Open channel Flow

Introduction

Open-channel flow must have a free surface , whereas pipe flow has none. A
free surface is subject to atmospheric pressure. In Pipe flow there exist no direct
atmospheric flow but hydraulic pressure only.

The two kinds of flow are compared in the figure above. On the top is
pipe flow. Two piezometers are placed in the pipe at sections 1 and 2. The water
levels in the pipes are maintained by the pressure in the pipe at elevations
represented by the hydraulics grade line or hydraulic gradient .

The pressure exerted by the water in each section of the pipe is shown in
the tube by the height y of a column of water above the centre line of the pipe.
The total energy of the flow of the section (with reference to a datum) is the
sum of the elevation z of the pipe centre line, the piezometric head y and the
velocity head V2 /2g , where V is the mean velocity. The energy is represented
in the figure by what is known as the energy grade line or the energy gradient .
The loss of energy that results when water flows from section 1 to section 2 is
represented by hf.

A similar diagram for open channel flow is shown at the bottom. This is
simplified by assuming parallel flow with a uniform velocity distribution and
that the slope of the channel is small. In this case the hydraulic gradient is the
water surface as the depth of water corresponds to the piezometric height.

Despite the similarity between the two kinds of flow, it is much more difficult
to solve problems of flow in open channels than in pipes. Flow conditions in
open channels are complicated by the position of the free surface which will
change with time and space. And also by the fact that depth of flow, the
discharge, and the slopes of the channel bottom and of the free surface are all
inter dependent.
Physical conditions in open-channels vary much more than in pipes -
the cross-section of pipes is usually round - but for open channel it can be any
shape.

Treatment of roughness also poses a greater problem in open

channels than in pipes. Although there may be a great range of roughness in a
pipe from polished metal to highly corroded iron, open channels may be of
polished metal to natural channels with long grass and roughness that may also
depend on depth of flow.
Open channel flows are found in large and small scale. For example the
flow depth can vary between a few cm in water treatment plants and over 10m
in large rivers. The mean velocity of flow may range from less than 0.01 m/s in
tranquil waters to above 50 m/s in high-head spillways. The range of total
discharges may extend from 0.001 l/s in chemical plants to greater than 10000
m 3 /s in large rivers or spillways.

Open channel flow is driven by gravity rather than by pressure work as in pipes.
Applied Hydraulic Engineering: Uniform Types of
Flow
Types of flow

The following classifications are made according to change in flow depth

withrespect to time and space
Steady and Unsteady: Time is the criterion.

Flow is said to be steady if the depth of flow at a particular point does not
change or can be Considered constant for the time interval under consideration.
The flow is unsteady if depth changes with time.

Uniform Flow: Space as the criterion.

Open Channel flow is said to be uniform if the depth and velocity of flow
are the same at every section of the channel. Hence it follows that uniform flow
can only occur in prismatic channels.

For steady uniform flow, depth and velocity is constant with both time
and distance. This constitutes the fundamental type of flow in an open channel.
It occurs when gravity forces are in equilibrium with resistance forces.

Steady non-uniform flow.

Depth varies with distance but not with time. This type of flow may be
either (a) gradually varied or (b) rapidly varied. Type (a) requires the
application of the energy and frictional resistance equations while type (b)
requires the energy and momentum equations.

Unsteady flow

The depth varies with both time and space. This is the most common type
of flow and requires the solution of the energy momentum and friction
equations with time. In many practical cases the flow is sufficiently close to
steady flow therefore it can be analysed as gradually varied steady flow.
Artificial channels

These are channels made by man. They include irrigation canals,

navigation canals, spillways, sewers, culverts and drainage ditches. They are
usually constructed in a regular cross-section shape throughout - and are thus
prismatic channels (they don't widen or get narrower along the channel.

In the field they are commonly constructed of concrete, steel or earth and
have the surface roughness' reasonably well defined (although this may change
with age - particularly grass lined channels.) Analysis of flow in such well
defined channels will give reasonably accurate results.
Natural channels

Natural channels can be very different. They are not regular nor prismatic
and their materials of construction can vary widely (although they are mainly of
earth this can possess many different properties.) The surface roughness will
often change with time distance and even elevation.

Consequently it becomes more difficult to accurately analyse and obtain

satisfactory results for natural channels than is does for man made ones. The
situation may be further complicated if the boundary is not fixed i.e. erosion and
deposition of sediments.
Geometric properties necessary for analysis

For analysis various geometric properties of the channel cross-sections are

required. For artificial channels these can usually be defined using simple
algebraic equations given y the depth of flow. The commonly needed geometric
properties are shown in the figure below and defined as:

Depth(y)-the vertical distance from the lowest point of the channel section to
the free surface.
Stage (z) - the vertical distance from the free surface to an arbitrary datum
Area (A) - the cross-sectional area of flow, normal to the direction of flow
Wetted perimeter (P) - the length of the wetted surface measured normal to the
direction of flow.
Surface width (B) - width of the channel section at the free surface
Hydraulic radius (R) - the ratio of area to wetted perimeter ( A/P )
Hydraulic mean depth (Dm) - the ratio of area to surface width ( A/B )
Uniform Flow - Fundamental equations
Steady Uniform flow: The Chezy and Manning Equation

When uniform flow occurs gravitational forces exactly balance the frictional resistance forces
which apply as a shear force along the boundary (channel bed and walls).

Steady Uniform flow

When uniform flow occurs gravitational forces exactly balance the frictional
resistance forces which apply as a shear force along the boundary (channel bed
and walls).
Considering the above diagram, the gravity force resolved in the direction of
flow is Gravity force = W = W sin
=  AL sin
and the boundary shear force resolved in the direction of flow is
shear force = PL, where P is the wetted perimeter and  is the average shear stress at
the channel boundary.

In uniform flow these balance

PL =  AL sin −−−− Eqn 
Considering a channel of small slope, (as channel slopes for uniform and
gradually varied flow seldom exceed about 1 in 50) then
sin ~ tan = S

1.The Chezy equation

 If we assume the state of rough turbulent flow then we can
also make the assumption the shear force is proportional to the flow
velocity squared i.e.

  V2
 = f V2 , where f is a non dimensional factor whose value depends on the
material and nature of flow surface.
Therefore, Eqn 1 becomes,
f V2 PL = 𝜔 AL sin

V2 =  AL sin f PL

𝑤 𝐴𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑉2 =
𝑓𝑃𝐿

𝑤 𝐴
𝑉 = √ 𝑋 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑓 𝑃
𝑉 = 𝐶 √𝑅𝑆
𝑤
Where , C = √ 𝑓 is a variable based on the roughness of the channel surface and

flow Reynold’s number.

This is the Chezy equation and the C the 'Chezy C'

Also, 𝑄 = 𝐴 𝐶 √𝑅𝑆

𝑄 = 𝐾 √𝑆, where K = 𝐴 𝐶 √𝑅 is called the conveyance of the channel, and it’s the
measure of carrying capacity of the channel.

The relationship between C and f is easily seen by substituting chezy’s equation

into the Darcy- Weisbach equation written for open channels and is
C = Rt(2g/f)
2 The Manning equation

A very many studies have been made of the evaluation of C for different natural
and manmade channels. These have resulted in today most practising engineers
use some form of this relationship to give C:
1 1/6
𝐶= 𝑅
𝑛
 This is known as Manning's formula, and the n as Manning's n .
Substituting C in Chezy’s equation,gives velocity of uniform flow:
1
𝑉 = 𝑅2/3 𝑆1/2
𝑛
Or in terms of discharge
1 𝐴5/3 1/2
𝑄= 𝑆
𝑛 𝑃2/3
Note:
Several other names have been associated with the derivation of this
formula - or ones similar and consequently in some countries the same equation
is named after one of these people. Some of these names are; Strickler,
Gauckler, Kutter, Gauguillet and Hagen.

The Manning's n is also numerically identical to the Kutter n .

The Manning equation has the great benefits that it is simple, accurate
and now due to it long extensive practical use, there exists a wealth of publicly
available values of n for a very wide range of channels.

Below is a table of a few typical values of Manning's n

Which is the Most Economical Section of a Channel in Fluid Mechanics? Discussion about
most economical section in rectangular channel, trapezoidal channel, triangular channel is
given below. A channel is said to be most economical if

o It gives maximum discharge for a given cross -sectional area and bed shape,
o It has minimum wetted perimeter, and
o It involves lesser excavation for the designed amount of discharge.
The following points are worth noting :

1. The most economical section of a rectangular channel is one which has hydraulic
radius equal to half the depth of flow.
2. The most economical section of a trapezoidal channel is one which has hydraulic
mean depth equal to half the depth of flow.
3. The most economical section of a triangular channel is one which has its sloping
sides at an angle of 45 degree with the vertical.
4. The discharge through a channel of rectangular section is maximum when its
breadth is twice the depth.
5. The discharge through a channel of trapezoidal section is maximum when the sloping
side is equal to half the width at the top.
6. The discharge through a channel of circular section is maximum when the depth of
water is equal to 0.95 times the diameter of the circular channel.
7. The velocity through a channel of circular section is maximum when the depth of
water is equal to 0.81 times the diameter of circular channel.

Most economical Channel section

A channel is said most economical in hydraulics or fluid mechanics if
a) It gives maximum discharge for a given cross sectional area and bed shape.
b) It has minimum wetted perimeter
c) It involves lesser excavation for the designed amount of discharge

The following points are worth noting:

1) The most economical section of a rectangular channel is one which has hydraulic
radius equal to half the depth of flow.
i.e R= y/2

2) The most economical section of a trapezoidal channel is one which has hydraulic
mean depth equal to half the depth of flow.

3) The most economical section of a triangular channel is one which has its sloping
sides an angle of 45 degree with the vertical.
4) The discharge through a channel of rectangular section is maximum when its breadth
is twice the depth.

5) The discharge through a channel of trapezoidal section is maximum when the sloping
side is equal to half the width at the top.

6) The discharge through a channel of circular section is maximum when the depth of
water is equal to 0.95 times the diameter of circular channel.

7) The velocity through a channel of circular section is maximum when the depth of
water is equal to 0.81 time the diameter of circular channel.

8) The depth of water in a channel is corresponding to the minimum specific energy is

known as critical depth.

9) If the depth of water in ans open channel is less than the critical depth, then the flow
is known as torrential flow.

10) If the depth of water in an open channel is greater than the critical depth then the
flow is called tranquil flow.