drain Current
• The relationship between I D and V GS is
defined by Shockley’s equation:

202
 Important relationships

JFET vs BJT
The condition IG = 0 A is often the starting point for the analysis of a JFET configuration.

203
MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor
FET)
• Depletion Type MOSFET
• Enhancement Type MOSFET

204
Depletion Type

n-Channel depletion-type MOSFET

205
 n-Channel depletion-type MOSFET
• A slab of p -type material is formed from a
silicon base and is referred to as the
substrate.
• In some cases the substrate is internally
connected to the source terminal. However,
many discrete devices provide an additional
terminal labeled SS , resulting in a four-
terminal device
• The source and drain terminals are
connected through metallic contacts to n -
doped regions linked by an n -channel
206
• The gate is also connected to a metal contact
surface but remains insulated from the n-
channel by a very thin silicon dioxide (SiO2 )
layer.
• SiO2 is a type of insulator referred to as a
dielectric , which sets up opposing electric fields
within the dielectric when exposed to an
externally applied field.
• There is no direct electrical connection between
the gate terminal and the channel of a MOSFET.

207
• It is the insulating layer of SiO2 in the MOSFET
construction that accounts for the very
desirable high input impedance of the device.

208
209
Reduction in free carriers in a channel due to a negative
potential at the gate terminal.

210
 When VGS is set to negative
• The negative potential at the gate will tend to pressure
electrons toward the p -type substrate (like charges repel) and
attract holes from the p -type substrate (opposite charges
attract)
• Depending on the magnitude of the negative bias established
by VGS , a level of recombination between electrons and holes
will occur that will reduce the number of free electrons in the n
-channel available for conduction.
• The more negative the bias, the higher is the rate of
recombination. The resulting level of drain current is therefore
reduced with increasing negative bias for VGS

211
 When VGS is positive
• For positive values of V GS , the positive gate will draw
additional electrons (free carriers) from the p -type
substrate due to the reverse leakage current and establish
new carriers through the collisions resulting between
accelerating particles.
• As the gate-to-source voltage continues to increase in the
positive direction, the drain current will increase at a rapid
rate.
• For this reason the region of positive gate voltages on the
drain or transfer characteristics is often referred to as the
enhancement region.
• the region between cutoff and the saturation
level of IDSS referred to as the depletion region
212
p -Channel Depletion-Type
MOSFET

213
214
 Note
• Shockley’s equation will continue to be
applicable for the depletion-type MOSFET
characteristics in both the depletion and
enhancement regions.
• For both regions, it is simply necessary that
the proper sign be included with VGS in the
equation and the sign be carefully
monitored in the mathematical operations.

215
 Symbols

Graphic symbols for: n-channel depletion-type MOSFETs and p-channel depletion-type

MOSFETs.

216
 Enhancement type MOSFET
• The transfer curve is not defined by Shockley’s
equation, and the drain current is now cut off
until the gate-to source voltage reaches a
specific magnitude.
• In particular, current control in an n –
channel device is now effected by a positive
gate-to-source voltage rather than the range
of negative voltages encountered for n -
channel JFETs and n -channel depletion-type
MOSFETs.

217
 N-channel e-MOSFET

The construction of an enhancement-type MOSFET is quite similar to that of the depletion-

type MOSFET, except for the absence of a channel between the drain and source terminals.

218
Channel Formation

219
• The positive potential at the gate will pressure the holes
(since like charges repel) in the p -substrate along the
edge of the SiO2 layer to leave the area and enter deeper
regions of the p –substrate.
• The result is a depletion region near the SiO2 insulating
layer void of holes.
• However, the electrons in the p -substrate (the minority
carriers of the material) will be attracted to the positive
gate and accumulate in the region near the surface of the
SiO2 layer.
• The SiO2 layer and its insulating qualities will prevent
the negative carriers from being absorbed at the gate
terminal.
220
• As VGS increases in magnitude, the concentration of
electrons near the SiO2 surface increases until
eventually the induced n -type region can support a
measurable flow between drain and source.
• The level of VGS that results in the significant increase in
drain current is called the threshold voltage and is
given the symbol VT or VGS(Th)
• Since the channel is nonexistent with VGS=0 V and
“enhanced” by the application of a positive gate-to-
source voltage, this type of MOSFET is called an
enhancement-type MOSFET.
• Both depletion- and enhancement type MOSFETs have
enhancement-type regions, but the label was applied
to the latter since it is its only mode of operation.
221
• As VGS is increased beyond the threshold level, the
density of free carriers in the induced channel will
increase, resulting in an increased level of drain
current.
• However, if we hold VGS constant and increase the
level of VDS , the drain current will eventually reach
a saturation level as occurred for the JFET and
depletion-type MOSFET.
• The leveling off of ID is due to a pinching-off
process depicted by the narrower channel at the
drain end of the induced channel

222
223
• If VGS is held fixed at some value such as 8 V and V DS is
increased from 2 V to 5 V, the voltage VDG will increase
from -6 V to -3 V and the gate will become less and less
positive with respect to the drain.
• This reduction in gate-to-drain voltage will in turn
reduce the attractive forces for free carriers (electrons)
in this region of the induced channel, causing a reduction
in the effective channel width.
• Eventually, the channel will be reduced to the point of
pinch-off and a saturation condition will be established

224
225
• For values of VGS less than the threshold level,
the drain current of an enhancement type
MOSFET is 0 mA.
• the drain current is related to the applied gate-
to-source voltage by the following nonlinear
relationship:

2
I D = k (VGS - VT )
226
 • The k term is a constant that is a function of
the construction of the device.
• The value of k can be determined from:

I D ( on )
k= 2
(VGS (on ) - VT )
where I and V are the values for each at a
D(on) GS(on)

particular point on the characteristics of the device.

227
p -Channel Enhancement-Type
MOSFETs

228
229
Symbols

230
 Summary of Equations
• JFET and D-MOSFET
k$
= $$ 1−
l

PD = I DVDS
r0
rD = 2
(VGS - Vp )
• E-MOSFET 2
I D = k (VGS - VT )
I D ( on )
k= 2
(VGS (on) - VT ) 231
FET Biasing

232
 Applicable formulas
For all FETs
Ik ≅ 08
= $
For all JFETs and Depletion MOSFET
k$
I = $$ 1−
)

F o r en h an cem en t-typ e M O S F E T
2
I D = k (V G S - V T )

233
• They do not change with each network
configuration so long as the device is in the
active region.
• The network simply defines the level of
current and voltage associated with the
operating point through its own set of
equations.
• In reality, the dc solution of BJT and FET
networks is the solution of simultaneous
equations established by the device and the
network.
234
 Fixed-bias configuration
• Determine the following for the network
VGSQ , I DQ , VDS , VD , VG , VS

235
 Solution
KVL for input loop (G-S)
+ 2 + VGSQ = 0; VGSQ = - 2V
k$ −2
# = $$ 1− = 10 1 − = 5.625 8
l −8

Writing KVL for output loop (D-S)

- 16 + I D RD + VDS = 0; VDSQ = 16 - (5.625)(2kW)= 4.75V

VDS = VD - VS ; VD = VDS + VS = 4.75 + 0 = 4.75V

VGS = VG - VS ; VG = VGS + VS = - 2 + 0 = - 2V

$ =0V

236
 Self Bias Configuration
• Determine the following for the network
VGSQ , I DQ , VDS , VS , VG , VD

237
 Solution
KVL for input loop (G−S)
k$
+ k$# + $ + = 0; $ = = $$ 1−
)
k$
=8 1−
−6
k$ = −1 :=−
−
∴ =8 1− ; =8 1− ⇒
−6 6
=8 1−2 +
6 6

=8 1− ⇒+ − + +1=0
363 36 3 8
= 13.98 2.598
Since I cannot be larger than $$ , therefore # = 2.598
k$=−
∴ k$# = −2.6

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KVL for output loop (D-S)
- 20 + I D (RD + Rs )+ VDS = 0; VDS = 20 - (2.59)(3.3 + 1)= 8.863V

VS = I S RS = I D Rs = (2.6)(1)= 2.6V
VGS = VG - VS
VG = VGS + VS = - 2.6 + 2.6 = 0V
VDS = VD - VS
VD = VDS + VS = 8.863 + 2.6 = 11.463V

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 Depletion Type MOSFET
• determine: I DQ , VGSQ , VDS

240
 Enhancement type MOSFET
• Determine IDQ and VDSQ for the enhancement-
type MOSFET

241
• Determine IDQ, VGSQ, and VDS for the network

242
Thank You

243