BASIC ENGINEERING

LEARNER GUIDE

Module # 652302000-KM-01:
NQF Level level 3
Notional hours 320
Credit(s) Cr 32
Occupational Code 652302000
SAQA QUAL ID 94020
Qualification Title Occupational Certificate: Fitter and Turner: L4-548 credits

CONTACT INFORMATION:

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Name
Contact Address
Telephone (H)
Telephone (W)
Cellular

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PURPOSE OF THE QUALIFICATION........................................................................................7

QUALIFICATION RULES...........................................................................................................9
EXIT LEVEL OUTCOMES........................................................................................................11

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ENTRY REQUIREMENTS:....................................................................................................... 12
ARTICULATION OPTIONS......................................................................................................13
ASSESSMENT REQUIREMENTS............................................................................................. 14
PROVIDER ACCREDITATION REQUIREMENTS FOR THE MODULE:...............................15
Purpose of the Knowledge Subject...............................................................................................16
The main focus of the learning in this knowledge module is the introduction to basic
engineering concepts commonly associated with mechanical engineering trades...........................16
The learning will enable learners to demonstrating an understanding of:.....................................16
KM-01-KT01: Introduction to the Fitting and Turning Trade (5%)............................................16
KM-01-KT02: Workplace health, safety and environmental protection (20%)............................16
KM-01-KT03: Engineering drawings (10%)...............................................................................16
KM-01-KT04: Engineering materials (10%)...............................................................................16
KM-01-KT05: Engineering tools and equipment (15%)..............................................................16
KM-01-KT06: Basic lifting concepts (8%)...................................................................................16
KM-01-KT07: Types and applications of screw threads (8%)......................................................16
KM-01-KT08: Types and function of locking devices and fasteners (8%)....................................16
KM-01-KT09: Principles, equipment and methods of arc welding, gas cutting, brazing
and silver soldering (8%).............................................................................................................16
SECTION 1: KM-01-KT01: Introduction to the Fitting and Turning Trade................................17
SECTION 2: KM-01-KT02: Workplace health, safety and environmental protection...................20
SECTION 3: KM-01-KT03: Engineering drawings.....................................................................45
SECTION 4: KM-01-KT04: Engineering materials......................................................................68
4.1 Define and describe terms and definitions of trade related materials..................68
4.3 Define and apply identifications systems............................................................82
SECTION 5: KM-01-KT05: Engineering tools and equipment.....................................................89
1.2 Identify trade related power tools and attachments and describe and explain their
applications, maintenance and procedures for use.................................................112
SECTION 6: KM-01-KT06 Basic lifting concepts......................................................................116
SECTION 7: KM-01-KT07: Types and applications of screw threads........................................122
SECTION 8: KM-01-KT08: Types and function of locking devices and fasteners.......................127
SECTION 9: KM-01-KT09 Principles, equipment and methods of arc welding, gas
cutting, brazing and silver soldering..........................................................................................136

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PURPOSE OF THE QUALIFICATION
Purpose:
The purpose of this qualification is to prepare a learner to fabricate metal parts, fit, assemble,
maintain and repair mechanical components, sub-assemblies and machines.
A qualified learner will be able to:
• Apply hand skills to fabricate mechanical components using engineering tools.
• Perform engineering maintenance on mechanical components, subassemblies and machines.
• Repair, install and commission subassemblies and machines.
• Machine mechanical components using machining tools and equipment.

Rationale:
The field of engineering fitting is characterised by the provision of engineering maintenance, repair
and installation services and support in a variety of industries. The equipment requiring such
service and support ranges from sophisticated equipment to antiquated single station machines.
People working in the mechanical engineering field require specialised technical skills and
knowledge, as well as highly developed hand skills in order to meet the mechanical engineering
requirements of diverse industries.

The field of engineering machining is characterised by work-to-order, low volume manufacture of

components using different machining methods for use in a variety of industries. People working in
the engineering machining field require specialised technical skills and knowledge, as well as
highly developed hand skills in order to adapt to and meet the requirements of the constantly
changing products that must be manufactured.

The primary focus of this qualification is to develop the ability to produce components of some
complexity using a variety of machining methods and the ability to fault find, dismantle, maintain,
repair and install complex mechanical assemblies and diagnose and repair equipment and
machinery during production/operation. Hand skills play a large role in this qualification.

Qualifying learners will be able to maintain and support the various policies and procedures related
to the safety, health, environment and quality systems that govern their workplace.

Vertical progression opportunities are commonly related to supervisory or foreman positions that do
not require further formal qualifications related to fitting and turning.

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QUALIFICATION RULES

This qualification is made up of the following compulsory Knowledge and Practical Skill
Modules:

Knowledge Modules:
• Basic engineering theory, NQF Level 3, 32 Credits.
• Fitting Theory, NQF Level 4, 38 Credits.
• Machining Theory, NQF Level 4, 36 Credits.
Total number of credits for Knowledge Modules: 106 Credits.

Practical Skill Modules:

• Fabricate simple components or work pieces using basic hand skills and hand tools, NQF Level 2,
6 Credits.
• Fabricate components or work pieces using power tools or machinery, NQF Level 3, 6 Credits.
• Dissemble, clean and inspect mechanical sub-assemblies, NQF Level 3, 6 Credits.
• Replace components and assemble mechanical sub-assemblies and machines, NQF Level 3, 6
Credits.
• Do fault finding on mechanical sub-assemblies and machines, NQF Level 4, 12 Credits.
• Repair mechanical sub-assemblies and machines, NQF Level 4, 12 Credits.
• Install and commission mechanical sub-assemblies and machines, NQF Level 4, 12 Credits.
• Overhaul mechanical sub-assemblies and machines, NQF Level 4, 20 Credits.
• Produce simple components by setting up and attending to the operation an engineering machine,
NQF Level 2, 6 Credits.
• Produce components of intermediate complexity by performing engineering machining
operations, NQF Level 3, 12 Credits.
• Perform complex machining operations, NQF Level 4, 24 Credits.
Total number of credits for Practical Skills Modules: 122 Credits.

This qualification also requires the following compulsory Work Experience Modules:
• Fabrication processes in an engineering workshop, NQF Level 2, 20 Credits.
• Routine mechanical component and machine maintenance processes, NQF Level 3, 40 Credits.
• Maintenance planning and communication processes, NQF Level 3, 10 Credits.
• Repair mechanical faults on mechanical sub-assemblies and machines, NQF Level 4, 60 Credits.
• Overhauling processes in an engineering workshop, NQF Level 4, 60 Credits.

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• Structured planning and communication processes in the workplace, NQF Level 4, 60 Credits.
• Machining processes to design specifications of a range of work pieces from different materials,
NQF Level 4, 60 Credits.
• Engineering workshop control processes, NQF Level 4, 10 Credits.
Total number of credits for Work Experience Modules: 320 Credits.

EXIT LEVEL OUTCOMES

1. Apply hand skills to fabricate mechanical components using engineering tools.
2. Perform engineering maintenance on mechanical components, subassemblies and machines.
3. Repair, install and commission subassemblies and machines.
4. Machine mechanical components using machining tools and equipment..

Occupation Regulation
All trades are regulated by the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) through the
National Artisan Moderation Body (NAMB). To become a qualified artisan you have to pass a trade
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test at a national trade test centre that is accredited by the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations
(QCTO). All national trade test centres are quality assured and recommended for accreditation by the
NAMB.

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ENTRY REQUIREMENTS:

Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL):

RPL for access to the integrated assessment:
Accredited providers and approved workplaces must apply the internal assessment criteria specified in
the related curriculum document to establish and conform prior learning. Prior learning must be
acknowledged by a statement of results.

RPL for entry requirements to access the qualification:

Accredited providers and approved workplaces may recognise prior learning against the relevant
access requirements.

Entry Requirements:
• NQF Level 1 with Mathematics and Science.

RECOGNISE PREVIOUS LEARNING?

Y

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ARTICULATION OPTIONS
This qualification articulates with qualifications (currently under development) within the mechanical
trades related to the following occupations:
The qualification articulates horizontally with the following, at NQF Level 4:
• Automotive Machinist.
• Metal Machinist.

The qualification articulates vertically with the following at NQF Level 5:

• Engineering Studies N4, NQF Level 5.

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ASSESSMENT REQUIREMENTS
Integrated Formative Assessment:
The skills development provider will use the curriculum to guide them on the stipulated internal
assessment criteria and weighting. They will also apply the scope of practical skills and applied
knowledge as stipulated by the internal assessment criteria. This formative assessment leads to
entrance into the integrated external summative assessment.

Integrated Summative Assessment:

An external integrated summative assessment, conducted through the relevant QCTO Assessment
Quality partner is required for the issuing of this qualification. The external integrated summative
assessment will focus on the exit level outcomes and associated assessment criteria. The external
assessment model requires that the external assessment will be conducted through a combination of a
written assessment and practical task at an accredited trade test centre. The written examination will
be concluded at an accredited trade test centre and marked by registered assessors. Practical tasks will
also be assessed by registered assessors. The combination of the written and practical assessment will
be conducted over a period of two working days.

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PROVIDER ACCREDITATION
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
MODULE:

Physical Requirements:
Recourses to deliver the trade theory
 Access to a fully equipped training venue

Human Resource Requirements:

 Access to a facility that is conducive for class room learning
 A learner facilitator ration of not more than 1:20
 Facilitators must be suitably qualified in the delivery of occupational training programs
 Facilitators must be a qualified artisan with at least 3 years work experience as a artisan

Legal Requirements:
• Compliance with OHS Act
• Compliant with the Fire Brigade Services Act.

Critical Topics to be Assessed Externally for the Knowledge Module

No topics are required to be re-assessed externally

Exemptions
None

TOPIC ELEMENTS TO BE COVERED

INCLUDE:
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Purpose of the Knowledge Subject
The main focus of the learning in this knowledge module is the introduction to basic engineering
concepts commonly associated with mechanical engineering trades

The learning will enable learners to demonstrating an understanding of:

KM-01-KT01: Introduction to the Fitting and Turning Trade (5%)
KM-01-KT02: Workplace health, safety and environmental protection (20%)
KM-01-KT03: Engineering drawings (10%)
KM-01-KT04: Engineering materials (10%)
KM-01-KT05: Engineering tools and equipment (15%)
KM-01-KT06: Basic lifting concepts (8%)
KM-01-KT07: Types and applications of screw threads (8%)
KM-01-KT08: Types and function of locking devices and fasteners (8%)
KM-01-KT09: Principles, equipment and methods of arc welding, gas cutting, brazing and silver
soldering (8%)

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 SECTION 1: KM-01-KT01: Introduction to the
Fitting and Turning Trade

Learning Outcome
At the end of this section, learners should cover:

KT0101 Career opportunities for a qualified fitter and turner

KT0102 Occupational profile of a fitter and turner
KT0103 Legislation related to apprentices in the fitting and turning trade

KT0101 Career opportunities for a qualified fitter and turner

 This is a very skilled job.
 Fitters & Turners maintain and repair many kinds of machines.
 Fitters and Turners are highly skilled crafts people who manufacture, construct, assemble and fit
components for machinery.
 If you consider yourself good with metal and repairing parts, then a career in Fitting & Turner
may be just for you!

What does a Fitter & Turner do?

 maintains and repairs
 assembles and fits components for machinery
 uses blueprints/plans to measure material for production
 monitors machinery and repairs faults
 fits parts required to complete the machine
Are you ...?
 good at working with your hands?
 mechanical?
 able to take exact measurements?
 able to work accurately?
 mathematically minded?
 strategic?
How do I become a Fitter & Turner?
PATH 1
 Apprenticeship

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  Trade Test
PATH 2
 Learnership - Mechanical Engineering (Fitting & Machining) (Fitter and Turner) NQF Level
2, 3 and 4
 Trade Test
PATH 3
 Learnership – Fitting and Turning – Underground Diamonds NQF Level 2, 3 and 4
 Trade Test
PATH 4
 Learnership – Fitting and Turning – Open Cast Coal NQF Level 2, 3 and 4
 Trade Test
PATH 5
 Learnership – Fitting and Turning – Surface Diamonds NQF Level 2, 3 and 4
 Trade Test
PATH 6
 Learnership – Fitting and Turning – Underground Coal NQF Level 2, 3 and 4
 Trade Test
PATH 7
 RPL (Recognised Prior Learning) for Artisans:
 If you have already been working a long time as a Fitter & Turner without qualifications, you
may be able to get your qualification through RPL

Fitting and Turning

Fitters and turners manufacture and construct components for machinery and use power operated tools
such as lathes, milling- and drilling machines. They are also responsible for the mechanical
maintenance of all machinery and the assembling and fitting of new components and equipment.

The following modules/unit standards are done during training:

Basic Training
 Make and fit a key
 Drill a flange
 Drill and tap holes
 Make up a pipe system
 Overhaul valves
 Maintain and align couplings
 Tension and align V-belts
 Lift and move equipment

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  Turn a coupling pin and bush
 Mill a keyway and a hexagon

Advanced Training
 Principles of pneumatics
 Principles of hydraulics
 Line up a fluid drive coupling
 Overhaul hydraulic brakes
 Overhaul an electromagnetic brake
 Maintain clutches
 Maintain gearboxes
 Overhaul a multi-stage centrifugal pump

Final Training
During Final Training, learners receive intensive training to prepare them for the Trade Test. Training
during this period includes all modules/unit standards trained in during the Basic, Advanced training
phases.

Internal assessment

Describe the profile of a fitter and turner with respect to industry description and requirements
Explain the Legal aspects pertaining to apprentices

Describe and explain the job environment and roles of a fitter and turner

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SECTION 2: KM-01-KT02: Workplace health,
safety and environmental protection

Learning Outcome
At the end of this section, learners should cover:
KT0201 General overview of occupational health and safety legislation
KT0202 General workshop safety rules
KT0204 Safety symbols and coding
KT0205 Types of personal protective equipment
KT0206 Hazard identification and risk assessment principles
KT0207 Fundamentals of securing worksites
KT0208 Environmental protection and pollution concepts

2.1 Give an overview of occupational health and safety legislation

The Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993, requires the employer to bring about and maintain, as
far as reasonably practicable, a work environment that is safe and without risk to the health of the
workers. This means that the employer must ensure that the workplace is free of hazardous
substances, such as benzene, chlorine and microorganisms, articles, equipment, processes, etc.
that may cause injury, damage or disease. Where this is not possible, the employer must inform
workers of these dangers, how they may be prevented, and how to work safely, and provide
other protective measures for a safe workplace.

However, it is not expected of the employer to take sole responsibility for health and safety. The Act
is based on the principle that dangers in the workplace must be addressed by communication and
cooperation between the workers and the employer. The workers and the employer must share the
responsibility for health and safety in the workplace. Both parties must pro-actively identify dangers
and develop control measures to make the workplace safe.

In this way, the employer and the workers are involved in a system where health and safety
representatives may inspect the workplace regularly and then report to a health and safety committee,
who in turn may submit recommendations to the employer. To ensure that this system works, every
worker must know his or her rights and duties as contained in the Act.

2. The Act and Regulations

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The Act, known as the Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993 (Act 85 of 1993) consists of 50
sections promulgated by Parliament. The purpose of the Act is to provide for the health and safety of
persons at work or in connection with the use of plant and machinery. It further provides for the
protection of persons other than persons at work from hazards arising out of or in connection with the
activities of persons at work.

Various regulations, on specific topics, are incorporated into the Act from time to time by the Minister
of Labour. The Act or Regulations can be purchased from the Government Printer in Gazette form or
bound form from various publishers.

3. Department of Labour
Chief Directorate of Occupational Health and Safety
The Occupational Health and Safety Act is administered by the Chief Directorate of Occupational
Health and Safety of the Department of Labour. In order to ensure the health and safety of workers,
provincial offices have been established in all the provinces. To this end, occupational health and
safety inspectors from these provincial offices carry out inspections and investigations at workplaces.

Inspections
Inspections are usually planned on the basis of accident statistics, the presence of hazardous
substances, such as the use of benzene in laundries, or the use of dangerous machinery in the
workplace. Unplanned inspections, on the other hand, usually arise from requests or complaints by
workers, employers, or members of the public. These complaints or requests are treated
confidentially.
Powers of inspectors
If an inspector finds dangerous or adverse conditions at the workplace, he or she may set requirements
to the employer in the following ways:

 Prohibition notice
In the case of threatening danger, an inspector may prohibit a particular action, process, or the use of
a machine or equipment, by means of a prohibition notice. No person may disregard the contents of
such a notice and compliance must take place with immediate effect.

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  Contravention notice
If a provision of a regulation is contravened, the inspector may serve a contravention notice on the
workers or the employer. A contravention of the Act can result in immediate prosecution, but in the
case of a contravention of a regulation, the employer may be given the opportunity to correct the
contravention within a time limit specified in the notice which is usually 60 days.

 Improvement notice
Where the health and safety measures which the employer has instituted, do not satisfactorily protect
the health and safety of the workers, the inspector may require the employer to bring about more
effective measures. An improvement notice which prescribes the corrective measures is then served on
the employer.

Other powers
To enable the inspector to carry out his or her duties, he or she may enter any workplace or premises
where machinery or hazardous substances are being used and question or serve a summons on persons
to appear before him or her. The inspector may request that any documents be submitted to him or
her, investigate and make copies of the documents, and demand an explanation about any entries in
such documents. The inspector may also inspect any condition or article and take samples of it, and
seize any article that may serve as evidence.

It is often perceived that health and safety is the responsibility of managers and health and safety
representatives. This phenomena or belief is unfortunately not true. It is the responsibility of every
employee in the site or any working environment to ensure that the workplace is safe and healthy at
all times, for the benefit of the employee, his or her colleagues and customers.

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What the OHS Act says about health and safety committees in the workplace
The OHS Act gives employers the responsibility for establishing health and safety committees and the
power to determine how many health and safety committees are established in a workplace. Section
18 says that the employer must establish one or more health and safety committee where there are two
or more H&S Reps. Section 18 also ensures that there is equal representation of employer appointed
and employee elected representatives in the health and safety committee.
A critical reading of Sections 17 and 18 shows that although the OHS Act encourages the employer to
designate H&S Reps (and establish health and safety committees) for sections of the workplace, it
provides no guide on the establishment of a health and safety committee (and the representation of
H&S Reps within that committee) to monitor and review health and safety in the workplace as a
whole. There is also no reference in the OHS Act or in the GAR requiring the employer to negotiate
where health and safety committees are established or how different health and safety committees in
the same workplace communicate or link with one another in order to review health and safety in the
entire workplace.
The Mine Health and Safety Act (MHSA) [section 33] requires the employer to negotiate with the
trade union regarding the establishment of health and safety Committees. However, workers
employed in sectors that are not covered by MHSA do not enjoy these rights. Neither the OHS Act
nor the GAR 6 makes provision for any negotiations regarding the establishment of health and safety
Committee structures.
They also do not make provision for establishing any central or co-ordinating health and safety
Committees within companies or workplaces in order to oversee and monitor the standards for
initiating, developing, promoting, maintaining and reviewing health and safety measures adopted by
the different health and safety Committees within the workplace and/or company.
Agreeing on where health and safety committees should be constituted Once constituencies have been
determined and H&S Reps have been elected, the health and safety committees need to be established.

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The trade union needs to give some thought as to where health and safety committees are established
in workplaces where there are different departments and sections, as well as within a company where
there are different workplaces. The trade union needs to consider how there is a role for health and
safety committees to deal with the specific hazards and preventive measures within a department or
constituency. At the same time there is a need for a health and safety committee structure that links
together the different committees in order to provide the overall health and safety picture of the
workplace. The trade union must also consider how to establish a health and safety structure where
elected representatives can engage with the employer representative in the workplace or the company
who has the authority to take decisions on behalf of the employer relating to health and safety.
If there is more than one health and safety committee in the workplace (i.e one committee for each
constituency), without a central forum, this can be a way in which the employer divides and rules
employees on health and safety in the workplace. It means that H&S Reps are restricted to looking at
and discussing health and safety in their departments (constituencies) only, as if the work and hazards
of one department do not place workers of another department (constituency) at risk.
It means that problems faced by workers in one department could be a wider workplace or company
problem but the elected H&S Reps are not able to get a workplace or company view of the problem
because their participation is restricted by the employer to a particular department (constituency). It
also means that the skills, experience and lessons that workers and H&S Reps develop in one
department cannot easily be carried by their representatives to another department (constituency).
What proposals should the trade union make in order to ensure that there is communication between
the different committees? This is also an important consideration in ensuring that elected H&S Reps
are represented in a workplace forum in which reports from all the different health and safety

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committees are received and discussed, and in which workplace health and safety measures are
developed and reviewed and decisions taken.

2.2. Explain workshop and on-site safety rules, practices and personal protective equipment

Safety in the workshops is subject to a number of various risk assessments and safe codes of working
practices which have to be observed and adhered to by all workshop users and enforced by the person
in charge of these areas. Due to high risk activities taking place in the workshops access to these
areas is restricted to authorised personnel only. No other person may enter the workshops without
permission.

Workshop equipment and tools

 No machine may be used, or work undertaken unless the technician-in-charge is satisfied that the
person is capable of doing so safely. If equipment is fitted with guards, these must be used.
Equipment must never be used if the safety guards have been removed.

 Any person working in the mechanical and electronic workshop must have read and signed
the appropriate risk assessment if the work or equipment they are using has been risk
assessed.

 Service records of all machine tools, plant and equipment must be kept. They must list the
date of any service/repair and name of the person responsible for carrying out that
service/repair. Faults which cannot be repaired immediately should be reported to the
technician-in-charge and a note should be attached to the machine where it is clearly visible
indicating that the equipment is out of order.

 All Portable Electrical Equipment must be regularly inspected and tested for electrical safety.

 Ladders/stepladders should be individually identified and formal inspections carried out.

 No welding may be undertaken unless the technician-in-charge is satisfied that the person is
capable of doing so safely. During any welding operation the fume extraction system must be
used.

 When using woodworking machines the dust extractor and face masks must be used.

 Equipment must be cleaned after use. Any materials, tools or equipment used must be tidied
away.

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  Tools and equipment must not be removed from the workshop without permission from the
technician-in-charge.

Workshop practices and personal protective equipment

 Eating and drinking in the mechanical workshop areas are strictly prohibited.

 When working with machine tools or other equipment with rotating spindles, jewellery, loose
clothing etc. are prohibited and long hair must be completely covered.

 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is supplied and must be used where necessary. Barrier
cream, lab coats/overalls, eye and hearing protection, dust masks and safety shoes must be used as
the work/risk assessment dictates.

 Lab coats/overalls and safety boots must be worn by technicians operating the machines.

 The gangway through the workshop must be kept clear. Any oil spillage, grease etc. must be
cleaned up immediately.

A SYMBOLIC SAFETY SIGN CONSISTS OF:

• A geometric shape
• A colour
• A pictogram

An organised system of identifying industrial hazards with easily recognised safety signs has been
developed for South African conditions. (For further details see SABS specification No. 1186/1978).

THERE ARE FIVE DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF SIGNS, EASILY DISTINGUISH-ABLE

FROM ONE ANOTHER, AND EASILY IDENTIFIED.

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 CIRCULAR SIGNS WITH
TRIANGULAR SIGNS: OBLIQUE DIAGONAL
LINE:
Warn against certain
hazards in the environment Prohibit certain acts or
things.
SQUARE:
CIRCULAR DISKS:
Informatory sign for
Mandatory use of personal direction & location of first
protective equipment. aid and emergency exits,
etc.

SQUARE FRAME:

Informatory sign for

location of fire equipment.

THE FOLLOWING SAFETY SIGNS ARE COMMONLY USED IN THE MINING INDUSTRY
AND MUST BE RECOGNISED.

LOCATION OF FIRE
FIRE
FIGHTING
EXTINGUISHER
EQUIPMENT

LOCATION OF FIRE
FIRE HYDRANT
HOSE

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR ELECTRICIANS

Introduction
Electricity is dangerous and cannot be seen or heard. The victim of electric shock can suffer
permanent injuries or death by electrocution.

Most cases of electric shock can be attributed to ignorance, negligence and wilful disregard of safety
precautions. Every possible safety precaution must, therefore, be taken when working on electric
circuits or apparatus.

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Isolate and lock out
The most effective safety precaution is to ensure that the electricity supply is switched off before any
repairs are carried out on electrical apparatus or appliances.

Lock out the isolating switch with a padlock or other suitable locking device, and place a notice board
on the switch to inform people that somebody is working on the electric circuit. If the switch is fitted
with fuses, remove them as an extra precaution.

Work on live circuits

In cases where it is not possible to switch off the supply, insulated rubber gloves must be used.

Ensure that the gloves have the correct voltage rating and that they are in perfect condition (not worn
or perished).

Protection devices
It is imperative that electrical protection equipment, such as no-volt, overload and earth leakage
devices be kept in good working order to ensure the safety of personnel and equipment. No-volt
apparatus on a motor ensures that the motor will not start automatically after the electric supply was
interrupted.

Testing of electric appliances

Periodic tests must be carried out on all electrical appliances to ensure that they remain in safe
working condition.

Personal protective equipment (PPE)

Introduction

 Personal protective equipment (PPE) is not always the best safeguard against a particular
hazard. It is better to remove or minimise the danger by other means.
 If this fails, PPE is the last line of defence.
 It is important that the correct type of PPE be chosen for a particular hazard e.g. a dust
respirator is not suitable protection against noxious fumes.
 NB: It is very important that you know which isthe correct type of PPE for a particular
hazard, and the correct way of wearing it.

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  The rules and instructions regarding the wearing of PPE must be strictly obeyed. It is for your
own safety. Some hazards, like noise, can take a long time before the effects become
noticeable, but it can lead to permanent disabilities.

Hand protection
 Leather gloves must be worn when working with hot or sharp objects or when handling heavy
material.
 Rubber gloves must be worn when working with dangerous liquids such as acids, poison, etc.
These are not insulated gloves.
 Insulated gloves (of special rubber) are worn when working on live conductors, i.e. when it is not
possible to switch the power off, e.g. when working on live overhead lines.
 NB: Great care must be taken to ensure that they are of the correct voltage rating, clean,
dry and in perfect condition.

Foot protection
Safety shoes and boots, with steel caps where appropriate, must be worn to protect the feet and
metatarsal bones.

Eye and face protection

 Safety goggles must be worn when grinding, chiseling, drilling, chasing or using any machinery
that may cause particles to fly and endanger the eyes, e.g. turning, milling etc.
 Darkened safety goggles must be worn when using oxy-acetylene equipment.
 A welding helmet or shield must be worn when using an arc welder.
 A face shield should be worn when working with dangerous liquids such as acids.
Hearing protection

 earmuffs must be worn when noise of 85 db and louder occur in the work place. Noise-
induced deafness is a serious problem that often only manifest after a long time.

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  Protection is required against two types of noise:
 Continuous loud noise such as may occur in plants and factories.
 Intermittent very loud noise, such as blasting, shooting, hard banging as in a plater workshop.
Ear plugs and earmuffs are capable of reducing noise
Head protection
Hard hats must be worn in all mines, factories and plants, and on building sites or any other area
where there is a danger of falling objects or materials. Caps or hairnets to be worn by people with
long hair, working with moving machines such as grinders, pedestal drills, etc.

Protective clothing
 Where necessary and appropriate, suitable overalls should be worn in the workplace.
 Rubber aprons are used when working with dangerous liquids such as acids and other chemicals.
 Leather aprons must be worn when working with hot objects and when welding or cutting with a
gas torch.
 Spats and leggings are used to protect the legs.

Safety belts
 Safety belts must be used when working in high places such as on roofs, on poles and on
overhead lines.
 When working on overhead lines, the safety belt should be fastened to the pole and not over the
cross arm, in order to facilitate the removal of a person injured by electrical shock or in the event
of electrocution.

Protection against inhalation of hazardous substances

 Dust masks or mechanical filter respirators are used to filter out dust, and should be used when
working in dust laden atmospheres, or where dust is created during grinding, chasing etc.
 NOTE: These are not suitable for gases and fumes.
 Chemical cartridge gas masks must be used when working with substances giving of noxious
gases and fumes.
 A rescue pack, which is a form of canister respirator, is a compulsory item to be either carried by
every person going underground or to be immediately available to every person working
underground in a fiery mine.

2.3 Identify and describe environmental protection and pollution

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There are many health effects associated with welding and cutting operations, including fumes from
heating various metals, gases generated during the processes, gases used in the processes, and
contaminants released from paint coatings. All metals, electrodes, and gases used in welding and
cutting processes must be included in the department's

Hazard Communication Plan.

One common illness related to welding and cutting is Metal Fume Fever. Flu-like symptoms may be
experienced, such as coughing, fever, chills, chest pain, nausea, vomiting, and difficulty breathing.
Once the person has been removed from the exposure, recovery generally occurs without intervention
within 24 to 48 hours. Other adverse health effects associated with welding and cutting are specific to
the source, such as the metal involved, shielding gases used, coatings that may be present, or gases
generated during the process.
 Metals: Whenever metal is heated, fumes are released. Fumes are breathed in by the welder/cutter
and may result in acute or chronic adverse health effects.
 Gases Used: Common gases used in welding/cutting include acetylene, argon, carbon dioxide,
helium, hydrogen, and MAPP gas. These gases are either flammable or inert. Always consult the
Material Safety Data Sheet for the specific gases used.
 Coatings: Coatings, such as paint, on metal may contain a variety of contaminants, such as lead,
chromium, and zinc. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) should always be reviewed to identify
hazards and recommended controls prior to removal.
 Gases Generated: Welding and cutting processes generate a number of contaminants, such as
carbon monoxide, fluorides, nitrogren dioxide, and ozone that may adversely effect employee
health.

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2.4. Describe hazard identification and risk assessment principles

three types of risk assessments:

 Baseline risk assessments (Baseline HIRA)
 Issue based risk assessments (Issue based HIRA)
 Continues risk assessments (Continues HIRA)
Baseline risk assessments (Baseline HIRA)

Purpose of a baseline risk assessment

The purpose of conducting a baseline HIRA is to establish a risk profile or a set of risk profiles. It is
used to prioritise action programmes for issue-based risk assessments. It should be performed to
obtain a benchmark of the types and size of potential hazards, which could have a significant impact
on the whole organisation. They need to identify the major and significant risks, then prioritise these
risks and evaluate the effectiveness of current systems for risk control.

It must be emphasised that the baseline is an initial risk assessment that focuses on a broad overview
in order to determine the risk profile to be used in subsequent risk assessments. A baseline risk
assessment focuses on the identification of risk that applies to the whole organisation or project.

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This type of assessment could be performed on a site, region or even on a national basis concerning
any facet of the organisation operations or procedures. This assessment needs to be comprehensive
and may even lead to other and more in-depth studies.

The output of a baseline risk assessment

 it is a risk profile or set of risk profiles; and
 it is a clear description of the methodology, system, terminology etc. used in the scoping
exercise, and what may be required for the improvement of the baseline HIRA in the future.

Examples of baseline risk assessments

 Hygiene and Health Surveys (Noise, Lighting, Ventilation, Temperature Extremes)
 Environmental Impact and Aspect Registers
 Fire Risk Assessments

Issues based risk assessment (Issue based HIRA)

Purpose of an issue based risk assessment

The purpose of conducting an issue-based HIRA is to conduct a detailed assessment study that will
result in the development of action plans for the treatment of significant risk. This type of assessment
is normally focused on at operational activities, processes and systems based business functions. It
focuses the identification of the risks within a certain task, process or activity and is usually
associated with the management of change. Risk profiles from the baseline HIRA form the basis for
establishing issue-based
HIRA programmes.

The issue-based HIRA programme can be modified when necessary due to, for example:

The output of a an issue-based risk assessment

The output of an issue-based HIRA is clear recommendations to management for further action in
terms of Section 11(2) of the MHSA.

Examples of issues based risk assessments

 A new machine is introduced at the site
 A system of work or an operations is changed
 After an accident or a 'near-miss' has occurred

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 new designs, layouts, equipment, or processes, etc
 Task risk assessments
 findings that come to the fore during continuous HIRA
 requests from employees
 a change in the risk profile
 new knowledge and information becoming available on the level of risk to employees
 Process hazard analysis
 Environmental impact assessments
 Major hazardous installations risk assessments
 HAZOP (Hazard And Operability Study)

Continuous risk assessment (Continues HIRA)

Purpose of a continuous risk assessment

The purpose of conducting continuous HIRA is to:
 identify hazards with the purpose of immediately treating
 significant risks;
 gather information to feed back to issue-based HIRA; and
 gather information to feed back to baseline HIRA.

Output of a continuous risk assessment

A continuous risk assessment should be conducted on a continuous basis in the work environment. It
is a powerful and important form of assessment and should take place continually, as an integral part
of day to day management. In continuous HIRA, the emphasis is on day to day hazard awareness,
through HIRA, and immediate risk treatment. In developing hazard awareness, memory joggers such
as inspection checklists, pre-use checklists, and critical part and paths checklists, can be produced
from management controls that are a product of issue-based HIRA. Planned Task Observations could
also be conducted on an ongoing basis.

It is performed at an operational level, where the system, process and activities are monitored on a
continuous basis by the operational floor management and first line supervisors. It must not be
sophisticated and should mainly be conducted by first line supervisors. Formal training in this regard
is essential. The main emphasis is on “hazard awareness through hazard identification”.

Examples of continuous risk assessment

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Hazardous activities need to undergo this type of risk assessment prior to the conducting of the
activity and can include:
 Inspections
 Critical task observations
 OHS audits
 Work permits
 Toolbox talks
 Medical surveillance
 Occupational hygiene measurements
 Planned maintenance systems

HIRA methodology
There are no fixed rules about how the risk assessment should be under taken. The following steps
could be used as guidance.

Step 1: Initiating the HIRA and selecting the approach

Two principles should be taken in consideration before an assessment is carried out:
 Structure the assessment to ensure that all relevant hazards and risks are addressed. This
should be done to ensure that tasks like night security that might take place ‘‘out’’ of working
hours, is not overlooked.
 When a hazard is identified, the first option should always be to eliminate it first.

A number of approaches (and combinations thereof) to risk assessment can be adopted to perform the
HIRA. The approaches to risk assessment at work which are used are normally based upon:
 Observation of the workplace environment (e.g. means of access, conditions of floors; machinery
safety; dust and fumes, temperature, lighting; noise; etc.)
 Identification of tasks carried out at the workplace (to identify all tasks so that they are all
included in risk assessment).
 Consideration of tasks carried out at the workplace (evaluation of risks from the different tasks).
 Observation of work in progress (check that procedures are as laid down or predicted, and that
there are no other risks arising).
 Consideration of patterns of work (to access exposure to hazards).
 Consideration of external factors that could affect the workplace (e.g. weather consideration for
outdoor workers).
 Review of psychological, social and physical factors which might contribute to stress at work,
how they interact together and with other factors in the workplace organization and environment.

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 Consideration of organization to maintain conditions, including safeguards (e.g. that systems are
in place to assess risks from new plant, materials and so on to update information on risks).

After the selection of the desired HIRA approach, the following information should be completed by
the above-mentioned assessor(s).

 Date: Insert date that assessment form is completed. The assessment must be valid on that
day, and subsequent days, unless circumstances change and amendments are necessary.
 Assessed by: Insert the name, designation and signature of the assessor or in the case of a team
the names, designations and signatures of all the team members.

 Checked by: Insert the name and signature of someone in a position to check that the assessment
has been carried out by a competent person who can identify hazards and assess risk, and that the
control measures are reasonable and in place. The checker will normally be a line manager,
supervisor, principal investigator, etc. Checking will be appropriate for most risk assessments.

 Validated by: Use this for higher risk scenarios, e.g.- where complex calculations have to be
validated by another “independent” person who is competent to do so, or where the control
measure is a strict permit-to-work procedure requiring thorough preparation of a workplace.
The validator should also be a competent engineer or professional with expertise in the task
being considered. Examples of where validation is required include designs for pressure
vessels, load-bearing equipment, lifting equipment carrying personnel or items over populated
areas, and similar situations.

 Location: Insert details of the exact location, e.g. building, floor, room or laboratory etc.

 Task / premises: Insert a brief summary of the task, e.g. typical office activities such as
filing, DSE work, lifting and moving small objects, use of misc electrical equipment. Or,
research project [title] involving the use of typical laboratory hardware, including fume
cupboards, hot plates, ovens, analysis equipment, flammable solvents, etc.

 Activity: use the column to describe each separate activity covered by the assessment. The
number of rows is unlimited, although how many are used for one assessment will depend on
how the task / premises is sub-divided. For laboratory work, activities in one particular lab
or for one particular project might include; use of gas cylinders, use of fume cupboard, use of
computer or other electrical equipment, use of lab ovens, hot plates or heaters, use of
substances hazardous to health, etc

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  Hazard: for each activity, list the hazards.

Step 2: Identify the hazards

The importance of this element cannot be over emphasised. It is by far the most important element of
the risk assessment process and should be performed in a systematic manner.

Gathering and analysis of information before the assessment

The gathering and analysis of information is an essential task before the risk assessment can start.
This would normally be conducted by the safety practitioner or person responsible for health and
safety and it is one of his more important duties.
The person should access the databases on the business to assess the types and major underlying
causes of past accidents and incidents. It is advisable to also review accident reports and
investigations together with other records such as those maintained by engineering staff, log books
and audit reports.
Externally, he or she may be able to gather information from government and industry organisations
or from publications and databases.

During the physical assessment or after the assessment

The adoption of some systematic way of allowing relevant persons to ‘'see'’ or ‘‘spot’’ the hazards
present in the workplace. If the hazard identification is not carried out carefully, the subsequent
analysis of risk and the development of risk control measures become pointless. The identification of
hazards is not only an essential part of the risk assessment process, but also acts very effectively to
change the way people think, causing them to act more safely and so become more proactive in
hazard awareness. When you work in a place every day it is easy to overlook some hazards. There are
many techniques and tools that can be used as part of the hazard identification process, here are some
tips to help you identify the ones that matter:

 Observation - walk around your workplace and look at what could reasonably be expected to
cause harm.
 Communication - ask your employees what they think. They may have noticed things that are
not immediately obvious to you.
 Information - check ‘‘manufacturers’’ instructions or MSDS for chemicals and equipment as
they can be very helpful in spelling out the hazards and putting them in their true perspective.
 Records - Have a look at your incident and sickness records – these often help to identify the
less obvious hazards.

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  Visit relevant Websites to gain information. Increasingly, the internet is a valuable means of
gathering international data. All this data needs to be assimilated and converted into a useful
format to prepare the team who undertakes risk assessment.
 Calling legal your labour inspector at the labour centre.
 Consultation with the workplace health and safety committee and representatives.
 Brainstorm ideas and group under appropriate risk headings. Consider the effects on people
(staff, students and other people), information, physical assets and finances, reputation. Write
the final list onto the table (risk assessment summary).
 Data from health surveillance programme.
 Consulting with subject matter experts or consultants.
 SABS codes and standards.
 Minimum standard legislation.
 Analyse specific scenarios, this is mostly a preventative method used for the identification of
hazards and is performed by stating or picturing certain possibilities or scenarios and then
breaking it down, examining and studying the possibly outcome of the event or activity.
Remember to think about long-term hazards to health (e.g. high levels of noise or exposure to harmful
substances) as well as safety hazards.

Step 3: Identify all parties affected by the hazard and determine how they can be
affected
Next you need to identify who might be harmed; it will help you identify the best way of managing
the risk. That doesn’t mean listing everyone by name, but rather identifying groups of people (e.g.
people working in the storeroom or kitchen). In each case, identify how they might be harmed, e.g.
what type of injury or ill health might occur.

Pay particular attention to vulnerable people.

Remember:
 Some workers might be more vulnerable like new and young workers, new or expectant mothers
and people with disabilities, lone workers.
 Cleaners, visitors, contractors, maintenance workers etc, who may not be in the workplace all the
time.
 Members of the public, if they could be hurt by your activities.
 If you share your workplace, you will need to think about how your work affects others present.
 As well as how their work affects your staff – talk to them; and ask your staff if they can think of
anyone you may have missed.

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Identify groups or people who may be affected.

Examples of people at risk

Employees Cleaners
Temporary workers Security personal
Shift workers Children
Contactors Volunteers
Visitors Students
Customers Tenants
Members of the public Relief workers

Examples of vulnerable people:

New or expectant mothers Lone workers
Employees, customers or visitors with Students
disabilities
Young people Non-English speakers

Inexperienced workers

If the risk assessment is job-specific, use the individual's job title, not their name.

Step 4: Evaluate or assess the risk

Having identified the hazards, you then have to decide what to do about them. Legislation requires
you to do everything ‘‘reasonably practicable’’ to protect people from harm.

Risk rating
One of the most simplistic forms of risk assessment is to rate the remaining risk as high, medium or
low, depending on how likely the activity is to cause harm and how serious that harm might be. This
is called ‘‘Risk rating’’.

Level of risk
1. Low risk items
Need to be considered, but there is a smaller chance that they will cause the entire project to go off the
rails. It is most unlikely that harm would arise under the controlled conditions listed, and even if
exposure occurred, the injury would be relatively slight.
2. Medium risk items

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These types of risks are ones that could cause issues, but that there is still a lower chance that they
will cause your project to fail. It is more likely that harm might actually occur and the outcome could
be more serious (e.g. some time off work, or a minor physical injury).

3. High risk items

These are the risks that take the highest priority. They can cause your project to fail, and you need to
plan for these risks ahead of time. If injury is likely to arise (e.g. there have been previous incidents,
the situation looks like an accident waiting to happen) and that injury might be serious (broken bones,
trip to the hospital, loss of consciousness), or even a fatality.

Risk ranking matrix

In order to do a ‘‘risk rating’’, we normally make use of a matrix scoring system. Numerical scores
are given to the different elements (e.g. consequence, exposure, likelihood) of risks and these scores
are added or multiplied to get a rating for the risk.

Example: Electricity is a hazard, it can kill but the risk of it doing so in an office environment is low
providing the components are insulated, the metal casing is properly earthed and appliances are used
correctly and tested regularly.

Elements of risk
1. Consequence/ severity (How serious)
Consequences are the expected severity. The severity is expressed in terms of the effect on the person,
whether injury or ill health, and ranging from minor injury to death.
Think about how serious the likely outcomes would be if harm from a hazard was realized. The risks
are clearly higher if an accident is likely to result in serious injury or death, for example, than a bruise
or a scratch.
2. Probability/ Likelihood (How likely)
By evaluating the risks associated with each hazard you have identified, you're deciding how likely it
is that harm will occur from the hazard. The likelihood is the probability of loss when a sub-standard
act occurs, or sub-standard condition exists.

The likelihood should be based on the worst-case scenario, ranging from a remote possibility to the
inevitable. Factors affecting the likelihood include:

 Number of times the situation occurs

 Location of the hazard
 Duration of the exposure

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  Environmental conditions
 Competence of the people involved and
 The condition of equipment
3. Frequency (How often)
How often is the activity involving the hazard taking place? How many people come into contact with
it? Risks are higher when frequency of contact is higher.

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

 Describe and explain general safe work practices correctly
 Describe the inter-relationship between workplace safety and a productive work environment
through responses to questions

 Describe Safety signs in terms of associated risk and safe conduct

 Describe Environmental regulations concerning disposal of hazardous wastes

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SECTION 3: KM-01-KT03: Engineering drawings

Learning Outcome
At the end of this section, learners should cover:
KT0301 Freehand drawing
KT0302 Code of practice for engineering drawing (symbols and abbreviations) KT0303 Drawing
instruments and equipment
KT0304 Dimensioning Methods
KT0305 Isometric Drawings
KT0306 Assembly and detailed drawings

3. 1 The purpose of engineering drawings

It is essential that all concepts, as mentioned before, require a drawing in order to be manufactured. It
requires someone with the ability and skill to draw the component correctly and accurately so that the
drawing that is passed onto the manufacturer, who is the next person in the production cycle, can
interpret it correctly. The material for the fabrication of a component must be specified on the
drawing so that the correct material can be selected. The component then has to be produced
according to the specification that has been interpreted by the person reading the drawing.

Information block
On each drawing there will always be an information block on the bottom right hand side. This
information block gives you the necessary specifications for the component to be fabricated.

In the top right-hand side of the block is the most important information which tells you what the
material specification is. Before anything can be done this must be correct. The person reading the
drawing has to draw this material from the store. All material is marked on one end and any piece
that is cut off will be from the other end. Every piece of material has a standard code which is
specified on the drawing in the information block. Another very important piece of information is in
the top left-hand side of the information block which tells you that “IF IN DOUBT – ASK”.

Go into the workplace and find out what the most important and frequently used abbreviations,
symbols and codes are that are used in a drawing that concerns your type of job. Make a note of what
items you often use and write down their codes. Come back to class and discuss and compare your
findings with the rest of the members of your class.

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Read an engineering drawing

 Engineering drawings are the graphical language of engineering and are used in a
standard form throughout the country as prescribed by the S.A.B.S.
 Drawings simplify the manufacturing process, provided that the person who does the
work understands the drawing.
 In the Mining Industry drawings are used for both manufacturing of objects and
ordering replacement parts of machinery.
 It is thus essential that you should know and be able to recognise the different types
and thickness of lines, as well as the symbols and abbreviations that are commonly
used.
 This module will deal with all the basic elements of engineering drawings which will
enable you to deal with any standard engineering drawing that a
Plater/Welder may have to use to manufacture parts or structures.

(a) Name of the job:

(b) Head Drive Pulley and Shaft for No. 1 Conveyor.
(c) Scale of the drawing:
(d) The drawing is not to scale (NTS), i.e., The drawing was not drawn to scale and
therefore no dimensions can be measured on the drawing. All the relevant dimensions
will be shown on the drawing.

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 (c) Name of the company: The drawing was drawn for the Chamber of Mines.

(e) Date drawn:

(f) 1st April 1980.

Understanding the manner in which a drawing is represented

Techniques of drawing (pictorial)
Key word / definition
A pictorial drawing is a way of giving a good idea of what the object looks like in just one view.
There are two main techniques used to construct a drawing in picture form, namely the oblique and
isometric methods.

Oblique drawing
This is the simplest method of constructing a pictorial drawing, but not the best way as the drawing is
made to look shorter and one loses much of the detail. The drawing of lines in an oblique drawing are
vertical, horizontal and at 30, 45 or 60º

Isometric drawing
This method is used by engineers and draughtsmen the most. It is quick and simple and gives a
picture that is quite in proportion. Insert picture of an isometric drawing of a cube, rectangular block
and a hexagonal prism
A cube, rectangular, hexagonal prism

Techniques of drawing (orthographic)

Key word / definition

Orthographic projection is a way of drawing an object from different directions. This technique is
used all over the world for the production of working drawings. It is the only possible way of
showing the true shape of a three-dimensional drawing of a solid on a two-dimensional flat sheet of
paper.

Orthographic drawing (1st angle projection)

A few rules need to be learnt to make the reading of an orthographic drawing quite simple.
These are:
• the elevation (front view)
• the plan view (from the top)
• the end view (from either end)

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Orthographic drawing (3rd angle projection)

The only difference between the 1st angle projection and the 3rd angle projection is the position of the
plan, front and side views.

1.2 Explain and define concepts of basic geometry and unit of measurement

What Is Geometry?
Geometry, along with arithmetic, is one of the oldest branches of mathematics. Geometric concepts
have been found within some of the earliest Egyptian and Babylonian civilizations, among others.
Individuals such as Euclid, Pythagoras, Archimedes, and Plato did a lot of work to formalize and
conceptualize the field of geometry. Although much can be said about geometry

No Dimensions
The most basic of all geometric terms is the point. A point is a place in space that has no length or
dimension. It is represented using a dot, but this is only so that it is visible for our mathematical
purposes. Although it does not have size, it does have position, and that position can be given using
an ordered pair such as (x,y).

One Dimension
If we take a step into 1-dimensional geometry, our first concept is a line, the set of all points that fall
along a straight path. A line will continue along a straight path in both directions without end. Related
to the line are the line segment and the ray. A line segment is the collection of points that lie between
two specific endpoints. A ray has a starting point and then continues into infinity in one direction.
These lines, segments, and rays intersect each other to form parallel and perpendicular lines and
angles. Measurement is a very common function in geometry. Since we have only one dimension at
this point, you can only measure one aspect: length. Length is measured in single units such as miles,
feet, inches, centimeters, etc. If we notice that a train is 300 meters long, we are noting a measure of
length.

To bisect a line
To bisect a line means to cut it exactly into two parts at 90 using a ruler and a compass. Insert a line
that has been bisected. Mark it as described in the method below.

Bisected line
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Method of bisecting a line:
• Mark off a given line AB
• From point A and point B, with a radius of more than half of AB, draw two intersecting arcs
above and below line AB
• Join the points of intersection to bisect line AB at point C

Activity
Draw line BC = 95 mm lying at 4 different angles and bisect each one. Select the correct instruments
from Fig 1l to do this activity.

To bisect an angle
To bisect an angle means to cut the angle exactly in half using a ruler and a compass. Insert drawings
to illustrate the bisecting of a right angle, acute angle and an obtuse angle. Only show the bisecting in
its final form with all the markings. Mark them all as described in the method below.

Method of bisecting an angle:

• Mark off any angle EFG
• With point F as the central point and any convenient radius, Draw arc H I which cuts both
lines of the angle. Mark one H and the other I.
• With point H and I being the central points and with the same radius, draw two intersecting
arcs.
• With point F as the central point, draw a line through the two intersecting arcs to bisect the
angle

Activity 1o
Draw one of each of the angles shown above, facing them in different directions from the
example, and bisect each one showing all your markings. Select the correct instruments with which to
bisect these angles.

The Circle
A circle is drawn with a compass. The measurement from the central point to the edge of the circle is
called the radius. The measurement from one edge of the circle through the central point to the other
edge is called the diameter of the circle.

Insert a circle indicating the diameter with the symbol and measurement.

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Symbol for diameter = Insert the symbol for diameter
The diameter = twice the radius
The radius = half of the diameter

Method of drawing a circle

• Set your compass on the measurement of the radius of the circle above. If you only have the
measurement of a diameter, take half for the radius
• Place the point of your compass firmly into the paper and draw your circle.

Draw 3 different circles with diameters of 20mm, 45mm and 68mm. Draw in the diameter with the
symbol and measurement for each drawing as above. Select the correct instruments with which to do
this drawing.

Perpendicular
A perpendicular is one line drawn at 90 to another line. It is similar to bisecting a line except that a
perpendicular can be drawn anywhere on the line, not exactly in the middle and it does not cross
through the line like with the bisecting.

Insert drawings of a base line with a perpendicular line dropped onto it, but not in the middle. Use the
lettering as below.

1st Method of drawing a perpendicular from a point on a straight line

• Mark off line NO and select point P on this line
• With point P as centre and any radius PQ, draw arc QS
• With point Q as your central point and with the same radius mark off point R along arc QS
• With point R as your central point and with the same radius, accurately mark off point S
• With R and S as central points and the same radius, draw two intersecting arcs at point T and
then join P to T

2nd Method of drawing a perpendicular from a point on a straight line

• Draw line NO and select point P on this line
• Use a ruler and place it along the line
• Place a set square on the ruler and slide it towards point P.
• Draw a vertical line onto point P and mark it point TP

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1.3 Use scale of drawings.
Measurement
Measurement of length
In the metric system the basic unit of measurement is the metre, however this is too large for
engineering drawings so the millimetre is used.
1 metre = 1 000 mm
To indicate just millimetres on a ruler would not be practical so they are marked off in centimetres
with lines in between indicating a millimetre each.

When one is asked not to scale a drawing it means that one must not try and measure the lines of the
drawing with a ruler. The original drawing will not be the exact size needed in the actual
manufacturing of the component. It is just a sketch indicating what the component should look like
and indicating the correct measurements.

Measurement of angles
Angles are measured with a protractor that is marked off in degrees. It is marked in such a way that
the number of degrees can be read from right to left or from left to right. On both sides of the base
line you will find a 0 (naught).

Have a second picture without the protractor to show the lines that have been drawn to indicate the
angles. Indicate by means of arrows from which direction the angles are read

Symbols and abbreviations

The table below contains a list of symbols and abbreviations used on engineering drawings. Where
possible, illustrations are shown. The most commonly used ones, which you should remember, have
been marked with an asterisk (*).

TERM SYMBOL ILLUSTRATION

(Abbreviation)

(*)ACROSS FLATS AF

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ASSEMBLY ASSY

BRITISH STANDARD BS

CL
(*)CENTRE LINES OR CL

(*)CENTRES CRS

(*)CHAMFER CHAM
(The figure next to the
abbreviation indicates the
length of chamfer parallel to
the centre line and the
degrees indicate the angle to
cut the chamfer)

TERM SYMBOL ILLUSTRATION

(Abbreviation)

(*)CHEESE HEAD CH HD

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 CONCENTRIC CONC

(*)COUNTERSUNK CSK

(*)COUNTERSUNK CSK HD
HEAD

(*)COUNTERBORE CBORE

CYLINDER OR CYL
CYLINDRICAL
e.g. 15°
DATUM SYSTEM DATUM

(*)DEGREE °

(*)DEGREE CELSIUS °C

(*)DIAMETER Ø
(Preceding a dimension) DIA

(*)DRAWING DRG

(This abbreviation normally

appears in the right hand
corner of the drawing)

EQUAL = or EQ

EQUALLY SPACED EQUI SP

FIGURE FIG.

GALVANIZED GALV

HARDNESS HR

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 TERM SYMBOL ILLUSTRATION
(Abbreviation)

HARDNESS-
ROCKWELL
A SCALE HRA
B SCALE HRB
C SCALE HRC
D SCALE HRD
E SCALE HRE

VICKERS HV

(*)HEXAGON HEX

(*)HEXAGON HEAD HEX HD

(*)HYDRAULIC HYD

INCLUDED INC

INSULATED or INSUL
INSULATION

(*)INTERNAL DIAMETER ID

(*)INTERNATIONAL
STANDARDS ISO
ORGANISATION

(*)LEFT-HAND LH

LONG LG

(*)MACHINE MC

MACHINED MCD

MATERIAL MATL

MAXIMUM MAX

MAXIMUM MATERIAL MMC

CONDITION

TERM SYMBOL ILLUSTRATION

(Abbreviation)

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 MINIMUM MIN.

(*)MINUTE (of ANGLE) ...’ e.g. 20’ (20 minutes of angle)

MODULE MOD

(*)METRIC THREAD M
The value next to the M
indicates the normal diameter
of the thread multiplied by the
pitch of the thread

(*)NOMINAL NOM
(*)NOT TO SCALE NTS
(*)NUMBER No.
(*)OUTSIDE DIAMETER OD
(*)PARALLEL PAR
PATTERN NUMBER PATT No.
PERPENDICULAR PERP

(*)PITCH CIRCLE PCD

DIAMETER

(*)PLATE PL
(*)PNEUMATIC PNEU

(*)RADIUS R

TERM SYMBOL ILLUSTRATION

(Abbreviation)

REQUIRED REQD
(*)REVOLUTIONS PER r/min or r.p.m.

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 MINUTE

(*)RIGHT-HAND RH
(*)ROUND HEAD RD HD
RADIAN rad
(*)SCREWED SCR
SECOND e.g. 3” (30 seconds of angle)
OF ANGLE ...”

SHEET SHT

SHEET (WHEN PRECEDING SH

THE NAME OF A
MATERIAL)

SKETCH SK

SLOPE

(*)SOUTH AFRICAN
BUREAU OF STANDARDS
SABS
(*)SPECIFICATION

SPHERICAL
SPEC

SPH

(*)SPOTFACE SFACE

(*)SQUARE SQ or 

90 SQ

TERM SYMBOL ILLUSTRATION

(Abbreviation)

(*)SYSTEME
INTERNATIONAL SI
STANDARD

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 STD

(*)TAPER, ON DIAMETER
OR WIDTH

(The direction of the symbol

will indicate the direction of
the taper)

(*)TOLERANCE TOL

TYPICAL TYP
(*)UNDERCUT
UCUT
(*)VOLUME
VOL

1.4 Identify line types and the appropriate uses

Techniques of drawing (line types)

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You would have noticed, when looking at the objects in the three different views, that different types
of lines were used. These lines are essential (absolutely necessary) as they all mean something
different and therefore help you to read a drawing.

A numbered table indicating the following line types: Continuous thick, continuous thin, dashed
thick, dashed thin, with their description and application.

Application of lines

Go into the workplace and find out what the most important and frequently used abbreviations,
symbols and codes are that are used in a drawing that concerns your type of job. Make a note of what
items you often use and write down their codes. Come back to class and discuss and compare your
findings with the rest of the members of your class.

Lines used in engineering drawing

The table below illustrates the type of lines, their description and their general application in a
drawing.

TYPE OF LINE DESCRIPTION GENERAL APPLICATIONS

1. Continuous (thick)  Visible outlines

 Visible edges

2. Continuous (thin)  Dimension lines

 Projection lines

 Leading lines, etc.

3. Continuous (thin)  Long break line

(straight) with
zigzags

4. Dashed thin  Hidden outlines

 Hidden edges

5. Chain thin and thick  To show sections through cutting planes

at ends (section as through “XX”
lines)

6. Chain thin  Centre lines

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  Lines of symmetry

 Trajectories

7. Continuous wavy  Irregular boundary lines

(thick)
 Short break lines

Write in the names and applications of the different lines shown below.

1. _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________

3. _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________

4. _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________

5. _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________

6. _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________

7. _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________

Sections through materials

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 THERMAL
INSULATION

GLASS

WOOD

CONCRETE

LIQUIDS

BRICKWORK
FACE BRICK ORDINARY BRICK

1.5 Identify and describe projections such as first and third angle orthographic
Isometric drawings and elevations

Isometric drawing
This method is used by engineers and draughtsmen the most. It is quick and simple and gives a
picture that is quite in proportion. Orthographic projection is a way of drawing an object from
different directions. This technique is used all over the world for the production of working drawings.
It is the only possible way of showing the true shape of a three-dimensional drawing of a solid on a
two-dimensional flat sheet of paper. Engineering drawings are usually shown as isometric drawings
or as front elevations, side elevations and plans. These drawings are used throughout this course. an
isometric drawing of an object. Note that you can see 3 sides of the object.

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Three sides are shown

• front elevation, side elevation and plan of the same object.

Isometric drawings and elevations of material profiles

isometric drawings of material profiles commonly used in the manufacture of steel structures and
objects. Note the front elevations, because the symbols for the various profiles are based on these
front elevations.

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Name the different profiles shown below.

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Producing Orthographic and working drawings

Orthographic projection
The reason why you need to know how to draw and “read” orthographic projections (“flat form”) is to
help you see (visualize) the object in its 3 dimensional shape in your mind’s eye. To be able to do
this is essential of all drawings so that when the objects are manufactured the end result is exactly the
same as intended.

1st angle projection

When inserting pictures/drawings in this chapter use an appropriate variety of plate, pipe and
structural steel objects and label them accordingly.

Produce drawings using triangulation

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The radial line and parallel line method of development is quicker, but triangulation is more practical
for many types of figures although it is slower and more difficult. In triangulation the piece is divided
into a series of triangles as with the radial line method except that there is not just one apex.

Go to your place of work and ask your supervisor for an example of an object that had to be
developed by triangulation. Draw a top view and a side view of it and do the development. Practice
this as often as you can with more samples from your place of work.

1.6 Identify and describe dimensioning.

Lettering and dimensioning

How to letter and figure a drawing
Poor lettering and figuring can spoil a good drawing. It can also convey the incorrect information if it
is illegible to the person reading the drawing. You should get as much practice as possible. An HB, F
or H pencil must be used when drawing. For the lead of the pencil to wear down evenly you must
turn the pencil quite often.
Lettering and figuring should be done freehand between two very light guide lines, which you can
hardly see. All lettering must be written in Capital letters.
Materials needed for these activities are a ruler, a T-square and the correct pencil as mentioned above.

Dimension lines are the lines that show the exact measurement of each line in the drawing
As with lettering and figuring, poor dimensioning can also spoil a good drawing. Dimension lines
should not be placed too close to the outline of the drawing. Arrowheads should be long and thin and
the point must touch the projection line. Dimensions must be placed so that they can be read from the
bottom or from the right hand side of the drawing. The size as well as the shape of the component
must be made known to the craftsman before he can make the component. Therefore all sizes must be
shown on the drawing.

Activity
Draw very light guidelines that are 5 mm apart. Copy the first and second lines of letters as
illustrated below:
AEFHIKLMNTVWXYZ BCDGJOPQRSU

Activity
Draw very light guidelines that are 5 mm apart. Copy the sentence below.
THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPED OVER THE LAZY DOG

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 Produce Accurate drawings to indicate instruments are used correctly
 Draw First and third angle orthographic projections
 Draw Isometric drawings

 Demonstrate Freehand drawings accurate resemblance to original object in terms of dimensions,

shape and size
 Describe Assemblies, sectional drawings and detailed drawings

SECTION 4: KM-01-KT04: Engineering materials

Learning Outcome
At the end of this section, learners should cover:
 KT0401 Basic metallurgy and heat concepts
 KT0402 Properties of base metals, alloys and synthetic materials
 KT0403 Non-ferrous metals and ferrous materials
 KT0404 Metal specifications and testing

4.1 Define and describe terms and definitions of trade related materials

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1.1 When working in the mining industry, you will have to manufacture structures made from
different types of steel and materials.
1.2 To be able to select the material for a job, you must be able to identify the various materials
used.
1.3 There are various methods used to identify materials and metals. One of the following
methods is usually used:
• By looking at the appearance
• By doing the spark test
• By the manufacturer’s stamp
• By a colour code painted on the material

2. What you should do

1.1 Samples of material specimens are available from your Training Officer.
1.2 Collect them and grind them on a grinding wheel.
1.3 Compare your findings with the illustrations on the identification charts given on the following
pages.

Metal test Low carbon steel Medium carbon High carbon steel High sulphur steel
steel

Appearance

Dark grey Dark Grey Dark grey Dark grey

Magnetic
Strongly magnetic Strongly magnetic Strongly magnetic Strongly magnetic

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Chisel
Continuous chip, Continuous chip, Hard to chip, be Continuous chip,
smooth edges, smooth edges, continuous smooth edges,
chips easily chips easily chips easily

Fracture
Bright grey Very light grey Very light grey Bright grey, fine
grey

Flame Melts fast, becomes Melts fast, Melts fast, Melts fast,
bright red before becomes bright becomes bright red becomes bright
melting red before melting before melting red before melting

Metal test Manganese steel Stainless steel Cast iron Wrought iron

Appearance
Dull cast surface Bright, silvery Dull grey, Light grey,
smooth evidence of sand smooth
mould

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 Magnetic Non-magnetic Depends on exact Strongly magnetic Strongly magnetic
analysis

Chisel Extremely hard to Continuous chip, Small chips about Continuous chip,
chisel smooth, bright 3mm, not easy to smooth edges,
colour chip, brittle soft. Easily cut
and chipped

Fracture Course grained Depends on type, Brittle Bright grey

bright fibrous
appearance

Flame Melts fast, Melts fast, Melts slowly, Melts fast,

becomes bright becomes bright becomes dull red becomes bright
red before melting red before melting before melting red before melting

ITEM / TASK DESCRIPTION

Checking material 1.1 Hold each piece of metal in turn against a clean grinding
wheel and note the colour, shape and other
characteristics of the sparks produced.

1.2 You will observe that pure iron does not oxidise as readily

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 as combinations of iron and carbon.

1.3 The higher the carbon content, the more explosions take place.

1.4 With alloy steels such as high speed steel, peculiar spark
conditions are produced because of the influence of special
alloying elements in these steels

1.5 Ask your Training Officer to show you the sparks from
different materials.

1.6 Tables 1 and 2 can be used as an aid to identify materials.

Materialscharacteristics and usage 4.1 Mild steel (MS) plate (see display board)

 This is the type of material mainly used on mines.

 It can be cut with oxy-acetylene equipment and it can be

welded.

4.2 Stainless steel plate

 This material cannot be cut with oxy-acetylene cutting

equipment unless a special process is used.

 It can only be welded with stainless steel electrodes or by using

a special process.

 It can be resistance welded (spot or seam welded)

 In most cases this material is rust resistant.

4.3 Aluminium plate

 This material cannot be cut with oxy-acetylene cutting

equipment unless a special process is used.

 It can only be welded with aluminium electrodes and a special

welding process.

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  Aluminium should never be ground because the particles of the
aluminium enter in between the abrasive particles causing the
wheel to become loaded, which may cause the wheel to “burst”.

• This material does not rust.

• It cannot be resistance welded.

Benox plate

 This is a hard material that does not wear off easily and is thus used for liner plates.
 The colour code for Benox is green.

Galvanised plate or pipe

Basically, these material profiles consist of mild steel that has been put through a process in which a
layer of zinc and tin is put over the mild steel to prevent it from rusting.
 It can be cut by means of an oxy-acetylene process. The layer of tin and zinc must be removed
before cutting.
 It can also be welded if the layer of tin and zinc is removed.

Pipes

• There are various types of pipes used in mines. The common ones are named below and are
displayed on the material display board.

- Black pipes
- Steam pipes
- Boiler pipes
- Cast iron pipes
- Stainless steel pipes
- Aluminium pipes
- High pressure pipes

• Pipes with thick walls are high-pressure pipes.

• They are normally painted red or are stamped to indicate that they are high-pressure pipes.

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Raw materials
Standard raw materials used by metal fabricators are;
 plate metal

 formed and expanded metal

o tube stock, CDSM

o square stock

o sectional metals (beams, W beams, C-channel}

 welding wire/welding rod

 hardware

 castings

 fittings

Materials used in engineering fabrication include:

 Metals, alloys and non-metals (stainless-types, aluminium, mild steel, copper, bronze, brass,
galvanized or coated).
 Rolled steel sections (RSJ, channel, angle, I and H-beam, etc.).
 Solid and hollow profiles (T-bar, Z-bar, square, round, rectangular-bar/tubing, etc.).
 Types of metal sheet and plate (Flat, chequer, etc.).

Physical properties and related tests must include:

 Yield stress.
 Proof stress.
 Ultimate tensile stress.
 Elongation.
 Impact strength.
 Toughness.
 Fatigue strength.
 Wear resistance.
 Heat resistance.
 Hardness.

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 Bend.

Materials used in engineering fabrication include:

 Metals, alloys and non-metals (Stainless-types, aluminium, mild steel, copper, bronze, brass,
galvanize or coated).
 Rolled steel sections (RSJ, channel, angle, I and H-beam, etc.).
 Solid and hollow profiles (T-bar, Z-bar, square, round, rectangular-bar/tubing etc.).
 Types of metal sheet and plate (Flat, chequer, etc.).

External and environmental matter must include:

 Oxidation, acid attack, galvanic action, heat, capacity for corrosion.
 Factors which promote external and environmental effects.
 Preventative measures.

Common metal tests must include:

 Tensile.
 Hardness.
 Shear.
 Impact.
 Spark.
 Bend tests.

Common metal tests must include:

 Tensile.
 Hardness.
 Shear.
 Impact.
 Spark.
 Bend tests.

Steel sections and profiles used in fabrication and welding must include:
 Metals, alloys and non-metals (Stainless-types, aluminium, mild steel, copper, bronze, brass,
galvanized or coated).
 Rolled steel sections (RSJ, channel, angle, I and H-beam, etc.).
 Solid and hollow profiles (T-bar, Z-bar, square, round, rectangular-bar/tubing, etc.).

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 Types of metal sheet and plate (Flat, checker, etc.).

Symbols must include:

 Holes.
 Rivets.
 Bolts (HSFG on-site and off-site) include: Not countersunk (c/sunk), c/sunk near side, c/sunk far-
side.

Differences must include:

 Differences between equal-leg and unequal-leg angle.
 Sketches of different types of rail section and checkered plate.

Information must include:

 Back-marks.
 Gauges.
 Drill sizes.
 Drill-pitch.
 Height and breadth.

Structural steel is a category of steel used as a construction material for making structural steel
shapes. A structural steel shape is a profile, formed with a specific cross section and following
certain standards for chemical composition and mechanical properties. Structural steel shapes, sizes,
composition, strengths, storage practices, etc., are regulated by standards in most industrialized
countries. Structural steel members, such as I-beams, have high second moments of area, which allow
them to be very stiff in respect to their cross-sectional area.

Various structural steel shapes

4.2. Define and describe the physical properties and characteristics of ferrous and non-ferrous
materials

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Metals
All metals can be classified as either Ferrous or Non-ferrous.
Ferrous
These are metals which contain iron. They may have small amounts of other metals or other elements
added, to give the required properties.

All ferrous metals are magnetic and give little resistance to corrosion

Non-Ferrous Metals
These are metals which do not contain any iron. They are not magnetic and are usually more resistant
to corrosion than ferrous metals.

Examples are aluminium, copper, lead. zinc and tin.

Pure Metals

A pure metal only consists of a single element. This means that it only has one type of atom in it.

The common pure metals are: -aluminium, copper, iron, lead, zinc, tin, silver and gold.

Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. When a material is needed which requires certain
properties and this does not exist in a pure metal we combine metals. Pure white aluminium is very
soft and ductile. Other elements can be added to create an aluminium alloy. This can produce a metal
which is stronger than Mild Steel has improved hardness and is resistant to corrosion while still
remaining light in weight.

Mechanical Properties of Metals

Often materials are subject to forces (loads) when they are used. Mechanical engineers calculate those
forces and material scientists how materials deform (elongate, compress, twist) or break as a function
of applied load, time, temperature, and other conditions. Materials scientists learn about these
mechanical properties by testing materials. Results from the tests depend on the size and shape of
material to be tested (specimen), how it is held, and the way of performing the test. That is why we
use common procedures, or standards, which are published by the ASTM.

Concepts of Stress and Strain

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To compare specimens of different sizes, the load is calculated per unit area, also called normalization
to the area. Force divided by area is called stress. In tension and compression tests, the relevant area is
that perpendicular to the force. In shear or torsion tests, the area is perpendicular to the axis of
rotation.
s = F/A0 tensile or compressive stress
t = F/A0 shear stress
The unit is the Megapascal = 106 Newtons/m2.
There is a change in dimensions, or deformation elongation, DL as a result of a tensile or compressive
stress. To enable comparison with specimens of different length, the elongation is also normalized,
this time to the length L. This is called strain, e.
e = DL/L
The change in dimensions is the reason we use A0 to indicate the initial area since it changes during
deformation. One could divide force by the actual area, this is called true stress (see Sec. 6.7).
For torsional or shear stresses, the deformation is the angle of twist, q (Fig. 6.1) and the shear strain is
given by:
g = tg q
1. Stress—Strain Behavior

Elastic deformation. When the stress is removed, the material returns to the dimension it had before
the load was applied. Valid for small strains (except the case of rubbers).
Deformation is reversible, non-permanent

Plastic deformation. When the stress is removed, the material does not return to its previous
dimension but there is a permanent, irreversible deformation. In tensile tests, if the deformation
is elastic, the stress-strain relationship is called Hooke's law:
s=Ee
That is, E is the slope of the stress-strain curve. E is Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity. In
some cases, the relationship is not linear so that E can be defined alternatively as the local slope:
E = ds/de
Shear stresses produce strains according to:
t=Gg
where G is the shear modulus.
Elastic moduli measure the stiffness of the material. They are related to the second derivative of the
interatomic potential, or the first derivative of the force vs. internuclear distance. By examining these
curves we can tell which material has a higher modulus. Due to thermal vibrations the elastic modulus
decreases with temperature. E is large for ceramics (stronger ionic bond) and small for polymers
(weak covalent bond). Since the interatomic distances depend on direction in the crystal, E depends

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on direction (i.e., it is anisotropic) for single crystals. For randomly oriented policrystals, E is
isotropic.
2. Anelasticity

Here the behavior is elastic but not the stress-strain curve is not immediately reversible. It takes a
while for the strain to return to zero. The effect is normally small for metals but can be significant for
polymers.
3. Elastic Properties of Materials

Materials subject to tension shrink laterally. Those subject to compression, bulge. The ratio of lateral
and axial strains is called the Poisson's ratio n.
n = elateral/eaxial
The elastic modulus, shear modulus and Poisson's ratio are related by E = 2G(1+n)
4. Tensile Properties

Yield point. If the stress is too large, the strain deviates from being proportional to the stress. The
point at which this happens is the yield point because there the material yields, deforming
permanently (plastically).
Yield stress. Hooke's law is not valid beyond the yield point. The stress at the yield point is
called yield stress, and is an important measure of the mechanical properties of materials. In practice,
the yield stress is chosen as that causing a permanent strain of 0.002
The yield stress measures the resistance to plastic deformation.
The reason for plastic deformation, in normal materials, is not that the atomic bond is stretched
beyond repair, but the motion of dislocations, which involves breaking and reforming bonds.
Plastic deformation is caused by the motion of dislocations.
Tensile strength. When stress continues in the plastic regime, the stress-strain passes through a
maximum, called the tensile strength (sTS) , and then falls as the material starts to develop a neckand it
finally breaks at the fracture point (Fig. 6.10).
Note that it is called strength, not stress, but the units are the same, MPa.
For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a more important property than the tensile
strength, since once the it is passed, the structure has deformed beyond acceptable limits.
Ductility. The ability to deform before braking. It is the opposite of brittleness. Ductility can be
given either as percent maximum elongation emax or maximum area reduction.
%EL = emax x 100 %
%AR = (A0 - Af)/A0
These are measured after fracture (repositioning the two pieces back together).
Resilience. Capacity to absorb energy elastically. The energy per unit volume is the
area under the strain-stress curve in the elastic region.

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Toughness. Ability to absorb energy up to fracture. The energy per unit volume is the total area
under the strain-stress curve. It is measured by an impact test (Ch. 8).
5. True Stress and Strain

When one applies a constant tensile force the material will break after reaching the tensile strength.
The material starts necking (the transverse area decreases) but the stress cannot increase beyond sTS.
The ratio of the force to the initial area, what we normally do, is called the engineering stress. If the
ratio is to the actual area (that changes with stress) one obtains the true stress.
6. Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation

If a material is taken beyond the yield point (it is deformed plastically) and the stress is then released,
the material ends up with a permanent strain. If the stress is reapplied, the material again responds
elastically at the beginning up to a new yield point that is higher than the original yield point (strain
hardening, Ch. 7.10). The amount of elastic strain that it will take before reaching the yield point is
called elastic strain recovery (Fig. 6. 16).
7. Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation

Compressive and shear stresses give similar behavior to tensile stresses, but in the case of
compressive stresses there is no maximum in the s-e curve, since no necking occurs.
8. Hardness

Hardness is the resistance to plastic deformation (e.g., a local dent or scratch). Thus, it is a measure
of plastic deformation, as is the tensile strength, so they are well correlated. Historically, it was
measured on an empirically scale, determined by the ability of a material to scratch another, diamond
being the hardest and talc the softer. Now we use standard tests, where a ball, or point is pressed into a
material and the size of the dent is measured. There are a few different hardness tests: Rockwell,
Brinell, Vickers, etc. They are popular because they are easy and non-destructive (except for the small
dent).
9. Variability of Material Properties

Tests do not produce exactly the same result because of variations in the test equipment, procedures,
operator bias, specimen fabrication, etc. But, even if all those parameters are controlled within strict
limits, a variation remains in the materials, due to uncontrolled variations during fabrication, non-
homogenous composition and structure, etc. The measured mechanical properties will show scatter,
which is often distributed in a Gaussian curve (bell-shaped), that is characterized by the mean value
and the standard deviation (width).
10. Design/Safety Factors

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To take into account variability of properties, designers use, instead of an average value of, say, the
tensile strength, the probability that the yield strength is above the minimum value tolerable. This
leads to the use of a safety factor N > 1 (typ. 1.2 - 4). Thus, a working value for the tensile strength
would be sW = sTS / N.
Important Terms:
 Anelasticity
 Ductility
 Elastic deformation
 Elastic recovery
 Engineering strain
 Engineering stress
 Hardness
 Modulus of elasticity
 Plastic deformation
 Poisson’s ratio
 Proportional limit
 Shear
 Tensile strength
 Toughness
 Yielding
 Yield strength

4.3 Define and apply identifications systems

Identification of metals
General
Part of the metalworker’s skill lies in the ability to identify various metal products. The metalworker
must be able to identify the metal, so the proper work methods can be applied. They must be
examined in order to determine the metal to be used and its heat treatment (if required). If no drawing
is available, knowledge of what the parts are going to do will serve as a guide to the type of metal to
use.

Testing of metals
Simple tests can be made to identify metals. Since the ability to judge metals can be developed only
through personal experience, practice these tests with known metals until familiar with the reactions
of each metal to each type of test.

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NUMERICAL CODES
Perhaps the best known numerical code is the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) code. For the
metals industry, this organization pioneered in developing a uniform code based on chemical analysis.
SAE specification numbers are now used less widely than in the past; however, the SAE numerical
code is the basic code for ferrous metals. The SAE system is based on the use of four-or five-digit
numbers.
 The first number indicates the type of alloy used; for example, 1 indicates a carbon steel.
 Two indicates nickel steel.
 The second, and sometimes the third, number gives the amount of the main alloy in whole
percentage numbers.
 The last two, and sometimes three, numbers give the carbon content in hundredths of 1 percent
(0.01 percent).

The following examples will help you SAE 1045

understand this system: 1- Type of steel (carbon).
0- Percent of alloy (none).
45- Carbon content (0.45-percent carbon).
TYPES OF STEEL SAE NUMBERS
CARBON STEELS 1XXX
Plain Carbon 10XX
Free Cutting Manganese X13XX
Free Cutting Screw Stock 11XX
High Manganese 713XX
Nickel Steels 2XXX
.50% Nickel 20XX
1.50% Nickel 21XX
3.50% Nickel 23XX
5.00% Nickel 25XX

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NICKEL CHROMIUM STEELS 3XXX
1.25% Nickel: 1.00% Chromium 32XX
3.50% Nickel: 1.50% Chromium 33XX
3.00% Nickel: .80% CHromium 34XX
Corrosion and Heat Resisting 30 XXX
MOLYBDENUM STEELS 41XX
Chromium- Molybdenum 43XX
Chromium- Nickel- Molybdenum 21XX
Nicker- Molybdenum 46XX & 48XX
CHROMIUM STEELS 5XXX
.60% to 1.10% Chromium 51XX
1.2% to 1.5% Chromium 52XXX
Corrosion and Heat Resistant 51XXX
Chromium-Vanadium Steels 6XXX
Tungsten Steels 7XXXX & 7XXX
Silicon Manganese Steels 9XXX
SAE numerical code.

4.4. Identify and describe material defects

All metals contain defects. These can range from faults on an atomic scale that are inherent to
crystallographic structures, to larger defects that are introduced during processing. These latter defects
may be avoidable, or at least reduced to a level whereby they pose no threat. The complex chemical
and physical reactions that take place in the both the molten and solid state can produce effects
resulting in both inhomogeneities and defects in the material. Non-uniform properties can present
problems during the processing, fabrication and subsequent service of metal components. Defects that
are introduced during the processing cycle will enter the fabrication route and may cause further
problems by either initiating a failure during fabrication, or when the component enters service. The
misapplication of the manufacturing process or lack of control at any stage may introduce defects and
residual stress that can affect the performance of the structure in service, making it susceptible to
failure. Defects that may be produced include holes, cracks, segregation, inclusions, surface marks,
notches and undesirable or unintentional metallurgical changes within the material. Defects may be
characterized not only by their origin, but also by their shape. Stresses are concentrated at notches,
which occur at sudden changes in geometry. Very high concentrations of stress can develop at sharp
notches. Therefore planar defects such as cracks, laminations, lack of fusion and lack of penetration
type defects are potentially

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Primary Production Defects
Defects may be introduced when raw materials are made into a shape suitable for further processing.
For convenience, the main defect types may be classified into the following broad descriptions. Those
where the material has started out in the molten state:
 segregation,
 holes and porosity,
 shrinkage and piping,
 inclusions,
 shrinkage and hot tears

Surface Defects
Sheet metal processing has its own set of characteristic defects related to the deep drawing, pressing
and cold rolling operations being used. When metal is pressed into a deep die, such as in the
production of a kitchen sink or a cup, the amount of plastic deformation that the blank sheet has to
undergo may exceed the ductility of the metal. This phenomenon is referred to as cupping. It may
only result in excessive thinning of the sidewalls, but can lead to rupture.

Solving Common Defects in Sheet Metal Forming

 Wrinkles (either minor or severe)
 Splits (and risk of splits)
 Spring back (or final part deviation from nominal)
 Incorrect process or number of forming tools
 Incorrect blank shape and/or size
 Excessive thinning/thickening of the sheet during forming
Wrinkles, splits, and springbuck are the three most common defects encountered during sheet metal
stamping.

Wrinkles
Generally, if experiencing wrinkles during production, this could mean the wrong process was chosen
to manufacture the part or a key process parameter (such as binder force) could be incorrect. Wrinkles
occur when the sheet metal stamping process produces compressive strains that “push” material
together, causing the material to overlap each other in the worst case. A thicker material resists the
compressive forces more so than a thinner material – speaking broadly – and thus a thin material will
wrinkle more easily.

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Splits
Splits occur when strains cause the material to thin beyond the material’s safe limits. Although sheet
metal has work-hardening (or more correctly, work-strengthening) characteristics that increase the
material’s formability as strains increase, there is a finite limit at which splitting will occur. This also
depends on the direction of strains in the sheet metal product being formed. Using the FLD (forming
limit diagram) is key to solving splitting issues, and all splitting defects that are predicted in
incremental simulation software are based on FLD criteria, and subsequent FLC (forming limit curve)
for each given material. Solving a splitting issue requires careful consideration of material type,
material thickness, minimum form radius, form depth, number of forming stages, blank shape/size.
Stamping simulation software is often needed to cost effectively analyse and solve a splitting
problem, to avoid cost prohibitive trial and error on the shop floor.

Springback
A springback defect may occur when an unexpected shape change takes place after forming or
stamping is completed. The final part dimensional shape does not match the desired nominal shape

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and falls outside of required tolerances. Springback defects are caused by the elastic region of the
given material’s stress-strain curve, whereby the material is strained but then relaxes according its
elastic characteristics. High strength materials typically exhibit severe springback problems usually
caused by a much smaller difference between Yield Strength and Tensile Strength, compared to mild
or low strength steels.

Either way, advanced simulation software is needed to compute and compensate complex 3D
geometries to cost effectively solve a springback defect.

Internal Assessment Criteria:

 Explain the Basic metallurgy and heat concepts

 Discuss the Metal specifications and testing

Describe the Properties of base metals, alloys, and synthetic materials

Describe the Ferrous and non-ferrous synthetic materials

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SECTION 5: KM-01-KT05: Engineering tools and
equipment

Learning Outcome
At the end of this section, learners should cover:
KT0501 Hand tools to hold, assemble or disassemble components
KT0502 Hand-held cutting tools (saws, blades, files, scrapers, chisels, taps and dies, hand reamers,
hand broaching tools, hammers centre punch)
KT0503 Hand-held power tools (angle grinder, drills, drill bits and reamers)
KT0504 Measurement tools and equipment (basic measurement tools, precision measuring tools,
angular measuring tools, inspection gauges)
KT0505 Marking-off tools and equipment (punches, scribers, combination sets, protractors, callipers
(inside and outside), jenny calliper, engineering square, angle plates, marking-off table, dividers)

5.1 Measuring instruments

Measuring tapes
Measuring tapes are used for measuring out large- scale measurements. They vary in lengths
from 1m to 50m. They are calibrated in millimetres and metres (1m = 1000mm).

Using a measuring tape

• The measuring tape should lie flat on the work-piece to prevent excessive sag, which
will cause measurement errors.
• Position the measuring tape so that the starting point is accurately located.
• Mark off accurately.

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Steel rules
• Steel rules are made of spring or cast steel. They are made rigid or can be of the
folding type, and vary in length, the most common being 300mm and 600mm long.
• The spaces between the dividing lines are known as graduations and are accurately
spaced to 0,5mm and 1,00mm.
• The graduations for different lengths of rule are the same.
• The correct length rule should be selected for various jobs.
• A rule should be protected from rough usage. The end must be protected from wear
otherwise accurate measurements cannot be made from the end.
• Never allow a rule to become rusty because removing the rust will remove some of
the lines and affect the accuracy.

The 600mm steel folding rule

The 600mm folding rule is calibrated in 1mm divisions from 0 to 600mm on both sides.
On the one side of the rule there are calibrations marked out, known as the “line of cords”.
This is used to determine angles. On the flip side of the rule, opposite the 0 – 600mm
calibrations, a set of calibrations for circumference are marked out. These are used as a guide
to check whether your calculations of circumferences are correct.

Setting the rule at different angles.

Assume you are required to mark off an angle of 25°.
• Place one leg of the spring divider on the 0 mark of the line of cords and then set the
other leg of the dividers to the calibration for 25°

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• NB. Always start at 0 (zero).
• Take the size, and place one leg of the dividers on the circled centre punch mark on
the other blade of the rule.
• Open the blades of the rule until the point of the dividers fits in the circled centre
punch mark on the other blade.
• You now have a 25° angle along the sides of the ruler (on the inside or outsides of the
blades). The line of cords is calibrated from 0° to 120°. If an angle larger than 120° is
required, this angle must be subtracted from 180°. To obtain an angle of 150°,
proceed as follows:
• 180°- 150° = 30°
• Set the rule on 30°.

Obtaining a circumference for a given diameter. Assume you want to know the circumference
of a 120mm diameter pipe.
• Place your engineer’s square on 120mm and then take a reading on the circumference
scale. The circumference should be approximately 378mm.

The engineer’s square (or, try square)

The engineer’s square, or try square as it is commonly known, is used to check the
perpendicular of two lines or planes. The square comprises a blade and a short base which

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form a 90° angle. Since the edges of the blade and base are parallel, both outside and inside
angles can be checked

Checking the square before use

• Check to see that the workpiece is clean and free of burrs. There must not be any
interference on the surface.
• Wipe the surfaces of the base of the square clean.
• Make certain that there are no burrs on the blade or base.
• Make sure the square is not bent or damaged in any way. Check for squareness by
testing it on a “V” block or a piece of material known to be square

Checking an object for squareness

• Hold the try square against the plane of reference with a steady pressure.
• Do not tilt the square.
• Check the squareness with the blade.
• If possible, hold the square and workpiece against the light.
NB: Wipe the square clean with an oil soaked cloth and put in a safe place after using it.

The flat square

The flat square is used for sheet metal work when it can be laid flat on a large surface.

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• The flat square is larger than the engineer’s square and it consists of a long arm called
the body and a short arm called a tongue.
• The body and tongue are of equal thickness and form a 90° angle.
• The length of the body is calibrated from 0 to 600mm and the tongue from 0 to
400mm.

The flange square

The flange square is used to measure the squareness of flanges on pipe ends, or to square up
the flange prior to welding it onto a pipe.

The bevel gauge

The handle of a bevel gauge is normally made of aluminium and the blade of steel

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The main use of the bevel gauge is to obtain different angles and to transfer angles onto
profiles, etc.

Using a bevel gauge

• Place the handle, with the blade in the vertical position, against one face of the angle
to be measured.
• Loosen the thumbscrew and move and slide the slotted blade to the required angle and
depth, i.e. the blade must rest flat on the other face of the angle.
• Keep the gauge in position and lock the thumb- screw.
• Transfer the angle onto the material.

The combination set

The combination set consists of a combination of 4 main parts namely a rule, a centre head, a
protractor and a square head.

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The purpose and use of the 4 main parts are described below.

The combination rule

The rule is calibrated in the same way as an ordinary steel rule. It has a groove in the middle
of one side which enables it to be used with the other parts of the set

The centre head

The centre head is used to find the centre of a round object. It has a clamp, which enables it to
be clamped to the rule. The centre is found by drawing two lines that cross each other at
approximately 90°.

The protractor
The protractor is used for measuring and marking off angles. When clamped to the rule it can
move 50° to one side and 80° to the other or a total of 130°.

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The square head
The square head can be used, together with the rule, to measure depths and elevations
(heights). It can also be used as a try square and to mark off 45° or 90° angles. It has a spirit
level and a clamp.

A scriber is fitted to the combination set and it is used to scribe lines when marking off. It
must be replaced after use.

Marking-off instruments

The chalk line

A chalk line consists of a thin, but strong and flexible cord, on an enclosed reel, which is
filled with dry white chalk powder.

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Using a chalk line
Chalk lines are used to mark out straight lines.
• Pull the chalk line out of its reel. It will be coated with chalk.
• Locate the positions of both ends of the chalk line.
• Stretch the chalk line and hold it firmly against the work.
• Pull the chalk line straight up so that only its ends contact the work.
• Release it, the chalk powder clinging to the cord will come off on the plate and leave
a straight line.

When marking off long lines:

• Position an engineer’s square against the stretched line near its centre.
• Pull the chalk line straight up along the edge of the square and release it.

The scriber
A scriber is usually made of high carbon steel and is used to scribe permanent lines onto a
piece of material.

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The correct method of holding the scriber when marking from a template

Centre and prick punches

The centre punch is used mostly for marking holes, which must be drilled. The point of a
centre punch is sharpened at an angle of 90°. The prick punch is used to mark lines. The
prick punch is usually shorter and smaller in diameter than the centre punch. The point of the
prick punch is sharpened at an angle of 60°.

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Dividers
Dividers on the next page), are used to scribe circles, arcs, bisecting lines, or for plotting
distances between points.
• The legs are made of spring steel, suitably hardened and tempered.
• The points must be kept sharp and the legs of equal length.
• Dividers can be obtained in various sizes.

When scribing with a divider, apply pressure against the centre punch mark.

When the divider points are sharpened they should be closed as shown. This is done so that
the legs remain of equal length.

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The beam trammel

A beam trammel is used when it is no longer practical to use dividers.

Using a beam trammel

• Point A of the trammel is put into the centre punch mark of the circle to be marked.
• Point B is then set to the radius of the circle and the circle is scribed
On certain trammels the points are ground eccentric. This is for doing finer work. When it has
been adjusted to the approximate distance required, it can be set further by turning the point
for more accuracy

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Other hand tools and equipment
The shifting spanner
The shifting spanner has an adjustable jaw.
• An important point to remember is that the jaws must be adjusted onto the nut or bolt
head to make sure the shifting spanner fits tightly onto the nut to avoid it slipping,
when applying pressure.
• The correct method of using it, is to apply pressure in a downward direction, making
sure that the adjustable part of the jaw is facing in the same direction as the applied
pressure.

Fencing pliers

Fencing pliers are used mostly for –

• cutting and binding wire,

• for holding small items when grinding, and
• can be used to pick up hot steel.

Tin snips

Hand Shears

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• Hand shears are used for general-purpose cutting, and for trimming edges to size.
• Common sizes range from 200 to 350mm in 25mm steps.

Straight Snips

Straight snips are used for -

• general purpose cutting,

• making straight cuts, and
• trimming away surplus metal where free access and manipulation of the handles can
be obtained. Common sizes range from 200mm to 350mm in 25mm steps.

Curved Snips

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• Curved snips are used for cutting circles or irregular curved shapes.
• Common sizes range from 200 to 350mm in 25mm steps.

Chisels

Chisels are made of high carbon or alloy steel.

Using a chisel safely

NB: Chiselling must always be done away from the body.

• Wear goggles and use a chip guard when using a chisel.
• Hold the chisel firmly but lightly at an angle of 30°-40° to the cutting plane.
• Keep your eye on the cutting edge.
• Chip away from your body

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The portable vibratory shearing machine

Portable shearing machines are used for cutting sheet metal and is particularly useful for
cutting holes and curves.

Safety measures

• Examine the machine and make sure it is in good working order before using it.
• Check the power supply cable and plug for damage and replace if necessary. Do not
repair damaged cables.
• Keep the power supply cable clear of the working area.

Bench shears

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The bench shears make longer cuts per stroke and can cut heavier sheet metal than tin snips.

Safety measures

• Take care not to pinch your fingers.

• Support the sheet when cutting it.

• Be careful not to injure anyone with the handle.

• The handle should be left upright when the bench shears is not in use.

Portable electric drill

Safety measures
• Examine the machine and make sure it is in good working order before using it.
• Check the power supply cable and plug for damage and replace if necessary. Do not
repair damaged cables.
• Keep the power supply cable clear of the working area.

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• Use the correct size chuck key.
• Secure the chuck key to the lead with tape or any other type of non-conducting
material. Make sure it does not cut into the insulation of the power lead.
• Hold the drilling machine securely before pressing the trigger switch.
• Use wooden strips underneath your workpiece to prevent damage to the workbench.
• Handle the machine carefully and place it on the bench in such a way that it can’t be
knocked down, and that nobody can trip over the power lead.
• Clamp small workpieces in a vice or on the workbench before drilling them.

Smithing tools

The anvil

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The body of the anvil is made of mild steel, with a hardened steel surface.

• An anvil supports the work.

• The shape of the beak makes it useful for bending metal.

• The hardy holes are for holding bottom tools as shown in Fig. 40

Using an anvil

The correct stance when using an anvil to bend or straighten material

The flatter and set hammer

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The flatter is used mostly to set or straighten finished surfaces.

The set hammer is used for the same purpose in corners and confined spaces.

The round punch

SPECIAL PLATER’S TOOLS

Hand tapered punch

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The tommy bar is used to align holes using the round tapered end and using the flat side
to lift plates such as worn liners. The hand-tapered punch is used to remove bolts from holes
and also to line-up holes when bolting or riveting material or equipment together.
Hammers
These hammers are available in 2kg, 4kg and 8kg sizes and are used for heavy duty
hammering.

Flatter
The flatter is used to prevent hammer marks on the surface of plates when straightening them.
This is done by placing the flatter on the material to be straightened and then hitting the
flatter with a hammer.

Fuller
The fuller is used to set angle iron for bending and to set cones to different radii.

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Riveting tongs
Riveting tongs are used to remove heated rivets from a rivet heater and placing them into the
holes of material to be riveted.

1.2 Identify trade related power tools and attachments and describe and explain their
applications, maintenance and procedures for use

Powered Hand Tools - Pneumatic Tools - Basic Safety

What are pneumatic tools?

 Pneumatic tools are powered by compressed air. Common types of these air-powered
hand tools that are used in industry include buffers, nailing and stapling guns, grinders,
drills, jack hammers, chipping hammers, riveting guns, sanders and wrenches.

How do you use pneumatic tools safely?

 Review the manufacturer's instruction before using a tool.
 Wear safety glasses or goggles, or a face shield (with safety glasses or goggles), and,
where necessary, safety shoes or boots and hearing protection.
 Post warning signs where pneumatic tools are used. Set up screens or shields in areas
where nearby workers may be exposed to flying fragments, chips, dust, and excessive
noise.
 Ensure that the compressed air supplied to the tool is clean and dry. Dust, moisture, and
corrosive fumes can damage a tool. An in-line regulator filter and lubricator increase tool
life.
 Keep tools clean and lubricated, and maintain them according to the manufacturers'
instructions.
 Use only the attachments that the manufacturer recommends for the tools you are using.
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 Be careful to prevent hands, feet, or body from injury in case the machine slips or the tool
breaks.
 Reduce physical fatigue by supporting heavy tools with a counter-balance wherever
possible.

How should you handle air hoses?

 Use the proper hose and fittings of the correct diameter.
 Use hoses specifically designed to resist abrasion, cutting, crushing and failure from
continuous flexing.
 Choose air-supply hoses that have a minimum working pressure rating of 1035 kPa (150
psig) or 150% of the maximum pressure produced in the system, whichever is higher.
 Check hoses regularly for cuts, bulges and abrasions. Tag and replace, if defective.
 Blow out the air line before connecting a tool. Hold hose firmly and blow away from
yourself and others.
 Make sure that hose connections fit properly and are equipped with a mechanical means
of securing the connection (e.g., chain, wire, or positive locking device).
 Install quick disconnects of a pressure-release type rather than a disengagement type.
Attach the male end of the connector to the tool, NOT the hose.
 Do not operate the tool at a pressure above the manufacturer's rating.
 Turn off the air pressure to hose when not in use or when changing power tools.
 Do not carry a pneumatic tool by its hose.
 Avoid creating trip hazards caused by hoses laid across walkways or curled underfoot.
 Do not use compressed air to blow debris or to clean dirt from clothes.

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What should you avoid with a compressed air?
 Cleaning with compressed air is dangerous.
 Do not use compressed air for cleaning unless no alternate method of cleaning is
available. The nozzle pressure MUST remain below 207 kPa (30 psi). Personal protective
equipment and effective chip guarding techniques must be used.
 Two acceptable methods of meeting the "below 207 kPa (30 psi)" requirement are
illustrated below.

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Internal Assessment Criteria:

 List Different tools (hand, cutting, power, measuring, marking off)

 Use of tools demonstrates correct selection for the work at hand
 Perform Measurement calculations correctly and accurately
 Explain Safety precautions pertaining to tools

Explain the Safe care, correct use and storage of tools and equipment
 Read Measurements from measuring tools
 Describe Speeds, feeds and cutting tools

SECTION 6: KM-01-KT06 Basic lifting concepts

Learning Outcome
At the end of this section, learners should cover:
KT0601 Rigging (slings, block and tackle, chain block, steel ropes)
KT0602 Rigging concepts
KT0603 Loads selection and limitations
KT0604 Safety precautions

6.1 Rigging

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comprises the system of ropes, cables and chains, which support a sailing ship or sail boat's masts—
standing rigging, including shrouds and stays—and which adjust the position of the vessel's sails and
spars to which they are attached—the running rigging, including halyards, braces, sheets and

Rigging is divided into two classes, standing, which supports the mast (and bowsprit), and running,
which controls the orientation of the sails and their degree of reefing. Configurations differ for each
type of rigging, between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels.

Overview Of Mechanical Advantage

(MA) MA n Ratio between the output force a machine exerts to the input force that is furnished to that
machine to do work. Defines how efficient and effective a machine is. Mechanical advantage greater
than one (1) means that the output force (energy) delivered by the machine exceeds the input force
(energy) supplied to the machine. Mechanical advantage less than one (1) means that the output force
(energy) delivered by the machine is smaller than the input force (energy) supplied to the machine.
Applied to the relationship between the weight of a load being lifted and the power of the force
required to lift/push/hold that load.

Simple Machines
Consist of inclined planes, levers, pulley wheels, gears, ropes, belts, and/ or cams. n Rigid or resistant
bodies that have pre-defined motions. n Capable of performing work. Energy applied to these
mechanisms by a source that causes these mechanisms to perform useful motion. n More efficient to
perform work with machines than with muscle force only. n We will now discuss Inclined Planes,
Levers, Pulleys, and an advanced leverage application, the A frame Gantry INCLINED PLANES n
Examples: Ramps, wooden wedge, screw thread n Gains effectiveness of energy used based on
distance traveled = mechanical advantage. n Use of a gradual slope = less force to move an object a
certain distance.

CLASSES OF LEVERS (continued) Class Two Lever: · Weight (load) is placed between the force
and the fulcrum. · MA: Used for advantage in moving heavy materials on a horizontal/near horizontal
surface. · Examples: Wheelbarrows, furniture dollies n Class Three Lever: · Force placed between the
fulcrum and the load. · MA: used when force may be sacrificed for distance. · Examples: Brooms,
shovels, baseball bat, tweezers SCREW-TYPE MACHINES Examples of screw-type machines:
Worm gears, screw jacks and valves in fire hydrants. n Characteristics of these machines are: ·
Combination of a lever and an inclined plane. · Thread of a screw is an inclined plan encircling the
stem of the screw. · Handle is the lever. · Thread works in a corresponding groove in the base. ·
Thread is forced to move under the load. · One rotation of the handle moves the thread through a
distance equal to the distance between it and the thread below it. · Distance moved is call the pitch of

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the screw. PULLEYS n Application related to loads: · Lifting · Pulling · Moving · Change direction ·
Mechanical advantage · Reduce friction

LOAD STABILIZATION
Make load attachments above center of gravity when possible. n Place attachments above and on
either side of the estimated position of center of gravity to control load. · Wind or shaking from an
earthquake (external force) can move a load with high estimated center of gravity and narrow base of
support. n Widen and extend the load base of support when: · Distance from base of support to
estimated center of gravity is greater than the width of base of the support. Loads showing any signs
of rocking or swaying = unstable equilibrium state. Consider that center of gravity may change: ·
Ground shaking changing position of internal load such as machinery in structure · Base of support
shifting SHIMS / WEDGES / CRIBBING n Characteristics · Douglas Fir or Southern Pine · Tends to
crush slowly · Provides advance warning of failure · 500 pounds per sq. inch (psi) maximum load
capacity n Shims (wedge): · Stabilizing tools. · Incline plane (MA). · Take up void space. n Wedge
Set: · Snug up or tighten load. · Change of direction.

LIFTING FUNCTIONS
Attachments: · Chains · Cables · Ropes · Webbing n BASIC GUIDELINES: Locations of attachment
should be: · Directly over/in alignment with the load's center of gravity (CG). · Above the load's CG.
Rigid objects should be supported by at least two attachments along with balancing support
attachments. · Weight on the carrying attachments is more important than the total weight of the load.
· Angles of attachments influence hauling system effectiveness. n When center of gravity of load lines
up over the fulcrum or pivot point, balance point has been reached, and load is at static equilibrium.
When making a vertical lift, attachments should be above center of gravity when possible. · This will
keep load from rotating, and under control. CRITICAL ANGLE CONSIDERATIONS The angle of a
rigging strap/ cable attachment in relation to the lifting point greatly effects the vertical and horizontal
forces placed on the anchor attachments as well as the forces in the strap/cable. · These forces are
easily calculated, based on the properties of the triangle that is created. n A circle can be divided into
three 120 degree sections. · If the included angle of the rope system is equal to 120 degrees, the force
in the rope and it’s attachment is equal to the supported load. · If the angle becomes greater by pulling
the load line tighter, a greater force is placed on the rope and the anchors. · If the included angle is
less, the force in the rope is less. · In lifting systems the angle should be as small as possible

The purpose of this section is to provide information about safe and practical methods of anchoring to
concrete when some other method (such as cable loops or chokers) is not available. Not all of the
methods discussed may have useful application in US&R work. · The special equipment required for
undercut anchors and the sensitivity of epoxy anchors to vibration and heat, make both of little value

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in critical US&R situations. All of the available methods are presented in order to give the student a
more complete understanding of anchors, and then to focus on those that are most useful. TYPES OF
ANCHORS: Most of these anchors require the drilling and cleaning of holes in concrete of the proper
size and depth. Available types: · Undercut Anchor Bolts · Expansion Bolts · Expansion Shields ·
Epoxy Anchors · Concrete Screws · Through Bolts

Undercut Anchor Bolts n Relatively complicated devices that require the cutting of a straight hole in
the concrete and then inserting a special bit that enlarges the hole near its bottom. The undercut
anchor bolt is then inserted and during the tightening process, prongs extend out from the body of the
bolt that engage and bear on the surface of the enlarged hole. n This produces a very positive anchor,
since it does not have to depend on friction between the bolt and the hole as in the case of the other
anchors presented here. The system requires the use of the special drill bit that undercuts the hole,
and, therefore, would not be useful in most emergency situations. Expansion Bolts Are torque
controlled anchors that come in two types; Wedge Anchors and Sleeve Anchors. They both have an
undercut shaft that is inserted into the hole and the wedge or sleeve device that expands as a cone at
the bottom of the shaft is pulled through it when the fastener is tightened. n Wedge Anchors have
higher tension strength than sleeve anchors of the same size. However, the sleeve anchor is the only
anchor bolt (other than the through bolt) that can be safely be used in hollow concrete block. Correct
hole size (not too large) is very important since the wedge or sleeve must develop great friction
against the sides of the hole. n Most of these anchors will develop more friction as they are loaded in
tension, since more expansion occurs as the pull on the shaft causes the cone to spread the wedges or
sleeve with greater force against the side of the hole. n Applying a setting torque with a calibrated
wrench is essential to the reliable performance of this type of anchor, since doing so actually tests the
installation.

Expansion Bolts (continued)

The proper failure mode for this type of anchor is either pullthrough (where the conical part of the
shaft pulls through the sleeve or wedge) or pull-out of a concrete cone. · The diameter of concrete
cone that can be pulled is usually more than two times the depth of the embedment of the anchor,
however, this assumes un-cracked concrete. n Anchors of this type should not be used in badly
cracked concrete. n Expansion anchors may be used to anchor raker shores and in tieback systems,
provided that the concrete into which they are set is relatively crack free. Expansion Shields n Are
displacement controlled anchors that expand by means of driving the steel shield over a cone using a
hammer and special driving tool that fits to the shoulder of the shield. n These fasteners are not
capable of further expansion under load and cannot be torque wrench tightened and tested. · They are
vulnerable to oversized holes and are not recommended for critical search and rescue operations. n
Expansion shields are reliable if holes are cleaned and of proper size and could be successfully used

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for lifting out small sections of concrete (such as wall or floor access openings). Epoxy Anchors
Usually consist of threaded rods that are set in cleaned, drilled holes that have been previously filled
with a properly mixed epoxy adhesive. n These anchors induce no expansion forces in the concrete,
and therefore, can be installed at closer spacing. n Epoxy anchors are not as sensitive to strength
reduction from cracked concrete, but require time to develop strength

Epoxy Anchors (continued) The most reliable method to insert the epoxy into the hole is to use a
caulking gun type device that is designed to be used with a coaxial cartridge. n The cartridge contains
the epoxy resin in one cylinder and the setting compound (accelerator) in the other cylinder. · This
method can produce reliable anchors in masonry as well as concrete and strength and reliability are
enhanced by using depths greater than twelve times the anchor diameter. Epoxy anchors have two
limitations that make them of limited use for US&R. · First, if the installed anchor is significantly
vibrated or otherwise moved prior to the epoxy being fully set, the anchor may have little strength. ·
Also epoxy installations lose strength at temperatures over 80 deg F, and have only about 25% of their
strength at 160 deg. Concrete Screws n These anchors have relatively low strength (100 to 600 lbs.)
fasteners, and have 3/16” and 1/4” diameters. n They are driven into a pre-drilled hole and the
installation requires the use of the manufactures drill bit and setting tool. n They can be installed in
less than one minute and placed as close as one inch from the edge of the concrete. Through Bolts In
some cases when both sides of a concrete slab are accessible, a standard machine bolt or piece of
threaded rod can be extended completely through the concrete. · If a large washer and bolt head (or
double nuts) bears against the far side of the slab, a simple, reliable anchor is created.

RIGGING SLINGS Commonly used material for the manufacture of slings · Wire rope · Chain ·
Synthetic Fibers Rigging Definition: A length of rope / chain / webbing attached to a load to and/or an
anchor for the purpose of stabilizing, lifting, pulling, or moving objects. Wire Rope · Very strong –
suited for US&R enviroment · Strenght depends on size, grade,and core · Resistant to abrasion and
crushing · Must keep from bending or kinking · Sharp bends and edges can cause damage n Wire rope
components · Core · Strand · Wire · Center n Wire rope safety factor · Wire Rope Slings, Etc = 5 to 1
· Lifts w/ Personnel = 10 to 1 · Elevators = 20 to 1 · Mobile Crane = 3 to 1 for standing ropes · Slings
have greater factor of safety than for wire rope used on cranes due to likelihood of rough usage &
wear

Internal Assessment Criteria:

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 Describe Types of rigging
 Select and calculate Loads

 Discuss Rigging concepts

 Explain Safety precautions pertaining to rigging

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SECTION 7: KM-01-KT07: Types and applications
of screw threads

Learning Outcome
At the end of this section, learners should cover:
KT0701 Terminology related to screw threads ( pitch, root diameter, nominal diameter, lead, flank,
internal and external threads, helix angle, included angle) KT0702 Screw threads (v-thread, acme, and
square threads)
KT0703 Application of screw threads
KT0704 Thread calculations

Screws
The use of screws, rather than nails, as fasteners may be dictated by several factors. These may
include the type of material to be fastened, the requirement for greater holding power than can be
obtained by the use of nails, the finished appearance desired, and the fact that the number of fasteners
that can be used is limited. Using screws, rather than nails, is more expensive in terms of time and
money, but it is often necessary to meet requirements for superior results. The main advantages of
screws are that they provide more holding power, can be easily tightened to draw the items being
fastened securely together, are neater in appearance if properly driven, and can be withdrawn without
damaging the material. The common wood screw is usually made of unhardened steel, stainless steel,
aluminium, or brass. The steel may be bright finished or blued, or zinc, cadmium, or chrome plated.
Wood screws are threaded from a gimlet point for approximately two-thirds of the length of the screw

and are provided with a slotted head designed to be driven by an inserted driver. Wood screws are

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designated according to head style. The most common types are flathead, oval head, and roundhead,
as illustrated in that order, all of these screws can have slotted or Phillips heads
Types of screws.

To prepare wood for receiving the screws, bore a body hole the diameter of the screw to be used in the
piece of wood that is to be fastened. You should then bore a starter hole in the base wood with a
diameter less than that of the screw threads and a depth of one-half or two-thirds the length of the
threads to be anchored. The purpose of this careful preparation is to assure accuracy in the placement
of the screws, to reduce the possibility of splitting the wood, and to reduce the time and effort
required to drive the screw. Properly set slotted and Phillips flathead and oval head screws are
countersunk sufficiently to permit a covering material to be used to cover the head. Slotted roundhead
and Phillips roundhead screws are not countersunk, but they are driven so that the head is firmly flush
with the surface of the wood. The slot of the roundhead screw is left parallel with the grain of the
wood.

The proper name for a lag screw) is lag bolt or wood screw. These screws are often required in
constructing large projects, such as a building. They are longer and much heavier than the common
wood screw and have coarser threads that extend from a cone, or gimlet point, slightly more than half
the length of the screw. Square-head and hexagonal-head lag screws are always externally driven,
usually by means of a wrench. They are used when ordinary wood screws would be too short or too

light and spikes would not be strong enough. Combined with expansion anchors, they are used to
frame timbers to existing masonry.
Fig. 3.40. Proper way to sink a screw.

Expansion shields, or expansion anchors as they are sometimes called, are used for inserting a
predrilled hole, usually in masonry, to provide a gripping base or anchor for a screw, bolt, or nail
intended to fasten an item to the surface in which the hole was bored. The shield can be obtained
separately, or it may include the screw, bolt, or nail. After the expansion shield is inserted in the
predrilled hole, the fastener is driven into the hole in the shield, expanding the shield and wedging it
firmly against the surface of the hole. For the assembly of metal parts, sheet metal screws are used.

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These screws are made regularly in steel and brass with four types of heads: flat, round, oval, and
fillister.

Stainless steel screws are one of the most important types of screws in use today. These screws are
distinguished on the basis of their physical features – heads, drives and threads. In the previous blogs
we have discussed the prominent head and drive types. This post introduces you to all major screw
thread types that are in use today.

Important Thread Varieties of Stainless Steel Screws You Need to Know About

Screw threads are a combination of recesses and ridges on the screw body. These threads help fix a
screw in place through a compatible thread inside a nut or pre-drilled hole. The interior threads of the
nut or another location where the screw is being fixed is known as female and exterior thread of the
screw is known as male. Many times screws are referred to by their thread types.

Following are some of the major thread varieties known to us:

 Machine Screw Threads: These are the standard threads which are designed to fit into a pre-
drilled interior of a tapped hole or nut. These screw threads are distinguished with their
unique features which lend high accuracy when these screws are fitted into their partner
thread. These machine screw threads are used on setscrews, bolts and machine screws.

 Self-tapping Screws: These thread-forming or self-tapping screws feature threads which are
designed to tap their own holes. These screws are used in lighter materials such as plastic or
wood as well as in plywood, aluminum castings, zinc die castings, etc.

 Type U Screws: These screws feature multiple coarse spiral threads which are usually driven
by a hammer and possess a button shaped head. The type U screws are designed for tamper
proof fixing in metal and plastic castings. These screws have a button or round shaped heads.

 Coach Screws: These screws are designed to create their own thread in pre-drilled holes.
Coach screws incorporate a wood screw type rolled thread which is a soft version of imperial.

 High-low Screws: The High-low screws are distinguished by their alternating heights. These
screws are designed for low-density materials and plastics. The screw derives high pull
strength due to its design. Also, this design helps reduce the instance of plastic cracking.

 Woodscrews: The screws have deep and coarse threads which help them go deeper in the
wood. They are further distinguished by the following types:

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i. Cut Thread Woodscrews: These wood screws have defined and sharp threads between a tapered
shank and gimlet point.

ii. Long Thread Woodscrews: These threads have the same type A spaced threads and gimlets as
discussed above. However, these threads are extendable to the full length underneath the head. These
threads are used for timber materials such as particle board, craft board, etc. These screws provide
high pull out strength as well as longer thread engagement.

iii. Rolled Woodscrews: These threads employ a type A spaced thread and are distinguished by rolled
taper points. These threads are used for joining, furniture, and cabinet making.

 Sheet Metal Thread Screws: These screws are distinguished by their coarse threads which
are used in projects involving thin sheet metals.

 Cut Threads: These types of threads are distinguished by their specific cutting. These threads
are further divided into two varieties – Type 17 and Type 25. Type 17 is designed for fixing
metal sheets, aluminum sheets, fibro-cement sheets, etc. Type 25 is designed for use in hard
plastics or die castings.

The above mentioned screw thread types and their uses will give you an idea about the best thread
for your project. However, you can always approach a thread expert like Norwood Screw Machine
Parts to find a suitable thread for your project.

Internal Assessment Criteria:

 Describe Types of screw threads

 Discuss the Application of screw threads
 Calculate the depth of different threads

 Explain Thread terminology and draw the profile of a thread

 Produce Freehand drawing of threads with accurate resemblance to original object in terms of
dimensions, shape and size

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SECTION 8: KM-01-KT08: Types and function of
locking devices and fasteners

Learning Outcome
At the end of this section, learners should cover:
KT0801 Fasteners and locking devices (machine screws, set screws, cap screws, grub screw, studs,
locking nuts and bolts, washers, circlips, pins, keys)
KT0802 Application of fasteners and locking devices
KT0803 Drawings of fasteners and locking devices

8.1 function of locking devices and fasteners

A fastener is a hardware device that is used for creating non-permanent joints.
Fasteners can be used to close a container of a box or an envelope, or they may involve keeping
together the sides of an opening of flexible material, attaching a lid to a container, etc. Other
alternative methods of joining processes for joining materials include welding, soldering, brazing,
crimping, taping, cementing, gluing or the use of other adhesives. The use of forces such as magnetic
force or even frictional force can also join materials. Stainless steel, carbon steel, and alloy steel are
the three major steel fasteners manufactured in industries fasteners. With the help of below charts you
can identify almost any type of Bolt and Screw different types of Fasteners, Head styles in Fasteners,
Drive types in Fasteners, Washer types in Fasteners and Nut types in Fasteners.

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Identification Chart for Types of Fasteners – Bolt and Screw
Wood Screws, Machine Screws, Thread Cutting Machine Screws, Sheet Metal Screws, Self
Drilling SMS, Hex Bolts, Carriage Bolts, Lag Bolts, Socket Screws, Set Screws, Eye Bolts, Eye
Lags, J-bolts, U-Bolts, Shoulder Bolts, Elevator Bolts, Sex Bolts, Mating Screws and Hanger Bolts

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Identification chart for Fastener Head Styles
Flat, Oval, Pan, Truss, Round, Hex, Hex washer, Slotted hex washer, Socket cap and Button Head
Styles

Identification chart for Fasteners Drive Types

Philips and Fearson, Slotted, Combination, Socket, Hex, One way, Square and Torx Drives

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Identification chart for Fasteners Washer Types
Flat, Fender, Finishing, Split lock, External tooth lock, Internal tooth lock, Square, Dock, Ogee and
Sealing Washers

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 Identification Chart for Fastener Nut Types

Bolts
Bolts are used in construction when great strength is required or when the work under construction
must be frequently disassembled. Their use usually implies the use of nuts for fastening and,
sometimes, the use of washers to protect the surface of the material they are used to fasten. Bolts are
selected for application to specific requirements in terms of length, diameter, threads, style of head,
and type. Proper selection of head style and type of bolt results in good appearance as well as good
construction. The use of washers between the nut and a wood surface or between both the nut and the

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head and their opposing surfaces helps you avoid marring the surfaces and permits additional torque
in tightening

Carriage Bolts
Carriage bolts fall into three categories: square neck finned neck and ribbed neck. These bolts have
round heads that are not designed to be driven. They are threaded only part of the way up the shaft.
Usually, the threads are two to four times the diameter of the bolt in length. In each type of carriage
bolt, the upper part of the shank, immediately below the head, is designed to grip the material in
which the bolt is inserted and keep the bolt from turning when a nut is tightened down on it or
removed. The finned type is designed with two or more fins extending from the head to the shank.
The ribbed type is designed with longitudinal ribs, splines, or serrations on all or part of a shoulder
located immediately beneath the head. Holes bored to receive carriage bolts are bored to be a tight fit
for the body of the bolt and counter bored to permit the head of the bolt to fit flush with, or below the
surface of, the material being fastened. The bolt is then driven through the hole with a hammer.

Stove bolts
Stove bolts (are less precisely made than machine bolts. They are made with either flat or round
slotted heads and may have threads extending over the full length of the body, over part of the body,
or over most of the body. They are generally used with square nuts and applied metal to metal, wood
to wood, or wood to metal. If flat headed, they are countersunk. If round headed, they are drawn flush
to the surface.

Expansion Bolt
An expansion bolt is a bolt used in conjunction with an expansion shield to provide anchorage in
substances in which a threaded fastener alone is useless. The shield, or expansion anchor, is inserted
in a predrilled hole and expands when the bolt is driven into it. It becomes wedged firmly in the hole,
providing a secure base for the grip of the fastener.

Toggle Bolts
A toggle bolt is a machine screw with a spring-action, wing-head nut that folds back as the entire
assembly is pushed through a prepared hole in a hollow wall. The wing head then springs open inside
the wall cavity. As the screw is tightened, the wing head is drawn against the inside surface of the
finished wall material. Spring-action, wing-head toggle bolts are available in a variety of machine
screw combinations. They are particularly useful with sheetrock wall surfaces.

Molly Bolt

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The molly bolt or molly expansion anchor (is used to fasten small cabinets, towel bars, drapery
hangers, mirrors, electrical fixtures, and other lightweight items to hollow walls. It is inserted in a
prepared hole. Prongs on the outside of the shield grip the wall surfaces to prevent the shield from
turning as the anchor screw is being driven. As the screw is tightened, the shield spreads and flattens
against the interior of the wall. Various sizes of screw anchors can be used in hollow walls 1/8 inch to
1 3/4 inches thick.

Fig. 2.41. Molly Bolt

Drift pins
Drift pins are long, heavy, treadles bolts used to hold heavy pieces of timber together). The term "drift
pin" is almost universally used in practice. However, for supply purposes, the correct designation is
drift bolt.

Fig. 2.42. Drift pin (drift bolt).

To use the drift pin, you make a hole slightly smaller than the diameter of the pin in the timber. The
pin is driven into the hole and is held in place by the compression action of the wood fibres.

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Corrugated fasteners
The corrugated fastener is one of the many means by which joints and splices are fastened in small
timber and boards. It is used particularly in the mitre joint. These fasteners are made in several
different lengths and widths. Corrugated fasteners are used in a number of ways—to fasten parallel
boards together, as in fastening table tops; to make any type of joint; and as a substitute for nails
where nails may split the timber. In small timber, corrugated fasteners have greater holding power

Corrugated fasteners.
Fig. 2.43. Corrugated fasteners

Internal Assessment Criteria and Weight

 Discuss the Types of fasteners and locking devices

 Describe Fasteners and locking devices
 Explain the Safety precautions pertaining to fasteners and locking devices

 Explain the Application of fasteners and locking devices

 Produce Freehand drawings of different types of fasteners and locking devices

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SECTION 9: KM-01-KT09 Principles, equipment
and methods of arc welding, gas
cutting, brazing and silver soldering

Learning Outcome
At the end of this section, learners should cover:
KT0901 Arc welding and gas cutting equipment and consumables
KT0902 Arc welding and gas cutting techniques and principles
KT0903 Material selection
KT0904 Cutting and welding defects
KT0905 Safe handling of gas cylinders
KT0906 Health and safety risks and protective equipment and measures

9.1 Explain welding terms, definitions and symbols of various welding processes.
MIG Welding:

Principle:
MIG works on same principle of TIG or arc welding. It works on basic principle of heat generation
due to electric arc. This heat is further used to melt consumable electrode and base plates metal which
solidify together and makes a strong joint. The shielded gases are also supplied through nozzle which
protect the weld zone from other reactive gases. This gives good surface finish and a stronger joint.
Equipment’s:

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Power Source:
In this type of welding process, a DC power supply is used with reverse polarity. Reverse polarity
means the electrode or in case of MIG welding electrode wire is connected positive terminal and work
piece to negative terminal. It is due to principle of electric circuit which state that 70% of heat is
always on positive side. So reverse polarity ensures that the maximum amount of heat liberate at tool
side which melt the filler metal in proper way. Straight polarity can cause unstable arc that result into
large spatter. The power source consists a power supply, a transformer, a rectifier which change AC
into DC and some electronic controls which control the current supply according to weld requirement.

Advantages and disadvantages of the MIG/MAG/FCAW welding process

Advantages and Disadvantages

While there are advantages and disadvantages to both processes, we will try to outline for you some
of the most common.
MIG

Advantages:
 The best choice when cosmetic appearance is an issue since it provides lower spatter levels than
flux-cored. The arc is soft and less likely to burn through thin material

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 The lower spatter associated with MIG welding also means no slag to chip off and faster cleaning
time
 MIG welding is the easiest type of welding to learn and is more forgiving if the operator is
somewhat erratic in holding arc length or providing a steady travel speed. Procedure settings are
more forgiving
 If you are skilled and get specific proper guns, shielding gas, liners, drive rolls, and electrode,
MIG can weld a wider range of material including thinner materials and different materials such
as stainless, nickel alloys or aluminum

Disadvantages:
 Since a bottle of external shielding gas is required, MIG welding may not be the process of choice
if you are looking for something that offers portability and convenience. MIG also requires
additional equipment such as a hose, regulator, solenoid (electric valve) in the wire feeder and
flowmeter
 The welder's first job is to prepare the surface by removing paint, rust and any surface
contamination
 MIG has a soft arc which will not properly weld thicker materials (10 gauge would be the
maximum thickness that MIG could soundly weld with the 115 volt compact wire feeder welder
we are referring to or ¼" with the 230 volt input compact wire feeder welder.) As the thickness of
the material (steel) increases, the risk of cold lapping also increases because the heat input needed
for good fusion is just not possible with these small machines
MIG Welding
Flux-Cored
Advantages:
The Self-Shielded electrodes are optimal for outdoor procedures since the flux is built into the wire
for positive shielding even in windy conditions. An external shielding gas and additional equipment
are not needed, so setting up is simpler, faster and easier
The flux-cored process is most suited for applications with thicker materials as it is less prone to cold
lapping

Disadvantages:
 It is not recommended for very thin materials (less than 20 gauge)
 When flux-cored welding, machine settings need to be precise. A slight change in a knob position
can make a big difference in the arc. In addition, the gun position is more critical in that it must be
held consistently, and at the proper angle, to create a good weld
 This process creates spatter and slag that may need to be cleaned for painting or finishing

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It should be noted that the same machine can be used to weld with both MIG and flux-cored processes
though a special package is usually needed to change from one application to the other. Drive rolls,
shielding gas, gun liners, contact tips and procedure settings need to be addressed when changing
processes

Metal transfer modes in MIG/MAG/FCAW welding

Metal transfer mode

The manner, or mode, in which the metal transfers from the filler wire to the weld pool largely
determines the operating features of the process. There are three principal metal transfer modes:
 Short circuiting (dip transfer)
 Spray transfer
 Pulsed transfer
Short-circuiting and pulsed metal transfer are used for low current operation, while spray transfer is
only used with high welding currents. In short-circuiting or 'dip' transfer, the molten metal forming on
the tip of the wire is transferred by the wire dipping into the weld pool. This is achieved by setting a
low voltage. Care in setting the voltage and the inductance in relation to the wire feed speed is
essential to minimise spatter. Inductance is used to control the surge in current which occurs when the
wire dips into the weld pool.

For spray transfer, a much higher voltage is necessary to ensure that the wire does not make contact,
i.e. short-circuit, with the weld pool. The molten metal at the tip of the wire transfers to the weld pool
in the form of a spray of small droplets (less than the diameter of the wire). However, there is a
minimum current level or threshold, below which droplets are not forcibly projected across the arc. If
an open arc technique is attempted much below the threshold current level, the low arc forces are
insufficient to prevent large droplets forming at the tip of the wire. These droplets transfer erratically
across the arc under normal gravitational force. The pulsed mode was developed as a means of
stabilising the open arc at low current levels, i.e. below the threshold level, to avoid short-circuiting
and spatter. Spray type metal transfer is achieved by applying pulses of current, each pulse having
sufficient force to detach a droplet.

Conventional MIG/MAG welding is carried out using a constant voltage power source which provides
an inherently stable 'self adjusting' arc. For pulsed welding, either a constant voltage or constant
current power source with voltage feedback is used. The only difference between MIG and MAG is
the type of shielding gas used.

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MIG stands for Metal Inert Gas MAG stands for Metal Active Gas
Typical inert gases are argon and helium. Typical active gases are mixtures of argon, carbon dioxide
and oxygen.

4.2. Describe welding processes and procedures

Flat Position
 Butt weld (a "180-degree" joint): Hold the gun at a 90-degree angle to the workpiece, directing
the filler metal straight into the joint (but don't forget to include your travel angle of 5 to 15
degrees). A small, back and forth motion with the gun can help fill a large gap or when making
multiple passes. A slight pausing at the side of a weave bead can help avoid undercut.
 T-joint (a 90-degree joint; the type of weld on this joint is called a "fillet weld"): Keep the gun at
a 45-degree angle, or equal distance from each piece. When making multiple weld passes, the
work angles change slightly. This helps avoid uneven weld beads and undercuts.
 Lap joint (also a fillet weld): Angle the gun between 60 and 70 degrees. The thicker the metal
being welded, the greater the angle.

A fillet weld, shown here, is one of the most common types of welds. In the flat position, keep the
gun angled at 45 degrees from each piece.

4.3 Identify and illustrate welding and gas equipment, accessories and consumables

Wire Feed Motor

A wire feed motor provides power for driving the electrode
through the cable and gun to the work. There are several different wire
feeding systems available. System selection depends upon the
application. Most of the wire feed systems used for flux-cored arc

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welding are the constant speed type, which are used with constant
voltage power sources. With a variable speed wire feeder, a voltage
sensing circuit is used to maintain the desired arc length by varying
the wire feed speed. Variations in the arc length increase or decrease
the wire feed speed. A wire feeder consists of an electrical rotor
connected to a gear box containing drive rolls. The gear box and wire
feed motor shown in figure 10-57 have form feed rolls in the gear box.
FCAW Wire Feed Assembly

4.4. Define and discuss welding codes, standards and data sheets

What Are Welding Codes and Standards, When Are They Used, and How Are They Developed
Many aspects of the design and fabrication of welded components are governed by documents known
as codes and standards. Other names used for such documents include guides, recommended
practices, regulations, rules, and specifications. These documents are often specified by an end
user/purchaser as a contractual agreement in order to control the characteristics of the welded
fabrication that may affect its service requirements. They are also used by the manufacturer to assist
in the development and implementation of their welding quality system. Many end users of welded
components have developed and issued specifications that have been compiled by them to address
their specific requirements. Such specifications may be limited in application and related only to that
customer’s situation and requirements. National interest in areas such as public safety and reliability
has promoted the development of welding codes and standards that command broader recognition

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both on a national and industry-specific basis. Numerous committees have been developed over the
years within national engineering and technical societies that continue to evaluate the needs of
industry and develop new welding codes and standards. Such committees are comprised of members
who are technical experts and represent all interested parties such as manufacturers, end users,
inspection authorities, and government agencies. The membership of these committees is balanced in
order to prevent any one interest group from controlling the committee. On completion of a new or
revised document by the specific committee, it is usually then reviewed and approved by a review
committee, and if accepted, then published in the name of the applicable engineering society.
Documents that have significant influence upon public health and safety are sometimes adopted by
legislative bodies or by federal regulating agencies. In those jurisdictions, such documents become
law and are often referred to as Codes or Regulations. The welding inspector should be aware of what
codes or standards are applicable within their jurisdiction, understand the requirements of the relevant
documents and perform their inspection accordingly.

What The Welding Code and Standard Generally Provides

The specific content and requirements of a welding code or standard can vary in detail, however, there
are a number of elements within these types of documents which are common and which we will
examine.
The Scope and General Requirements: This is found at the beginning of the document and is
important as it will normally provide a description as to the type and extent of welding fabrication for
which the document was developed and intended to be used. It may also provide information relating
to the limitations for the use of the document. Care should be taken to use codes and standards that are
applicable for your particular application.
Design: If the document provides a section for design, it may refer the user to a secondary source of
information, or it may contain minimum requirements for the design of specific welded connections.
Qualification: This section of the document will typically outline the requirements for qualification
testing of welding procedure specifications (WPS) and also those requirements for qualification of
welding personnel. It may provide the essential variables, these being the change limitations that
govern the extent of qualification. Such variables are typically the welding process, type and thickness
of base metal, filler metal type, electrical parameters, joint design, welding position, and others.
This section of the document may also provide the qualification testing requirements. Usually this is
divided into welding procedure and welder performance testing requirements. Typically, it will
provide the types and sizes of test samples to be welded and prepared for testing, the testing methods
to be used, and the minimum acceptance criteria to be used for the evaluation of test samples.
Fabrication: This section, when included in the document, will typically provide information
associated with the fabrication methods and/or workmanship standards. It may contain information
and requirements on such items as base materials, welding consumable classification requirements,

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 shielding gas quality, heat treatment requirements, preparation and care of base material, and other
welding fabrication requirements.
Inspection: This section of the document will typically address the welding inspector’s qualification
requirements and responsibilities, acceptance criteria for discontinuities, and requirements relating to
procedures for nondestructive testing.

4.5 Identify and discuss hazards, risks and safety related to welding processes

What are some tips for a good working posture while welding?

 Learn to recognize symptoms of work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs; also called

repetitive strain injuries or RSIs). Repeated uncomfortable postures and tasks can cause injury.
 Avoid awkward body positions which cause fatigue, reduce concentration and lead to poor welds
which may need to be repeated.
 Always use your hand to lower your helmet. Do not use a "jerking" motion of your neck and head.
 Position yourself in a stable, comfortable posture.
 Position the welding item as flat as possible, on a horizontal surface, between waist and elbow
height.
 Position scaffolding at a comfortable height to allow working in a seated position.
 Avoid working in one position for long periods of time.
 Work with material slightly below elbow level when working in a sitting position.
 Work with material between waist and elbow heights for comfort and precision when working in a
standing position.
 Use a foot rest if standing for long periods.
 Always store materials and tools within normal reach.
 Use positioning aids to accommodate work posture.

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What is an example of a standing workbench design?

What is an example of a seated workbench design?

4.6. Identify welding defects and describe their effect on welds and testing
Identification

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Lack of fusion imperfections can occur when the weld metal fails
 to fuse completely with the sidewall of the joint
 to penetrate adequately the previous weld bead

Lack of side wall fusion

Lack of inter-run fusion

Causes
The principal causes are too narrow a joint preparation, incorrect welding parameter settings, poor
welder technique and magnetic arc blow. Insufficient cleaning of oily or scaled surfaces can also
contribute to lack of fusion. These types of imperfection are more likely to happen when access to the
joint is restricted.
Joint preparation
Too narrow a joint preparation often causes the arc to be attracted to one of the side walls causing lack
of side wall fusion on the other side of the joint or inadequate penetration into the previously
deposited weld bead. Too great an arc length may also increase the risk of preferential melting along
one side of the joint and cause shallow penetration. In addition, a narrow joint preparation may
prevent adequate access into the joint or encourage flooding the joint with moulting weld metal. For
example, this happens in MMA welding when using a large diameter electrode, or in MIG, MAG and
FCAW welding where an allowance has not been made for the diameter of the sheilding gas nozzle.
Consideration should also be given to fabrication features that may obstruct the welding torch.
Welding parameters
It is important to use a sufficiently high current for the arc to penetrate into the joint sidewall and
previously deposited weld runs. Consequently, too high a welding speed for the welding current will

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increase the risk of these imperfections. However, too high a current or too low a welding speed will
cause weld pool flooding ahead of the arc resulting in poor or non-uniform penetration.
Welder technique
Poor welder technique such as incorrect angle or manipulation of the electrode/welding gun, will
prevent adequate fusion of the joint sidewall. Weaving, especially dwelling at the joint sidewall, will
enable the weld pool to wash into the parent metal, greatly improving sidewall fusion. It should be
noted that the amount of weaving may be restricted by the welding procedure specification limiting
the arc energy input, particularly when welding alloy or high notch toughness steels.

Magnetic arc blow

When welding ferromagnetic steels lack of fusion imperfections can be caused through uncontrolled
deflection of the arc, usually termed arc blow. Arc deflection can be caused by distortion of the
magnetic field produced by the arc current (Fig. 3), through:
 residual magnetism in the material through using magnets for handling
 earth's magnetic field, for example in pipeline welding
 position of the current return cable clamp
The interaction of the magnetic field surrounding the arc and that generated by the current flow in the
plate to the current return cable is sufficient to deflect the weld bead. Distortion of the arc current
magnetic field can be minimised by positioning the current return cable clamp so that welding is
always towards or away from the clamp and, in MMA welding, by using AC instead of DC. Often the
only effective means is to demagnetise the steel before welding.

Interaction of magnetic forces causing arc deflection

Weld bead deflection in DC MMA welding caused by welding past the current return connection

Best practice in prevention

The following fabrication techniques can be used to prevent formation of lack of sidewall and interrun
fusion imperfections:

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 use a sufficiently wide joint preparation
 select welding parameters (high current level, short arc length, not too high a welding speed) to
promote penetration into the joint side wall and previousl deposited weld runs without causing
flooding
 ensure the electrode/gun angle and manipulation technique will give adequate side wall fusion
 use weaving and dwell to improve side wall fusion providing there are no heat input restrictions

4.7. Illustrate the preparation of the material for welding

Pre-Weld Inspection
This inspection is conducted prior to the start of the welding operation. This type of inspection is
typically associated with checking the preparation of the welding joint and verification of parameters
that would be difficult or impossible to confirm during or after welding. This is the area of inspection
where we can best introduce controls that may prevent defective welding. Some areas of pre-weld
inspection are joint preparation inspection/pre-weld setup. This may involve the dimensional
inspection of root openings. Root openings that are too tight can cause inadequate root penetration.
Root openings that are too large can cause over- penetration. Groove weld bevel angles, if too small,
may cause lack of fusion, and if too large, can result in distortion of the weld joint from overheating
and excessive shrinkage stress. Joint alignment (misalignment of the weld joint) can result in
difficulty in producing a sound weld and stress concentration at its location, resulting in a reduction of
fatigue life. Plate surface condition and cleanliness, pre-cleaning prior to welding, can often be of
extreme importance. Improper or inadequate cleaning can result in unacceptable levels of porosity in
the completed weld. Other pre-weld inspections may include preheat verification, temperature and
heating method, presence and location of heat treatment monitoring devices, and type and efficacy of
gas purging, if applicable.

Pre-weld inspection may also include evaluation and verification of documentation, material
certification, filler alloy certification, welder performance qualification, welding procedure
qualification, and welder and weld identification, for traceability, if applicable.

Inspection During Welding

This is the inspection that is carried out during the welding operation and is concerned mainly with
the requirements of the welding procedure specification (WPS). This inspection includes such items
as interpass cleaning methods, interpass temperature control, welding current settings, welding
travel speed, shielding gas type, gas flow rate, and welding sequence, if applicable. Also, any

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environmental conditions that may affect the quality of the weld such as, rain, wind, and extreme
temperatures.

Post-Weld Inspection
This inspection typically conducted to verify the integrity of the completed weld. Many non-
destructive testing (NDT) methods are used for post-weld inspection. However, even if the weld is to
be subjected to NDT, it is normally wise to conduct visual inspection first. One reason for this is that
surface discontinuities, which may be detected by visual inspection, can sometimes cause
misinterpretation of NDT results or disguise other discontinuities within the body of the weld. The
most common welding discontinuities found during visual inspection are conditions such as
undersized welds, undercut, overlap, surface cracking, surface porosity, under fill, incomplete root
penetration, excessive root penetration, burn through, and excessive reinforcement.

Explain welding terms, definitions and symbols of various welding processes.

Gas tungsten arc welding GTAW is an arc welding process that fuses together the parts to be welded
by heating them with an arc between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the work. Filler metal
may or may not be used with the process. Shielding is obtained from an inert gas or inert gas mixture.
Slang names for the process are TIG welding, Argon-arc welding and Tungsten arc welding. The
GTAW process can be used to weld commercial metals, including steel, stainless steel, aluminium,
magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium, and others. The process can be used on a wide range of metal
thicknesses. However, due to the relatively low deposition rates associated with the process, thinner
materials are most often welded. It is also popular for depositing the root and hot passes on pipe and
tubing. This process can be used in all welding positions to produce quality welds on almost all metals
used in industry. Since the shielding gas is used, the weld is clearly visible to the welder, no spatter is
produced, post weld cleaning is reduced, and slag is not trapped in the weld. The GTAW process is
normally applied using the manual method. The welder controls the torch with one hand and feeds the
filler metal with the other. The semi-automatic method is also sometimes used in some applications.
The filler metal is fed into the weld puddle by a wire feeder similar to that used in GMAW. The
machine and automatic methods are sometimes used in New Zealand. With these systems, the
welding operator monitors the welding operation and little welding skill is required.

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The manual metal arc process (MMA Welding)

Arc welding processes uses an electrical power supply to create and maintain an electric arc between
an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC)
or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is
protected by some type of inert or semi-inert gas, known as a shielding gas. The manual metal arc
process occurs when two wires which form part of an electrical circuit are brought together and then
pulled slowly apart, an electric spark is produced across their ends. This spark, or arc as it is called,
has a temperature of up to 3,600°C. As the arc is confined to a very small area it can melt metal
almost instantly. If one of these wires is connected to the job and the other to a wire rod or electrode,
as it is usually called, the heat of the arc melts both the metal of the job and the point of the electrode.
The molten metal from the electrode mixes with that from the job and forms the weld. It is important

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to realize that tiny globules of the molten metal from the electrode are forced through the arc (they do
not fall by gravity). If this were not so it would be impossible to use this process for overhead
welding.

Weld Symbols on Drawings

Engineering drawings are descriptions of manufactured objects in terms of shape. surface, finish and
material. In many industries it is customary to draw the shape of the component without indicating
how that shape is achieved. The drawing is a description of a requirement produced by the designer
for the instruction of the manufacturer. In theory, the manufacturer knows best how to produce an
object with the resources he has. In practice, of course. the designer compromises and produces
designs which are capable of production by the techniques, of which he is aware. For example, a
round hole can be drilled, bored or punched. and can be finished by reaming, but whichever method is
used, the lines on the drawing are the same and whichever method is used, the material is not changed
in its characteristics. A welded joint offers a range of considerations which do not arise in other forms
of manufacture. Firstly, there are far more techniques for making a welded joint than in many other
manufacturing operations. This means that the designer has far less chance of foreseeing the
manufacturer’s methods. Secondly, the properties and integrity of the joint will depend on the manner
in which the weld is made Despite this, the designer can still indicate the type of joint he requires.
provided that he is prepared to accept that he may not be able to completely define the joint in the
earlier stages of a design.

5.2. Describe welding processes and procedures

Vertical Positions
Vertical welding, both up and down, can be difficult. This makes pre-weld set-up very important for
making high quality welds. Since you are fighting gravity, consider reducing the voltage and
amperage 10 to 15 percent from the settings for the same weld in the flat position.
 The vertical down technique helps when welding thin metals because the arc penetrates less due
to the faster travel speed. Because vertical down welding helps avoid excessive melt-through,
welders sometime place very thin materials in the vertical position even if they can weld them in
the flat position.
 When welding vertical down, begin at the top of a joint and weld down. For thin metal where
burn-through is a concern, direct the wire away from the weld puddle. Keep the electrode wire on
the leading edge of the weld puddle. A very slight weave may help flatten the weld crown.

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 The vertical up technique: Beginning at the bottom of a joint and welding up can provide better
penetration on thicker materials (typically 1/4 in. or more). The travel angle of the gun is a 5 to 15
degree drop from the perpendicular position. A slight weaving motion can help control the size,
shape and cooling effects of the weld puddle.

Whether you weld vertical up or down will depend on the application and the thickness of the
material you are welding.

Vertical Down Welding

Vertical down is also pretty easy. You start on the top and work your way down. The MIG gun needs
to be tilted up between 35 to 45 degrees. There is a trick to welding vertical down. You need to stay
ahead of the puddle and keep the electrode moving from side to side. Otherwise the weld will not
penetrate properly. Patterns don’t really count as long as you stay ahead of the puddle.

Vertical Up Welding
Vertical up is the most difficult of the MIG welding positions. The MIG gun handle should be pointed
up between 35 to 45 degrees. When welding vertical up you need to build a shelf of weld to work
upward on. The vertical up weld in MIG is typically very convex. Quick hint; if you need help with
welding vertical up it always a good idea to grind a small grove where you will be welding. This is
one of those positions that really sucks and no matter what you do the weld will never look just right.
If the weld is wide enough then you will get a decent looking weld but otherwise it is a very convex
weld in appearance.

5.3 Identify and illustrate welding and gas equipment, accessories and consumables

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TIG power sources (AC, DC Electrode Negative)
Power source
TIG must be operated with a drooping, constant current power source - either DC or AC. A constant
current power source is essential to avoid excessively high currents being drawn when the electrode is
short-circuited on to the workpiece surface.

The welding circuit consists essentially of the following elements:

1.generatore di corrente
2. tungsten electrode-holder torch with cable bundle
3. welding rod
4. gas cylinder with pressure circuit
5. clamp with earth cable
6. water cooling unit

1. Power source

The purpose of the power source is to power the electric arc created between the base
material and the tungsten electrode, through the output of current sufficient to keep the arc struck.
Inside the power source there is usually a welding current adjustment device, of a mechanical
(magnetic shunt) or electronic type (thyristor or inverter system). It is possible to distinguish two

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categories of power source:

a) alternating current (AC) power source

The output current/voltage from the power source takes the typical form of a square wave, which
changes its polarity at regular intervals with a frequency of 20 up to 200 cycles per second (Herz) or
more, depending on the type of power source used. This is achieved by means of one or two devices
whose function is to transform the current/voltage sine wave from the distribution network into a
suitable alternating welding current/voltage.

b) direct current (DC) power source

The output current from the power source has a continuous wave form, which is obtained by means of
devices that are able to convert the current/voltage from alternating to direct. If the welding circuit
consists of a direct current power source (DC), it can be further classified according to the method of
connecting the power source poles to the material to be welded or the form of the welding current:

i) direct current with straight polarity connection

With straight polarity connection, the torch and its cable is connected to the negative pole and the
material to be welded to the positive pole of the power source; in this case the electrons flow from the
electrode towards the piece, causing melting. This is the most frequently used type of current with the
TIG system and it ensures good weldability for almost all commonly weldable metals and alloys, with
the exception of aluminium. Direct current with straight polarity produces a narrow, deep weld pool
and also a penetration that is decidedly better than that obtainable with reverse polarity.

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ii) direct current with reverse polarity connection

TIG Welding (GTAW) is a process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce a weld
with or without a filler material. The equipment is significantly different than MIG equipment and
somewhat different than what is used for stick welding. That said, a welding machine with the right
accessories can be fitted for TIG welding.

Basic TIG equipment components include:

 tungsten electrode
 welding machine (constant current-CC, AC, DC+, DC- or AC/DC). There are advantages to
getting a machine that is designed for TIG welding in order to stay balanced during the weld (see
below for explanation). Regardless of type, a high frequency unit must be built in or attached.
 torch or electrode holder
 shielding gas supply (helium, argon or mixture): argon better for thinner metals due to lower heat
requirement
 filler metal rod
 personal safety equipment

3.11 Gas compositions, application and selection of shielding gases

Shielding gas

Shielding gas is selected according to the material being welded. The following guidelines may help:

 Argon - the most commonly-used shielding gas which can be used for welding a wide range of
materials including steels, stainless steel, aluminium and titanium.

 Argon + 2 to 5% H2 - the addition of hydrogen to argon will make the gas slightly reducing,
assisting the production of cleaner-looking welds without surface oxidation. As the arc is hotter
and more constricted, it permits higher welding speeds. Disadvantages include risk of hydrogen
cracking in carbon steels and weld metal porosity in aluminium alloys.

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 Helium and helium/argon mixtures - adding helium to argon will raise the temperature of the
arc. This promotes higher welding speeds and deeper weld penetration. Disadvantages of using
helium or a helium/argon mixtures the high cost of gas and difficulty in starting the arc.

5.4 Define and discuss welding codes, standards and data sheets

What The Welding Code and Standard Generally Provides

The specific content and requirements of a welding code or standard can vary in detail, however, there
are a number of elements within these types of documents which are common and which we will
examine.

The Scope and General Requirements: This is found at the beginning of the document and is
important as it will normally provide a description as to the type and extent of welding fabrication for
which the document was developed and intended to be used. It may also provide information relating
to the limitations for the use of the document. Care should be taken to use codes and standards that are
applicable for your particular application.
Design: If the document provides a section for design, it may refer the user to a secondary source of
information, or it may contain minimum requirements for the design of specific welded connections.
Qualification: This section of the document will typically outline the requirements for qualification
testing of welding procedure specifications (WPS) and also those requirements for qualification of
welding personnel. It may provide the essential variables, these being the change limitations that
govern the extent of qualification. Such variables are typically the welding process, type and thickness
of base metal, filler metal type, electrical parameters, joint design, welding position, and others.
This section of the document may also provide the qualification testing requirements. Usually this is
divided into welding procedure and welder performance testing requirements. Typically, it will
provide the types and sizes of test samples to be welded and prepared for testing, the testing methods
to be used, and the minimum acceptance criteria to be used for the evaluation of test samples.
Fabrication: This section, when included in the document, will typically provide information
associated with the fabrication methods and/or workmanship standards. It may contain information
and requirements on such items as base materials, welding consumable classification requirements,
shielding gas quality, heat treatment requirements, preparation and care of base material, and other
welding fabrication requirements.
Inspection: This section of the document will typically address the welding inspector’s qualification
requirements and responsibilities, acceptance criteria for discontinuities, and requirements relating to
procedures for non-destructive testing

5.5 Identify and discuss hazards, risks and safety related to welding processes

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What does Grounding have to do with Arc Welding Safety?
Grounding of electrical circuits is a safety practice that is documented in various codes and standards.
A typical arc welding setup may consist of several electrical circuits. Applying and maintaining
proper grounding methods within the welding area is important to promote electrical safety in the
workplace.

Welding Machine Ground

Welding machines that utilize a flexible cord and plug arrangement or those that are permanently
wired into an electrical supply system contain a grounding conductor. The grounding conductor
connects the metal enclosure of the welding machine to ground. If we could trace the grounding wire
back through the electrical power distribution system we would find that it is connected to earth, and
usually through a metal rod driven into the earth.

The purpose of connecting the equipment enclosure to ground is to ensure that the metal enclosure of
the welding machine and ground is at the same potential. When they are at the same potential, a
person will not experience an electrical shock when touching the two points. Grounding the enclosure
also limits the voltage on the enclosure if insulation should fail within the equipment. The current
carrying capability of the grounding conductor is coordinated with the overcurrent device of the
electrical supply system. The coordination of ampacity allows the grounding conductor to remain
intact even if there is an electrical fault within the welding machine. Some welding machines may

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have a double insulated design. In this case, a grounding conductor connection is not required. This
type of welding machine relies on extra insulation to protect the user from shock.

For small welding machines that

utilize a plug on the end of a power
cord, the grounding conductor
connection is made automatically
when the welding machine is plugged into the receptacle.

Receptacle circuit testers will easily check the continuity of the grounding conductor. Receptacle
circuit testers for 120-volt circuits are available at electrical supply or hardware stores; these
inexpensive test devices plug into an electrical outlet. Indicator lights show whether the grounding
circuit is available at the outlet, as well as other circuit tests. If the test device shows the absence of a
ground connection or other circuit problem, call a qualified electrician for assistance. This is a simple
test and should be done periodically. Consult with a qualified electrician to test circuits greater than
120 volts.

Workpiece Ground
The welding circuit consists of all conductive material through which the welding current is intended
to flow. Welding current flows through the welding machine terminals, welding cables, workpiece

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connection, gun, torch, electrode holder and workpiece. The welding circuit is not connected to
ground within the welding machine, but is isolated from ground. How do we ground the welding
circuit?

Extension Cord Grounds

Extension cords should be periodically tested for ground continuity. Extension cords lead a rough life
while lying on the ground; they are under foot and prone to damage. The use of a receptacle circuit
tester will confirm that all of the connections are intact within the cord, plug and receptacle.

Welding Circuit Shock Hazards

Utilizing proper grounding in the welding environment is a good practice, but it does not remove all
possibility of electrical shock. The welding circuit is energized by welding voltage. A person will
receive a shock if they become the electrical path across the welding circuit. Precautions must be
taken to insulate the welder from the welding circuit. Use dry insulating gloves and other insulating
means. Also maintain insulation on weld cables, electrode holders, guns and torches to provide
protection. Proper maintenance of electrical equipment and extension cords will insulate the welder
from electrical sources.

5.6 Identify welding defects and describe their effect on welds and testing.
welding defects
One way to check your parameters is by examining the weld bead. Its appearance indicates what
needs to be adjusted.
Good Weld Notice the good penetration into the base material, flat bead profile, appropriate bead
width, and good tie-in at the toes of the weld (the edges where the weld metal meets the base metal).

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Voltage Too High Too much voltage is marked by poor arc control, inconsistent penetration, and a
turbulent weld pool that fails to consistently penetrate the base material.

Voltage Too Low -Too little voltage results in poor arc starts, control and penetration. It also causes
excessive spatter, a convex bead profile, and poor tie-in at the toes of the weld.

Travel Speed Too Fast -A narrow, convex bead with inadequate tie-in at the toes of the weld,
insufficient penetration, and an inconsistent weld bead are caused by traveling too fast.

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Travel Speed Too Slow -Traveling too slow introduces too much heat into the weld, resulting in an
excessively wide weld bead and poor penetration. On thinner material it may also cause burn through.

Wire Feed Speed/Amperage Too High -Setting the wire feed speed or amperage too high
(depending on what type of machine you're using) can cause poor arc starts, lead to an excessively
wide weld bead, burn-through, excessive spatter, and poor penetration.

5.7 Illustrate the preparation of the material for welding

Metal Preparation
Unlike Stick and Flux-Cored electrodes, which have higher amounts of special additives, the solid
MIG wire does not combat rust, dirt, oil or other contaminants very well. Use a metal brush or grinder
and clean down to bare metal before striking an arc. Make sure your work clamp connects to clean
metal, too; any electrical impedance will affect wire feeding performance.
To ensure strong welds on thicker metal, bevel the joint to ensure the weld fully penetrates to the base
metal. This is especially important for butt joints.

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Both a grinder or a wire brush work well to remove rust and other surface contaminants from the
metal prior to welding.
Equipment Preparation
 Check your cables: Before striking an arc, check your welding equipment to make sure all of
the cable connections are tight fitting and free of fraying or other damage.
 Select electrode polarity: MIG welding requires DC electrode positive, or reverse polarity.
The polarity connections are usually found on the inside of the machine.
 Set gas flow: Turn on the shielding gas and set the flow rate to 20 to 25 cubic feet per hour. If
you suspect leaks in your gas hose, apply a soapy water solution and look for bubbles. If you
spot a leak, discard the hose and install a new one.
 Check tension. Too much or too little tension on either the drive rolls or the wire spool hub
can lead to poor wire feeding performance. Adjust according to your owner's manual.
 Inspect consumables. Remove excess spatter from contact tubes, replace worn contact tips
and liners and discard the wire if it appears rusty.

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A thorough check of your power source, gun and gas cylinders is recommended prior to taking on
any MIG welding project.
Wire Selection
For steel, there are two common wire types. Use an AWS classification ER70S-3 for all-purpose
welding. Use ER70S-6 wire when more deoxidizers are needed for welding on dirty or rusty steel. As
for wire diameter, .030-in. diameter makes a good all-around choice for welding a wide range of
metal thicknesses in home and motorsports applications. For welding thinner material, use a .023-in.
wire to reduce heat input. For welding thicker material at higher total heat levels, use .035-in.
(or .045-in. wire if it's within your welder's output range).

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Miller's unique Auto-Set feature automatically chooses the correct voltage
and wire feed speed - all you need to do is set it to the correct material
thickness and wire diameter.
Gas Selection
 A 75 percent argon/25 percent CO2 blend (also called "75/25" or "C25") works as the best "all
purpose" shielding gas for carbon steel. It produces the least amount spatter, best bead
appearance and won't promote burn-through on thinner metals.
 100 percent CO2 provides deeper penetration, but also increases spatter and the bead will be
rougher than with 75/25.
Voltage and Amperage
How much voltage and amperage a weld requires depends on numerous variables, including metal
thicknesses, type of metal, joint configuration, welding position, shielding gas and wire diameter
speed (among others). Miller provides two tools to simplify setting proper voltage and amperage:
1. A convenient reference chart, located on the inside of the door housing the wire feed system.
2. Miller's unique Auto-Setä function, found on four Millermatic models. Simply select the wire
diameter you're using (a blue light will show that Auto-Set is on) and dial in the thickness of
metal on which you plan to weld. Auto-Set then selects the proper voltage, amperage and wire
feed speed for you.
Using either method will get you in the ballpark. From there, you can then fine-tune the welding arc
to your perso nal preferences.
Wire Stick-out
Stick-out is the length of unmelted electrode extending from the tip of the contact tube, and it does not
include arc length. Generally, maintain a stick-out of 3/8 in. and listen for that "sizzling bacon" sound.
If the arc sounds irregular, one culprit could be that your stick-out is too long, which is an extremely
common error.

The proper wire stick-out for most solid wire MIG applications is about 3/8". Try to maintain this
stick-out length while welding.

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Push or Pull?
 The push or forehand technique involves pushing the gun away from (ahead of) the weld
puddle. Pushing usually produces lower penetration and a wider, flatter bead because the arc
force is directed away from the weld puddle.
 With the drag or backhand technique (also called the, pull or trailing technique), the welding
gun is pointed back at the weld puddle and dragged away from the deposited metal. Dragging
typically produces deeper penetration and a narrower bead with more buildup.
There's an old saying that goes, "If there's slag, you drag," which means use the drag technique for
Stick and Flux Cored welding. When MIG welding mild steel you can use either technique, but note
that pushing usually offers a better view and enables you to better direct wire into the joint.
Travel Angle
Travel angle is defined as the angle relative to the gun in a perpendicular position. Normal welding
conditions in all positions call for a travel angle of 5 to 15 degrees. Travel angles beyond 20 to 25
degrees can lead to more spatter, less penetration and general arc instability.

 Describe Arc welding and gas cutting equipment

 Describe Material according to applications
 Explain the Safety precautions pertaining to arc welding and gas cutting

• Discuss the Arc welding and gas cutting techniques and principles
• Describe Cutting and welding defects

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