©2010 International Journal of Computer Applications (0975 - 8887)

Volume 1 – No. 26

Contemporary Cryptography and Arguments for Classical

Cryptography’s Endurance alongside the Propitious
Quantum Cryptography
R.Sakthi Vignesh S.Sudharssun K.J.Jegadish kumar
Department of Electronics and Department of Electronics and Department of Electronics and
Communication, Pre Final year Communication, Pre Final year Communication-Senior Lecturer
SSN College of Engineering SSN College of Engineering SSN College of Engineering
Chennai, India Chennai, India Chennai, India

ABSTRACT Authenticate. Over an open communication line, Alice

Is the newly born quantum cryptography the ultimate solution for confirms she is talking to Bob, and Bob confirms he is talking
information security? A technique needs to be both theoretically to Alice.
strong and practically viable. But quantum cryptography comes to Use a quantum protocol. The protocol dictates how Alice is to
naught in the latter. We present here some of the quantum‟s encode her random bit stream as a quantum state of a single
theoretical weaknesses like lack of digital signatures (or any photon. Bob measures photons according to the protocol.
algorithm) along with its many real time implementation problems. Construct the sifted key. Alice and Bob use an open line to
We further pursue with the discussion about the potency of discover which photons were sent and measured in the
classical cryptography and its splendid capabilities in providing same basis. The bit values associated with that subset of
security. photons form the sifted key.
Keywords-Cryptography, Quantum, Classical Construct the reconciled key. Over the open line, Alice and
Bob find and remove errors from the sifted key to make the
reconciled key.
1. INTRODUCTION Construct the secret key. Alice and Bob use privacy
Quite recently, we witnessed an important advancement in data amplification to construct a secret key from the reconciled
transmission that has its roots from quantum mechanics. This key. An eavesdropper has essentially no information about
method, called Quantum Cryptography was first proposed in the bits in the secret key.
1984.Since then there has been significant development in it and Save some bits. A few secret bits are retained to enable
recently scientists have succeeded in transmitting data through a authentication in the future.
reasonable distance of 250 Km in free space but at a fruitless
transmission speed of 16-bits per second [1]. General purpose use
of it has not yet come as on date but we have an artifact in our hand,
namely the classical which can do wonders when its potentials are
brought to light.
The basic objective of the paper is to point out the vulnerabilities
and impotency of transmission through quantum channel and to
bring out the true potentials of classical cryptography which assures
enhanced security along with a wide variety of salutary security
tools.

2. QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY(QC)
Quantum cryptography was first proposed in 1984 by Brennet
and Brassard [2] based on the No-Cloning theorem. They proposed
that this way of sending messages could prove to be the most secure
because the eavesdropper cannot read or clone the bits as it would
change the state the photons polarization thus raising an alarm. The
crucial part of quantum computation is that the quantum system has
“qubits” which not only has two states i.e. „0‟ or „1‟ but also a
superposition of both. The SECOQC White paper of 2007 has
proved past regret that QKD is a reliable courier.The following Figure 1: Diagrammatic representation of the quantum session
steps are done for a QKD session

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But consider the following example. Alice needs to send a leads to changes in the polarization of the photon which leads to
letter to Bob. He must make sure that: misinterpretation by Bob.

i) There is no one in Alice's room who can possibly leak the

contents of the letter which she is writing.
3.1.2 Paper Clip. A paper Clip?
ii) Charlie, the human courier is honest at the receiving We need to remember that the eavesdropper may not only be a
moment from Alice. kleptomaniac but also cause cataclysm in the transfer of bits. One
iii) Charlie does not leak the information while carrying the such example is the paper clip inkling. The fiber cable may go
information from Alice to Bob, through rough paths such as the underground pipes, sea water,
subway tunnels etc, paving way for the attacker to do his job. Just
Considering Charlie as a quantum courier, (3) is not at all a problem a paper clip is all that is needed. A paper clip, pinched onto the
as it is taken care of by the laws of physics. But what about (1) and fiber is enough to cause enough change in refractive index at that
(2) ? Eve may be spying on Alice through a camera while she is point leading to change in polarization. This ultimately leads to
writing. Or Alice may commit mistakes while she drafts her letter. wrong interpretation of data.[4] Imagine a city using such highly
There is also a possibility for the contents of the letter to get sensitive communication lines for all it‟s important links and a
corrupted due to improper handling while it is being transported. eavesdropper who wants to shut down the city‟s entire network!
One has to make sure that (1) and (2) have a solution before he can Job made easy, isn‟t it?
claim QC as the „ultimate solution‟ for information security.

Important: In this paper we view Quantum Cryptography (QC) as a

technique for secured communication using the laws of physics and 3.2 Lack of Digital Signatures:
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) as an application based on QC. The digital signatures are those which demonstrate the authenticity
of the digital data to the receiver. A valid digital signature gives a
recipient reason to believe that the message was created by a
known sender, and that it was not altered in transit. The digital
3. REAL TIME PROBLEMS OF QUANTUM generation scheme consists of three algorithms namely key
CRYPTOGRAPHY (QC) generation, signing, key verification. But we know that algorithms
cannot be implemented in QC very easily. Therefore QC lacks
It‟s important to note that implementation of algorithms using QC many vital features like digital signature, certified mail and thus
is not viable if one wants to have the security intact. It can only be the ability to settle disputes before a judge.[5]
used to share keys using Quantum Key Distribution (QKD).
Distribution of keys is just a part of securing information. Proper
encryption and decryption are equally important for preventing
3.3 Predicament Due to the Source:
Eve from guessing the key. But even QKD has a lot to overcome A basic point to be taken care of while designing the source is the
before it‟s perfectly safe and practically useful. Here are a few laser pulses' coherence in phase. It is essential that all the photons
things that laws of physics don‟t take care of. emitted should be having varying phase coherence. This requires a
very sensational design of phase modulator that changes the phase
of the successive photons in a rapid fashion. And the attenuated
laser pulses are not single photons and the multi-photon
3.1 Change in Polarization: components are important [6]
While traveling through the channel, say optical fiber or through 3.4 Distance and Free Space Communication:
air (wireless), there is always a possibility of change in The latest distance that scientists have managed to get in QKD is
polarization of photon. The various causes of the same could be: 250 Km at a speed of 16 bits per second and that too through
guided medium [7]. However, the satellites in air are at around
3.1.1 Action of Birefringence: 36000 Km from the earth surface separated by free space, which
The Birefringence is the process of splitting of beam of light into makes it incomparable to the former data. So Quantum in wireless
the ordinary and extraordinary rays when passed through certain is far from reach. One may suggest Quantum repeaters but the
materials. This effect can occur when the structure of the medium number of such repeaters required makes it costlier than the actual
is anisotropic.The reason for birefringence is the fact that in system itself! And we need to comprimise on the distance for
anisotropic media the electric field vector and the dielectric speed and vice versa. Researchers have been trying to implement
displacement can be nonparallel (namely for the extraordinary ground-Satellite communications for so many years.
polarisation), although being linearly related.If the ne and no are the Proposals have already been given that one can use the weak laser
refractive indices of the material due to the ordinary and pulses instead of single photon for free space communication as a
extraordinary rays respectively and F is the birefringence, single photon when sent through the turbulent atmosphere, would
lead to errors even during nights.
F= k|ne – no | [3] We know that when a signal has to be transmitted to
satellite it must pass through the ionosphere layer that cotains
Pooling this idea with quantum, we find that the message that is many sub-layers within itself, containing several ions.The short
transferred due to photon polarization may change its state (change wavelength photons are absorbed by these materials that splits up a
in polarization) while traveling through a medium. So, one must neutral atom into an electron and a companion. Altogether the
make sure that the medium is a perfectly homologous one with photon that is sent is lost. However the theory of background
respect to the refractive index. But this is practically ambitious and rejection and immunity to the Faraday rotation has lead to
succcessful proposal of this theory, taking an advantage that the

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atmosphere is non-birefringent in optical wavelengths. Still there of the photon in the polarization defined by the measurement
are many more implementation problems that are needed to be results obtained for the amplitudes. A particularly simple cloning
considered.Some of which are scheme could thus be realized by measuring the complex
amplitudes of the input photon and modulating a coherent laser
i) The background radiation rejection and the non-birefringent beam to emit multiple photons with the same polarization
atmosphere work only for normal atmospheric conditions. One amplitudes.The schematic figure of the optimal cloning set-up is
cannot expect such conditions throughout the year. The main shown in the following figure.[10]
challenge is that the above method does not give secure and
reliable communication for all weather conditions.

ii) The Denial of Service (DoS): The DoS is simply an attempt to

make the resource unavailable for its intended users. For a
transmission to be reliable it must be resistant to the Denial of
Service attacks. However till date, the extent to which the free
space comunication has the immunity towards DoS remains very
low.

Furthermore, till date the maximum possible distance that has been
demonstrated is 10Km in day light and 23Km in the night (In Free
Space).The main parameters such as the quantum physics
implementation maturity, classical protocol implementation
maturity, key transfer readiness, practical security, network and
encrypor readiness has not yet been fully satisfied even for short
distance communication and none of the above has been satisfied
for long distance transmission (>70Km).

3.5 Trojan Horse Attack Figure 2: A Schematic of the optimal cloning set-up
While considering the plug and play systems, Alice's device is
open to receive photons So Eve in the middle may send in a light The one-photon input state |ψin is split at a beam splitter of
pulse towards Alice‟s polarizer, this light gets reflected from the reflectivity R. The reflected part is split once more to allow the
polarizer and leaks vital information to Eve[8]. Other attacks such simultaneous uncertainty limited measurement of the four
as the time-shift attack, has been successfully used to crack quadrature components ẋ H, ẋ V, ẏ H and ẏ V by homodyne
commercially used quantum key distribution system. This is the detection. The measurement result is then transmitted to an optical
first successful demonstration of hacking in a quantum modulation setup that displaces the transmitted field amplitudes by
channel.[15]Presently hackers are not having much to gain by a feedback of fR times the measured amplitudes.Thus we can say
spending their resource in hacking the sparsely used a quantum that if advancements in quantum communication take place so is
channel. But as QC users increase one can expect more such the developments in countering basic properties of quantum like
unexpected innovative attacks which are unthought-of till date. No-Cloning of bits.

3.6 No Cloning of Qubits? 3.7 Need of a dedicated channel:

One of the fundamental features of quantum information is that it Exchanging information using single photon needs a dedicated
is impossible to generate perfect copies (or `clones') of an channel of high quality in order to achieve high speed
unknown quantum state input. However, it was later found that communication. It is impossible to send keys to two or more
stimulated emission is in fact an optimal approximation to perfect different locations using a quantum channel as multiplexing is
quantum cloning. This insight was quickly followed by the first against quantum‟s principles. Therefore it demands separate
experimental realizations of optical quantum cloning using channels linking the source with the many destinations which
parametric optical amplification. Recently, it has also been implies high cost. This is a major disadvantage faced by quantum
discovered that the bunching properties of light fields can be used communication especially through optical channel.
to obtain optimal clones by post-selecting the output of a beam
splitter. In general, optical cloning methods thus exploit the natural 3.8 Tolerable error:
wave-particle dualism of light to clone the quantum coherence of For channels such as an optic fiber, the probability for both
photons by manipulating the (classical) optical coherence of the absorption and depolarization of the photon stretches
light field. exponentially with the length of the fiber. This may cause the
In order to get the field properties of photons, one must measure following problems:
the quadrature components ŵ and ŷ of the complex field amplitude
â = ŵ + iŷ. This obviously can be used to get the polarization state i) The number of trials required to transmit a photon without
of the photon as the polarization merely depends upon the two absorption or depolarization grows exponentially with length of
complex amplitudes, âH and âV of a pair of orthogonal channel
polarizations H and V. For a single-photon input, the measurement
of the two complex amplitudes âH and âV by homodyne detection ii) Even when a photon arrives, the fidelity of the transmitted state
is indeed equivalent to a quantum mechanically precise detection decreases exponentially with length of channel.

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RSA Algorithm with example:

The tolerable error probabilities for transmission are less than 10 −2,
and for local operations they are less than 5 × 10 −5. This seems to 1. Choose two prime numbers (p, q)
be far away from any practical implementation in the near future E.g. p = 61 and q = 53
[10] 2. Compute n = pq : n = 61 x 53 = 3233
3. Compute the totient φ(n) = (p-1)(q-1)
Φ(n) = (61-1)(53-1) = 3120
4. CLASSICAL CRYPTOGRAPHY (CC) 4. Choose e > 1 co-prime to 3120: e = 17
5. Compute d such that de ≡ 1(mod φ(n))
„Security through computational complexity‟ is the working rule for
e.g., by computing the modular multiplicative
Classical Cryptography. It uses one way mathematical operations to
provide security. That is these computations are easy in the forward inverse of e modulo φ(n):
direction where as they are computationally demanding if d = 2753 since 17 · 2753 = 46801 and mod (46801,
performed in the reverse e.g. discrete logarithms. In encryption and 3120) = 1 this is the correct answer.
decryption process the information coding using the key is a easy Thus
forward process while the reverse process of finding the key or The public key is (n = 3233, e = 17). For a padded
plaintext from the cipher text is almost impossible. From the above message m the encryption function is:
discussion we can clearly see that the security of CC depends on c = me mod n = m17 mod 3233.
Eve‟s computational weakness. So if eve is assumed to have infinite
computational power, then CC backslides, which is considered as a The private key is (n = 3233, d = 2753). The decryption
major disadvantage. function is:
m = cd mod n = 2753 mod 3233
There are a lot of algorithms available in CC, each of them serves
for a different purpose. Some are used for key exchange while some For example, to encrypt m = 123, we calculate
are used for encrypting and decrypting the message. A few of those c = 12317 mod 3233 = 855
has been listed in the table shown below. Even the revolutionary To decrypt c = 855, we calculate
concept of digital signature is a part of the classical family. m = 8552753 mod 3233 = 123

Table 1:Popular Algorithms and their Features: 4.2 Symmetric Key

Symmetric algorithms, sometimes called conventional algorithms,
are algorithms where the encryption key can be calculated from the
decryption key and vice versa. In most symmetric algorithms, the
encryption key and the decryption key are the same. These
algorithms, also called secret-key algorithms, single-key
algorithms, or one-key algorithms, require that the sender and
receiver agree on a key before they can communicate securely
[11]. The security of a symmetric algorithm rests in the key,
divulging the key means that anyone could encrypt and decrypt
messages. As long as the communication needs to remain secret,
the key must remain secret. Usually Public Key or any other key
management algorithms are used to exchange the keys before the
communication takes place.
Encryption and decryption with a symmetric algorithm are denoted
by:
We discuss below a few popular Classical Cryptography Ek (M) = C
algorithms. DK(C) = M

4.1 Public Key Cryptography: 4.3 Digital Signatures

In 1976, Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman changed the A digital signature is a mathematical scheme for demonstrating the
paradigm of cryptography forever [12]. They used two different authenticity of a digital message. A valid digital signature enables
keys, one public and the other private. It is computationally hard to a recipient to believe that the message was created by a known
deduce the private key from the public key. Anyone with the sender, and that it was not manipulated by anyone. Digital
public key can encrypt a message but not decrypt it. Only the signatures are commonly used for protecting duplication of
person with the private key can decrypt the message. It is as if software (software licensing), financial transactions, and in cases
someone turned the cryptographic safe into a mailbox. Putting mail where it is important to detect forgery and tampering.
in the mailbox is analogous to encrypting with the public key; The important features of digital signature are its authentication
anyone can do it. But opening the mailbox (a strong vault) and and integrity and these two go hand in hand.
reading the content is easier for the one with the key rather than the In most cases, the sender and receiver expect some means by
one with a hacksaw. There are many algorithms which use this which they can be confident that the message has been crafted by
concept but the most popular and cogent one is the RSA the expected person and that it has not been altered during
Algorithm. transmission. Though encryption hides the contents of a message,
it is quite possible to change the encrypted message even without

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understanding it. (Some encryption algorithms, known SHA-512 256 Beyond 2030
as nonmalleable ones, prevent this, but others do not.) However, if SHA-224 112 Through 2030
a message is digitally signed, any change in the message after
signing will spoil or disintegrate the signature. Further, there is no
efficient way to modify a message and its signature to produce a We see that an algorithm using an n-bit key which is proving secure
new message without invalidating the signature. now may not be safe in a few years from now.

So, how to overcome this?

5. THE VERSATILITY OF CLASSICAL With a proper futuristic view one can infer that increased
CRYPTOGRAPHY computational power is not only in the hands of Eve, but is also
available to Alice and Bob. Thus with some gumption we can say
It is condemned that CC‟s strength depends upon Eve‟s that increasing computational power is not a pitfall for CC. Thus to
computational weakness and this criticism has been on the rise ever increase the complexity one needs to increase the key length and to
since the arrival of quantum cryptography. do that all that is required is affordable computational power. Thus
So will CC lose its place with the upcoming of QC? Or will QC when its year 2030 with predicted available computational power
be able to sustain on its own? „Definitely not‟, here are the one can expect key size of 16,384-bits [13] or greater which ensures
advantages that CC holds over QC which assures it a permanent security at least till year 2050, and this will go on. Processors at any
place in the future. time can do the forward „one way‟ mathematics much faster than
the reverse process and thus life time of an algorithm can be
5.1 Non Dependency on the Medium: increased quite indefinitely, the only problem being the need for
Since CC‟s the security is purely based on the strength of the regular hardware up-gradation.
algorithm and not on the method of implementation it can be
implemented on any practically proven technique of digital 5.4 Colossal Communication Range:
communication. This is one of the major advantages that CC holds. Distance of communication is mostly dependant on the technique of
In future one can expect many new methodologies being introduced communication and not on the security algorithm. Thus CC
in the field of digital communication which promises better quality promises secure communication over millions of kilometers. At
or range. For all these, quantum cryptography may not be able to present space shuttles travelling into deep space use CC to have
assure security as its security is provided sole by the courier secured communication with the base station (i.e.) without leaking
(message carrier). However CC can assure information security for important data to rival base stations. It‟s stiff to even imagine doing
all present and future ways of communication. the same using a quantum channel.

5.2 Identity: 5.5 Multiple Platforms for Implementation:

With millions of users and thousands of hackers sharing the same Both hardware and software implementation is possible when CC is
communication channel, one would like to know as to who is used to for security. Hardware implementation is widely used for
sending the information and as to whether it is from the expected speeding up communication and also to make the algorithms tamper
person or not. To cater to this issue there are beautiful solutions in free. It also enables various other use, like the one demonstrated by
CC, like the Digital Signatures which have been crafted to run-over IBM. They came up with innovative tamper proof cryptographic
this crunch. hardware modules to hold the keys [9]. Software implementation is
Public keying is an example of digital signature. That is, only the extensively used to prevent software privacy or for user
person with the public key (n,e) can send a valid encrypted data to management. Software implementation for communication is slow
the destination, which can be usefully decrypted. By this the but has the flexibility of changing the key size at will. Such security
receiver can be sure that the message is being sent by the authorized especially security through software can only be handled using CC
person with the pubic key. Such algorithms are very handy as they algorithms.
can provide security and signature.

5.3 Life Expectancy: 5.6 “I don’t need a reliable courier”- CC :

Moors law states that computational power doubles approximately Courier reliability is not an issue in CC because its security bets
every 18months and we also see that the cost of computation is only on the computational complexity. Thus even with full
reducing drastically with time. This means the computational power information of what is being sent, Eve will have to downtime and
available in future will keep growing unbound and one has to compute for thousands of years before he gets to know the plain
ensure proper security at all times. CC fully depends on the text. This removes the need for exorbitant secure channels.
computational complexity, and providing security alongside
growing processing power is a major disadvantage that CC has to
overcome if it has to stay impressive. To get a better picture, we list 5.7 Communicating in complex networks:
below the life expectancy of a few CC algorithms. Considering any network in existence now; we will find that every
network is highly interlinked and one is having a need to
Table 2: Life Expectancy of CC algorithms communicate using a shared channel. Information exchange in such
Algorithm Bit Length Expected Lift integrated networks is very much possible in CC.
Time
Triple Key DES 112 Through 2030 5.8 What if Quantum Computing Becomes a
256-bit AES 256 Beyond 2030 Reality? :
DSA(p=7680,q=384) 192 Beyond 2030 It is estimated that a 1024-bit RSA key could be broken with
DSA(p=2048,q=224) 128 Through 2030 roughly 3000 qubits. Given that current Quantum Computers

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(QCmp) have below 10 qubits, public-key cryptography is safe for 7. REFERENCES

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