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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

STANDARD SEVEN
TERM - I
VOLUME - 3

SCIENCE
SOCIAL SCIENCE

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

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Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2019
Revised Edition - 2020, 2022, 2023
Reprint - 2021, 2024

(Published under New Syllabus in

Trimester Pattern)

NOT FOR SALE

Content Creation

The wise
possess all

State Council of Educational Research

and Training
© SCERT 2019

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Services Corporation
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in

II

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The Science textbook for standard Seven has been prepared following the
guidelines given in the National Curriculum Framework 2005. The book
enables the reader to read the text, comprehend
and perform the learning experiences with
PREFACE the help of teacher. The Students explore the
concepts through activities and by the teacher
demonstration. Thus the book is learner centric
with simple activities that can be performed by the students under the
supervision of teachers.

 The First term VII Science book has seven units.

 Two units planned for every month HOW
including computer science chapter has TO USE
been introduced. THE BOOK?
 Each unit comprises of simple activities
and experiments that can be done by the teacher through
demonstration if necessary student’s can perform them.
 Colourful info-graphics and info-bits enhance the visual learning.
 Glossary has been introduced to learn scientific terms.
 The “Do you know?” box can be used to enrich the knowledge of general science
around the world.
 ICT Corner and QR code has been introduced in each unit for the first time to enhance
digital science skills.

Lets use the QR code in the text books ! How ?

 Download the QR code scanner from the Google play store/ Apple App Store into
your Smart phone.
 Open the QR code scanner application
 Once the scanner button in the application is clicked, camera opens and then bring it
closer to the QR code in the text book.
 Once the camera detects the QR code, a URL appears in the screen.
 Click the URL and go to the content page.

III

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Seed Germination of Seed Germination of

Monocot Plant Dicot Plant

Table of Contents
Units Title Page No Month
Unit 1 Measurement 1 June
Unit 2 Force and Motion 14 July
Unit 3 Matter Around Us 27 August
Unit 4 Atomic Structure 42 June
Unit 5 Reproduction and Modification in Plants 54 July
Unit 6 Health and Hygiene 74 August
Unit 7 Computer - Visual Communication 89 August

E - book Assessment

IV

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Unit
1 Measurement

3D Solid Shapes

Sphere Cylinder Cone

Cube Cuboid Hexagonal

Learning Objectives

After studying this unit, students will be able to:

™™identify fundamental and derived physical quantities.
™™identify fundamental and derived units.
™™obtain units for certain derived quantities.
™™measure the area and volume of some regular shaped and irregular shaped objects.
™™convert the volume of objects from cubic metre to litre and vice versa.
™™calculate the density of solids and liquids.
™™define astronomical unit and light year.

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1.1.2 Derived quantities

Introduction
All other physical quantities which can be
In day to day life, we measure many things obtained by multiplying, dividing or by
such as weight of fruits, vegetables and food mathematically combining the fundamental
grains, volume of liquids, temperature of the quantities are known as derived quantities.
body, speed of the vehicles etc., Quantities such Eg. Area and volume. Their corresponding units
as mass, weight, distance, temperature, volume are called derived units. Some of the derived
are called physical quantities. A value and a unit quantities and their units are given in Table 1.2.
are used to express the magnitude of a physical
quantity. For example, let us assume that you Table 1.2 Derived quantities and their units
walk 2 kilometre everyday. In this example Derived quantity Unit
‘2’ is the value and ‘kilometre’ is the unit used
Area = Length × Breadth m2
to express the magnitude of distance which
Volume = Length × Breadth × Height m3
is a physical quantity. In this lesson, we are
going to study about fundamental quantities, Speed = Distance / Time ms-1
derived quantities such as area, volume and Electric Charge = Electric Current × Time C
density, and measurement of larger quantities. Density = Mass / Volume kg m-3
*C - Coulomb
1.1 F
 undamental Quantities and
Derived Quantities 1.2 Area
Generally, physical quantities are classified Area is a measure of how much space is
into two types. They are: fundamental quantities there on a flat surface. The area of a plot of land
and derived quantities. is derived by multiplying its length and breadth.
1.1.1 Fundamental Quantities Area = length × breadth
The unit of the area is m2 (Read as square
A set of physical quantities which cannot
metre). Area is a derived quantity as we obtain
be expressed in terms of any other quantities are
it by multiplying the fundamental physical
known as fundamental quantities. Eg. Length,
quantity length (length x breadth).
Mass, Time. Their corresponding units are called
fundamental units. There are seven fundamental
Problem 1.1
physical quantities in SI Units (System of
International Units). They are given in Table 1.1. What is the area of 10 squares each having
side of 1 m?
Table 1.1 Fundamental quantities and their units
Area of a square = side × side
Fundamental quantity Fundamental unit =1m×1m
= 1 m2 or 1 square metre
Length metre (m)
Area of 10 squares = 1 square metre × 10
Mass kilogram (kg)
= 10 square metre
Time second (s)
Temperature Kelvin (K) 1.2.1 Area of regularly shaped objects
Electric current Ampere (A) The area of regularly shaped objects can be
calculated using the relevant formulae. In Table
Amount of substance mole (Mol)
1.3, the formulae used to calculate the area of
Luminous intensity Candela (cd) certain regularly shaped figures are given.
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Table 1.3 Area of some regularly shaped objects

S.No. Plane figure Diagram Area
a side × side
1 Square
a a × a = a2

b length × breadth
2 Rectangle
l l × b = lb

r π × (radius)2
3 Circle
π × r2 = πr2

(1/2) × base × height

4 Triangle h
1/2 × b × h
b

Problem 1.2 ACTIVITY 1

Find the area of the following regular shaped Take a leaf from any one of the trees. Place it on
figures (Take π = 22/7). a graph sheet and draw the outline of the leaf
a. A rectangle whose length is 12 m and with a pencil. Remove the leaf. You can see the
breadth is 4 m. outline of the leaf on the graph sheet.
b. A circle whose radius is 7 m.
c. A triangle whose base is 6 m and height is 8
m.
Solution
a. Area of rectangle = length × breadth
i. Now, count the number of whole squares
= 12 × 4 = 48 m2
enclosed within the outline of the leaf.
b. Area of circle = π × r2 = (22/7) × 7 × 7 Take it as M.
= 154 m2 ii. Then, count the number of squares that
c. Area of triangle = 1/2 × base × height are more than half. Take it as N.
= 1/2 × 6 × 8 = 24 m2 iii. Next, count the number of squares which
are half of a whole square. Note it as P.
iv. Finally, count the number of squares that
1.2.2 Area of irregularly shaped objects
are less than half. Let it be Q.
In our daily life, we encounter many
Now, the approximate area of the leaf can be
irregularly shaped objects like leaves, maps, calculated using the following formula.
stickers of stars or flowers, peacock feather etc.
Approximate area of the leaf
The area of such irregularly shaped objects = M + (3/4) N + (1/2) P + (1/4) Q square cm.
cannot be calculated using any formula.
Area of the leaf = ______________cm2.
How can we find the area of these
This method can be used to find the area of
irregularly shaped objects? We can find the
regularly shaped figures also. In the case of square
area of these figures with the help of a graph
sheet. The following activity shows how to and rectangle, this method gives the measure area
find the area of irregularly shaped plane accurately. This method can be used to calculate
figures. the area of any irregularly shaped plane figures.
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ACTIVITY 2 One square metre is the area

enclosed inside a square of
Draw the following regularly shaped side 1 metre. Even though area
figures on a graph sheet and find their area is given in square metre, the surface need
by the graphical method. Also, find their area not to be square in shape
using appropriate formula. Compare the results
obtained in two methods by tabulating them.
a. A rectangle whose length is 12 cm and 1.3 Volume
breadth is 4 cm. The amount of space occupied by a three
b. A square whose side is 6 cm. dimensional object is known as its volume.
c. A circle whose radius is 7 cm.
Volume = Surface area × Height
d. A triangle whose base is 6 cm and height
is 8 cm. The SI unit of volume is cubic metre or m3.

S. Area using Area using 1.3.1 Volume of regularly shaped objects

Shape
No. formula graphical method
As in the case of area, the volume of a
regularly shaped objects can also be determined
using an appropriate formula. Table 1.4 gives
the formulae used to calculate the volume of the
regularly shaped objects.

Table 1.4 Volume of regularly shaped objects

S.No. Objects Figure Volume

a side × side × side

1 Cube
a a×a×a = a3
a

h length × breadth × height

2 Cuboid
b l l×b×h = lbh

4/3 × π × (radius)3
3 Sphere r
4/3 × π ×r3 = 4/3 π r3

π × (radius)2 × height
4 Cylinder h
r π ×r2×h = π r2h

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unit of 'ml'. This actually represents millilitre.

Problem 1.3 To understand this unit of volume, let us first
Find the volume of the following understand how much a litre means. Litre is the
(Take π = 22/7). commonly used unit to measure the volume of
a. A cube whose side is 3 cm. liquids. We know that the unit of volume is cubic
b. A cylinder whose radius is 3 m and height cm if the dimensions of the object are given in
is 7 m. cm. This cubic cm is commonly known as 'cc'.
Solution A volume of 1000 cc is termed as one litre (l).
a. V
 olume of a cube = side × side × side 1 litre = 1000 cc or cm3
= 3 cm × 3 cm × 3 cm = 27 cubic cm or cm3. 1000 ml = 1 litre
b. Volume of a cylinder = π × (radius)2 × height
= 22/7 × 3 × 3 × 7 = 198 m3.
1.3.3 Volume of irregularly shaped objects
There is no formula to
1.3.2 Volume of Liquids determine the volume of
irregularly shaped objects
Liquids also occupy some space and
as in the case of area. For
hence they also have volume. But, liquids do
such objects, volume can
not possess any definite shape. So, the volume
be determined using a
of a liquid cannot be determined as in the
measuring cylinder and water.
case of solids. When a liquid is poured into a
container, it takes the shape and volume of the ACTIVITY 3
container. The volume of any liquid is equal to
the space that it fills and it can be measured Take a measuring cylinder and pour some
using a measuring cylinder or measuring water into it (Do not fill the cylinder
beaker. The maximum volume of liquid that completely). Note down the volume of water
a container can hold is known as the capacity from the readings of the measuring cylinder.
of the container. A measuring container is Take it as V1. Now take a small stone and tie
graduated as shown in figure. it with a thread. Immerse the stone inside the
water by holding the thread. This has to be
done such that the stone does not touch the
walls of the measuring cylinder. Now, the level
of water will raise. Note down the volume of
water and take it as V2. The volume of the stone
is equal to the raise in the volume of water.

Volume of stone = V2 – V1
Measuring containers
The volume of a liquid is equal to the
volume of space it fills in the container. This can
be directly observed from the readings marked
in the measuring containers. If we notice the
measuring cups given in figure carefully, we
can observe that the readings are marked in the
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Measurement

Fundamental Physical Derived

Quantities Quantities Quantities

Fundamental Area of Derived

Units regular objects Units
Area
Area of Graphical
irregular objects method

Volume of
regular objects
Measuring
cylinders
Volume Volume of
liquids
Litre and its
multiples
Volume of
Archimedes’
irregular objects principle

Definition of
density & its unit

Density

Density of
different materials
Astronomical
Unit
Measurement
of very long
distance
Relation between
Light Year density, Volume
& Mass

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To measure the volume of ACTIVITY 4

liquids, some other units are a. Take an iron block and a wooden block
also used. Some of them are
of same mass (say 1kg each). Measure
gallon, ounce, and quart.
their volume. Which one has more
1 gallon = 3785 ml
volume and occupies more volume?
1 ounce = 30 ml Ans: _________________
1 quart = 1 litre
b. Take an iron block and a wooden block of
same size. Weigh them and measure their
1.4 Density mass. Which one of them has more mass?
Take water in a beaker and drop an iron ball Ans: _________________
and a cork into the water. What do you observe?
The iron ball sinks and the cork floats as shown in From activity 4, we observe that wooden
figure. Can you explain why? block occupies more volume than the iron ball
of same mass. Also, we observe that wooden
Cork block is lighter than the iron block of same size.

The lightness or heaviness of a body is due

to density. If more mass is packed into some
volume, it has greater density. So, the iron
block will have more mass than the wooden
block of the same size. Therefore, iron has
more density.

Iron Ball Density of a substance is defined as the

Iron ball sinks while cork floats in water mass of the substance contained in unit volume
(1 m3). If the mass of a substance is M and
If your answer is heavy objects sink in water
volume is V, then, its density is given as
and lighter objects float in water, then, why
does a metal coin sinks in water whereas a much Mass (M)
Density (D) =
heavier wooden log floats? These questions can be Volume (V)
answered if we understand the concept of density. M
D=
V
SI unit of density is kg/m3. The CGS unit of
density is g/cm3.

1.4.1 Density of different materials

Different materials have different
densities. The materials with more density
are called denser and the materials with less
density are called rarer. The density of some
Lighter coin sinks while heavier wooden log floats widely used materials are listed in Table 1.4.
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Table 1.5 Density of some common

substances, at room temperature Water has more density than
oils like cooking oil and castor
S.No. Nature Materials Density (kg/m3)
oil, although these oils appear
1 Gas Air 1.2
to be denser than water. Density of castor
2 Kerosene 800
3 Liquid Water 1,000 oil is 961 kg/m3. If we put one drop of
4 Mercury 13,600 water in oil, water drop sinks. But, if we
5 Wood 770 put one drop of oil in water, oil floats and
6 Aluminium 2,700 forms a layer on water surface. However,
7 Iron 7,800 some oils are denser than water.
Solid
8 Copper 8,900
9 Silver 10,500
10 Gold 19,300 Problem 1.6
The relationship between mass, density and A sphere is made from copper whose mass
volume are represented in the following density is 3000 kg. If the density of copper is 8900
triangle. kg/m, find the volume of the sphere.
Solution
Density = Mass / Volume
Hence, Volume = Mass / Density
= 3000 / 8900 = 30 / 89
= 0.34 m3
• Density = Mass/ Volume
• Mass = Density × Volume
• Volume = Mass / Density 1.5 Measuring larger distances
Normally, we use centimetre, metre and
Problem 1.4 kilometre to express the distances that we
A solid cylinder of mass 280 kg has a volume measure in our day to day life. But, for space
of 4 m3. Find the density of cylinder. research, astronomers need to measure very
Solution long distances such as the distance between the
Mass of cylinder earth and a star or the distance between two
Density of cylinder =
Volume of cylinder stars. To express these distances, we shall learn
280 about two such units, namely,
= = 70 kg/m3
4
i. Astronomical unit
ii. Light year
Problem 1.5
A box is made up of iron and it has a volume 1.5.1 Astronomical Unit
of 125 cm3. Find its mass if the density of We all know that the earth revolves around
iron is 7.8 g / cm3.
the sun in an elliptical orbit. Hence, the distance
Solution between the sun and the earth varies every day.
Density = Mass / Volume
When the earth is in its perihelion position (the
Hence, Mass = Volume × Density
position when the distance between the Earth
= 125 × 7.8 = 975 g.
and the Sun is short), the distance between
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Perihelion and Aphelion position of Earth

the earth and the sun is about 147.1 million 24 hours, each hour has 60 minutes and each
kilometre. When the earth is in its aphelion minute has 60 seconds.
position, (the position when the distance Thus, the total number of seconds in one year
between Earth and the Sun is the largest) the = 365 × 24 × 60 × 60
distance is 152.1 million kilometre. The average = 3.153 × 107 second
distance between the earth and the sun is about
If light travels at a distance of 3 × 108 m in
149.6 million kilometre. This average distance one second, then the distance travelled by light
is taken as one astronomical unit. Neptune is in one year = 3 × 108 × 3.153 × 107 = 9.46 × 1015
30 AU away from the Sun. It means it is thirty m. This distance is known as one light year.
times farther than the Earth.
One light year is defined as the distance
One astronomical unit is defined as travelled by light in vacuum during the period of
the average distance between the earth and one year.
the sun.
1 Light year = 9.46 × 1015 m.
1 AU = 149.6 million km
= 149.6 × 106 km = 1.496 × 1011 m. In terms of light year, Proxima Centauri
is at 4.22 light-years from Earth and the Solar
1.5.2 Light year System. The Earth is located about 25,000 light-
The nearest star to our years away from the galactic centre.
solar system is Proxima
Centauri. It is at a distance of Points to Remember
2,68,770 AU. We can note here ™™A set of physical quantities which cannot be
that using AU for measuring expressed in terms of any other quantities
distances of stars would be unwieldy. Therefore, are known as fundamental quantities.
astronomers use a special unit, called ‘light Their corresponding units are called
year’, for measuring the distance in deep space. fundamental units.
We have learnt that the speed of light in vacuum ™™The physical quantities which can be
is 3 × 108 m/s. This means that light travels a obtained by mathematically combining
distance of 3 × 108 m in one second. In a year (i.e., multiplying and dividing) the
(non-leap), there are 365 days. Each day has fundamental quantities are known as
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derived quantities. Their corresponding ™™SI unit of density is kg/m3. The CGS unit of
units are called derived units. density is g/cm3. 1g/cm3 = 103 kg/m3.
™™The area of a figure is the region covered ™™The materials with higher density are called
by the boundary of the figure. Its SI unit is denser materials and the materials with
square metre or m2. lower density are called rarer materials.
™™The area of irregularly shaped figures can ™™If the density of a solid is higher than that of
be calculated with the help of a graph sheet. a liquid, it sinks in that liquid. If the density
of a solid is lower than that of a liquid, it
™™The amount of space occupied by a three
floats in that liquid.
dimensional object is known as its volume.
The SI unit of volume is cubic metre or m3. ™™Density = Mass / Volume

™™The volume of liquids are expressed in Mass = Density × Volume

terms of litre. One litre = 1000 cc. Volume = Mass / Density
™™The maximum volume of a liquid that a ™™One astronomical unit is defined as the
container can is known as the capacity of average distance between the Earth and the
the container. Sun. 1 AU = 149.6 × 106 km = 1.496 × 1011 m.
™™Density of a substance is defined as the ™™ One light year is defined as the distance
mass of the substance contained in unit travelled by light in vacuum during the period
volume (1 m3). of one year. 1 Light year = 9.46 × 1015 m.

Evaluation

I. Choose the best answer. II. Fill in the blanks.

1. Which of the following is a derived quantity? 1. Volume of irregularly shaped objects are
a) mass b) time measured using the law of ______________.
c) area d) length
2. One cubic metre is equal to _____________
2. Which of the following is correct?
cubic centimetre.
a) 1L = 1cc b) 1L = 10 cc
c) 1L = 100 cc d) 1L = 1000 cc 3. Density of mercury is _______________.

3. SI unit of density is 4. One astronomical unit is equal to _______.

a) kg/m2 b) kg/m3 c) kg/m d) g/m3 5. The area of a leaf can be measured using a
4. Two spheres have mass and volume in the ________________________.
ratio 2:1. The ratio of their density is
a) 1:2  b) 2:1  c) 4:1  d) 1:4 III. State true or false. If false, correct
the statement.
5. Light year is the unit of
a) distance   b) time 1. The region covered by the boundary of a plane
c) density    d) Both length and time figure is called its volume.
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2. Volume of liquids can be found using 3. Assertion: Iron ball sinks in water.
measuring containers. Reason: Water is denser than iron.
3. Water is denser than kerosene. a. Both assertion and reason are true and
4. A ball of iron floats in mercury. reason is the correct explanation of
5. A substance which contains less number of assertion.
molecules per unit volume is said to be denser. b. Both assertion and reason are true, but
reason is not the correct explanation of
IV. Match the following items. assertion.
a. c. Assertion is true but reason is false.
1. Area a. light year
d. Assertion is false but reason is true.
2. Distance b. m3
3. Density c. m2
4. Volume d. kg VIII. Answer very briefly.
5. Mass e. kg / m3 1. Name some of the derived quantities.

b. 2. Give the value of one light year.

1. Area a. g / cm3 3. Write down the formula used to find the
2. Length b. measuring jar volume of a cylinder.
3. Density c. amount of a substance 4. Give the formula to find the density of
4. Volume d. rope
objects.
5. Mass e. plane figures
5. Name the liquid in which iron ball sinks.

V. Arrange the following in correct 6. Name the units used to measure the distance
sequence. between celestial objects.
7. What is the density of gold?
1. 1L, 100 cc, 10 L, 10 cc
2. Copper, Aluminium, Gold, Iron
IX. Answer briefly.
VI. Use the analogy to fill in the blank 1. What are derived quantities?
1. Area : m2 :: Volume : _________ 2. Distinguish between the volume of liquid
2. Liquid : Litre :: Solid : _________ and capacity of a container.
3. Water : Kerosene :: _______ : Aluminium 3. Define the density of objects.
4. What is one light year?
VII. Consider the following statements
5. Define - Astronomical unit.
and choose the correct option.
1. Assertion: Volume of a stone is found using a
X. Answer in detail.
measuring cylinder.
Reason: Stone is an irregularly shaped 1. Describe the graphical method to find the area
object. of an irregularly shaped plane figure.
2. Assertion: Wood floats in water. 2. How will you determine the density of a
Reason: Water is a transparent liquid. stone using a measuring jar?
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XI. 
Questions based on Higher Order XII. Numerical problems:
Thinking Skills: 1. A circular disc has a radius 10 cm. Find the
There are three spheres A, B, C as shown below. area of the disc in m2 (Use π = 3.14).
Sphere A and B are made of same material. 2. The dimension of a school playground is
Sphere C is made of a different material. Spheres 800 m × 500 m. Find the area of the ground.
A and C have equal radii. The radius of sphere B 3. Two spheres of same size are made from
is half that of A. Density of A is double that of C. copper and iron respectively. Find the ratio
between their masses (Density of copper is
A B C 8,900 kg/m3 and iron is 7,800 kg/m3).
4. A liquid having a mass of 250 g fills a space
Now answer the following questions. of 1000 cc. Find the density of the liquid.
i. Find the ratio of masses of spheres A and B. 5. A sphere of radius 1cm is made from silver.
ii. Find the ratio of volumes of spheres A and B. If the mass of the sphere is 33g, find the
iii. Find the ratio of masses of spheres A and C. density of silver (Take π = 3.14).

XIII. Cross word puzzle.

(1) (a)

(d) (b) (c)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Clues – Across
1. SI unit of temperature; 2. A derived quantity; 3. Mass per unit volume; 4. Maximum volume
of liquid a container can hold
Clues – Down
a. A derived quantity b. SI unit of volume c. A liquid denser than iron d. A unit of length used
to measure very long distances
Answer
1. Kelvin; 2. Volume; 3. Density; 4. Capacity   a. Velocity; b. Cubic metre; c. Mercury; d. Lightyear
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ICT CORNER

Measurement

Let’s know about the effects of

mass and volume on density.

PROCEDURE :

Step 1: Use the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page.

Step 2: Select the options at top right side window to customize

Step 3: Move the sliders on the top left-side window to change the Material and Mass,
Volume. Now see the effects of mass and volume on density.

Step 4: Click ‘Reset all’ button to refresh

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Step 4

Measurement URL:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/density (or) scan the QR Code

*Pictures are indicative only

*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

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Unit
2 Force and Motion

Learning Objectives

After studying this unit, students will be able to:

™™define distance and displacement.
™™differentiate distance and displacement.
™™define speed, velocity and acceleration.
™™differentiate speed and velocity.
™™draw and explain distance - time and velocity - time graphs.
™™measure and calculate the speed of moving objects.
™™know the day to day uses of centre of gravity and stability.

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Playground
Introduction
Look at the picture given below. Kavitha
can reach her school in two ways, as shown in
the picture. Can you tell, by choosing which
path she could reach the school early?

A
Path-
Path-B

House

School School

From the above examples, we could

conclude that when an object travels from one
place to another, it will reach faster if it travels
along the straight line path. The straight line
path is the shortest distance between two points.
In the picture given below, you can see leaf
In this lesson we are going to study about
falling from a tree. In which path the leaf will
distance and displacement, speed and velocity,
reach the ground first?
acceleration, distance - time graph, velocity - time
graph, centre of gravity and stability.

2.1 Distance and Displacement

The total length of a path taken by an
Path A Path B
object to reach one place from another place
is called distance. The shortest distance from
the initial position to the final position of an
Path of the leaf, when Path of the leaf when object is called displacement. Both distance
there is no wind. there is wind.
and displacement possess the same unit. The SI
Uma and Priya are friends studying in the unit distance and displacement is metre (m).
same school. After school hours, they go to the The figure given below shows the motion
nearby playground, play games and return back of a person between two places A and B.
home. One day Uma told that she would reach
the playground after visiting her grandmother’s
1 10 km
house. The paths which they took to reach the
playground is shown here.

Take a twine and measure the length of the 3 5 km

two paths (A and B). Which is the longest path A B
2 7 km
among the two?
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He travels 10 km along the first path. Along displacement is considered to be positive and it
the second path, he travels 7 km. The distance is negative, when it travels from B to A.
between A and B in the case of first path is 10 Subha goes to the nearby playground from
km. In the case of second path, the distance is 7 her home. Look at the picture and answer the
km. The shortest distance between the two places following questions.
is 5 km which is represented by the third path. 1. What is the distance she travelled?
So, the displacement is 5 km (In east direction). 2. What is her displacement?
The path of an object moving from point A
400 m
to point B is shown in the figure. Total distance
N
travelled by the object is 120 m. The displacement
m W E
of the object is 40 m (south - east direction). 0
10 S

120 m
A
N
Can you answer the following questions?
40
m
™™The distance travelled by an object is 15 km
and its displacement is 15 km. What do
B
you infer from this?
The path in which a rabbit ran is shown
™™The distance travelled by a person is 30 km
in the figure below. Let us consider that each
and his displacement is 0 km. What do you
square is in an unit of one square meter. The
infer from this?
rabbit starts from point A and reaches the
point B. Find the distance and displacement of Nautical mile
it in the two figures. When will the distance and Nautical mile is the unit for
displacement be equal? (The starting point and measuring the distance in the field of
the finishing point should be different). aviation and sea transportation. One
A B A nautical mile is 1.852 km.
The unit for measuring the speed of
B aeroplanes and ships is knot. It means that
they travel one nautical mile in one hour.

Distance _____________
Displacement _____________
Distance _____________
Displacement _____________
2.2 Speed - Velocity

When we represent the displacement, we 2.2.1 Speed

use a positive or negative sign depending on the In sixth standard you have already studied
direction in which it travels. about speed in detail. Speed is the rate of change
of distance.
A B
Speed = Distance / Time
Let us consider the point A as the starting The unit of speed is metre/second (m/s).
point. While the object moves from A to B the We can classify speed into two types.
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Uniform speed Distance

travelled
If a body in motion covers equal distances 200 m
in equal intervals of time, then the body is said
to be in uniform speed.

Non- uniform speed Displacement

50 m
If a body covers unequal distances in equal
intervals of time, the body is said to be in non-
uniform speed.

Average Total distance travelled

= Distance 200
Speed Time taken to travel the distance Speed = = = 8 m/s
Time 25

1 km/h = 5/18 m/s Displacement 50

Velocity = = = 2 m/s
Time 25
How we got this ?
1 km = 1000 m; 1 h = 3600 s Uniform velocity
1 km / h = 1000 m / 3600 s = 5/ 18 m /s
A body is said to have uniform velocity, if
it covers equal displacement at equal intervals
of time in the same direction. E.g. Light travels
Know the speed through vacuum.

Non-uniform velocity
Tortoise 0.1 m/s
If either speed or direction changes, the
Person walking 1.4 m/s
velocity is non-uniform. E.g. A train starting
Falling raindrop 9-10 m/s
and moving out of the station.
Cat running 14 m/s
Cycling 20-25 km/h Average velocity
Cheetah running 31 m/s
If the total displacement of an object is
Bowling speed of
fast bowlers 90-100 miles /h divided by the total time taken by the object we
Badminton smash 80-90 m/s get the average velocity.
Passenger jet 180 m/s Total displacement
Average velocity =
Rocket 5200 m/s Total time taken
In the figure given below, a car travels 5 km
2.2.2 Velocity due east and makes a U – turn to travel another
Velocity is the rate of change in displacement. 7 km. If the time taken for the whole journey is
Velocity (v) = Displacement / Time 0.2 h, calculate the average velocity of the car.

SI unit of velocity is metre / second (m/s). 7 km

Ending point E
Look at the figure. An athlete takes 25 s to
0
complete a 200 m sprint event. Find her speed
and velocity. Starting point 5 km

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Average velocity = Total displacement/Time taken. Change in velocity

Acceleration =
(Taking the direction due east of point O as Time
positive) Final velocity (v) – Initial velocity (u)
=
Average velocity = (5 – 7) / 0.2 Time
(v – u)
= –2 / 0.2 a=
= –10 km/h or – 10 × 5/18 t
= – 25/9 = –0.28 m/s SI unit of acceleration is m/s2

The triangle method can help you to A car at rest starts to

recall the relationship between velocity (v), travel in a straight line path. It
displacement (d), and time(t). reaches a velocity of 12 m/s in
4 s . What is its acceleration,
assuming that it accelerates
d uniformly?

u = 0 m s-1 v = 12 m s-1
v t

tu = 0 s tv = 4 s
v = d / t , t = d / v, d = v × t
Initial velocity, u = 0 m/s (Since the car starts
Answer the following questions.
from rest)
™™Calculate the velocity of a car travelling Final velocity (v) = 12 m /s
with a uniform velocity covering 100 m in Time taken (t) = 4 s
4 seconds. (v – u) (12 – 0)
Acceleration (a) = = = 3 m / s2
™™Usain Bolt covers 100 m in 9.58 seconds. t 4
Calculate his speed. If Usain Bolt competes
See how brisk I am !
with a Cheetah which is running at a speed
of 30 m/s, who will be the winner?
™™You are walking along east direction
covering a distance of 4 m, then 2 m My name is cheetah. I can run at great
towards south, then 4 m towards west and speed. Do you know what my speed is? It is
at last 2 m towards north. You cover the 25 m/s to 30 m/s. My speed changes from
total distance in 21 seconds. What is your 0 to 20 m/s in 2 second. See how good my
average speed and average velocity? acceleration is ! Can you calculate it?

2.3 Acceleration 2.3.1 Positive acceleration

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. If the velocity of an object increases with
In other words, if a body changes its speed or respect to time, then the object is said to be in
direction then it is said to be accelerated. positive acceleration.

20 m s1 30 m s1 20 m s1 20 m s1

20 m s1 30 m s1

(a) Change in speed (b) Change in direction (c) Change in both speed and direction

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The velocity of a train at different times is given in the figure.

Analyse this and complete the table .
0 m/s 6 m/s 14 m/s 14 m/s 6 m/s 2 m/s
A B C D E F
0s 10 s 20 s 30 s 40 s 50 s

Acceleration = Change in
The distance Initial Final velocity Change in velocity Time velocity / Time
travelled by velocity (u) (v) (v – u) taken (t) a = (v – u) / t
train m/s m/s m/s s m / s2
A-B 0 6 6 10 0.6
B-C
C-D
D-E
E-F

2.3.2 Negative acceleration or The table given below shows the uniform

Deceleration or Retardation acceleration of a bus.
If the velocity of an object decreases with Time (s) 1 2 3 4 5
respect to time, then the object is said to be Velocity
20+20 40+20 60+20 80+20 100 + 20
in negative acceleration or deceleration or (m/s)
retardation. (acceleration)

u = 8 m s1 v = 2 m s1 Velocity

100–20 80-20 60-20 40-20 20-20
(m/s)
(deceleration)

t = 10 s When the velocity of the object is increasing

by 20 m/s the acceleration is 20 m/s2 . When the
The velocity of a golf ball rolling in a straight
velocity of the object is decreasing by 20 m/s the
line changes from 8 m/s to 2 m/s in 10 s. What is
deceleration is 20 m/s2 .
its deceleration, assuming that it is decelerating
uniformly ? 2.3.4 Non – uniform acceleration
Initial velocity (u) = 8 m/s An object undergoes non–uniform
Final velocity (v) = 2 m/s acceleration if the change in its velocity for
every unit of time is not the same.
Time taken(t) = 10 s
(v – u) (2 – 8) Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Acceleration (a) = = = –0.6 m/s2
t 10 Velocity (m/s) 0 10 40 60 70 50
The deceleration is –0.6 m/s2
Change in 0 10 30 20 10 20
2.3.3 Uniform acceleration Velocity (m/s)

An object undergoes uniform acceleration Note here that the change in velocity is not
when the change (increase or decrease) in its the same for every second. Thus, the moving
velocity for every unit of time is the same. object is undergoing non-uniform acceleration.
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The graph has constant gradient. The

2.4 Distance – Time Graphs
distance increases 10 m in every second. Thus,
A car travelling along a the car moves with uniform speed.
straight line away from the c. Car travelling at increasing speed
starting point O is shown in
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
the figure. The distance of Distance (m) 0 5 20 45 80 125
the car is measured for every
second. The distance and time are recorded and
125
a graph is plotted using the data. The results for
100

Distance (m)
four possible journeys are shown below.
75
Starting
point 50
0x S
25

a. Car at rest 0 1 2 3 4 5

Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 Time (s)

Distance (m) 20 20 20 20 20 20 The graph has an increasing gradient, i.e.
That is, the speed increases.
50
d. Car travelling at decreasing speed
40
Distance (m)

Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
30 Distance (m) 0 45 80 105 120 125
20
10 125

100
0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance (m)

75
Time (s)
50
The graph has zero gradient. i.e. the
25
distance is constant for every second. Thus, the
car is at rest. 0 1 2 3 4 5
b. Car travelling at uniform speed of 10ms-1
Time (s)
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance (m) 0 10 20 30 40 50 The graph has a decreasing gradient. That
is, the speed decreases.
50
2.5 Speed – Time Graphs
40
Distance (m)

30 Let us consider a bus travelling from

Thanjavur to Trichy. The speed of the bus is
20
measured for every second. The speed and
10
time are recorded and a graph is plotted using
0 1 2 3 4 5 the data. It is known as speed-time graph. The
Time (s) results for four possible journeys are shown.
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a. Bus at rest The speed of the bus increases by 10 ms-1

Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 every second. Hence, the graph has a positive
Speed (ms-1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 and constant gradient, and the acceleration is
constant.
50
d. Bus travelling uniform deceleration
40
Speed (m s-1)

30 Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Speed (ms-1) 50 40 30 20 10 0
20

10
50
0 1 2 3 4 5
40
Time (s)

Speed (m s-1)
30
The speed of the bus remains at 0 ms-1. So,
20
the bus has zero acceleration.
10
b. Bus travelling at uniform speed of ms-1
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Speed (ms-1) 10 10 10 10 10 10
Time (s)
50 The speed of the bus decreases by 10 ms-1
40 very second. Hence, the graph has a negative
Speed (m s-1)

30 and constant gradient and the acceleration is

20 negative and constant.
10
e. Bus travelling with increasing acceleration
0 1 2 3 4 5 (Non-uniform acceleration)
Time (s) Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
The speed of the bus remains at 10 ms-1. Speed (ms-1) 10 2 8 18 32 50
Here, slope of the line is zero. So, the bus has
zero acceleration. 50
c. Bus travelling uniform acceleration 40
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 30
Speed (ms-1) 10 10 20 30 40 50
Speed (m s-1)

20

50 10

40
0 1 2 3 4 5
Speed (m s-1)

30
Time (s)
20
The speed of the bus is increasing with
10
time. Hence, the graph has a positive and
0 1 2 3 4 5 increasing gradient and the acceleration
Time (s) increases.
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f. Bus travelling with decreasing acceleration give different information. We can differentiate
(non-uniform acceleration) them by looking at the labels.
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 Graph and Story
Speed (ms-1) 10 18 32 42 48 50
Raju began walking to his school.
Suddenly he remembered that he

Distance
50 forgot his pen and walked back
40 home. But he stopped suddenly
Time
when he heard a noise.
Speed (m s-1)

30 Draw a graph for the given story

20 Rani was waiting for her mother
for some time. When she saw her
10

Distance
mother, she ran out of her home
0 hugged her and stood there for a
1 2 3 4 5
Time
while.
Time(s)
The speed is decreasing with time. Hence, Imagine and write a story on your own for the
given graph?
the graph has a positive and decreasing gradient,
and the acceleration decreases.
Distance

2.5.1 Comparison between Distance –

Time and Speed – Time Graphs
The Speed – Time graphs and Distance – Time

Time graphs may look very similar. But, they

From A to B From B to C From C to D

Car accelerates uniformly from rest. Car moves at constant speed. Car decelerates uniformly to a stop.

Distance–Time Graph
Distance moved increases
Distance/m
uniformly over time. Hence,
Distance moved increases gradient is a constant
at an increasing rate. Hence, (Represented by a
gradient increases (Represented Distance moved increases at a
straight line).
by a concave curve). decreasing rate. Hence,
gradient decreases (Represented
by a convex curve).
Time/s
A B C D

Speed–Time Graph
Speed increases
uniformly over time. Speed decreases uniformly
Hence, gradient is a over time. Hence, gradient
positive constant is a negative constant
Speed/m s1 (represented by a (Represented by a straight
straight line). line).

Speed is constant. Hence, the

graph here is a horizontal line.

Time/s
A B C D

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2.6 Centre of Gravity

Try to balance a Centre of gravity
cardboard on your finger
tip. What do you observe?
You can notice that there is Total pull of the earth (weight) appears
only one point at which the to act through the centre of gravity

cardboard is balanced. The point at which the 2.6.1 Centre of gravity of regular –

cardboard is balanced is called the centre of shaped objects
gravity of the cardboard. Generally the centre of gravity of the
geometrical shaped objects lie on the geometric
The centre of gravity of an object is the
centre of the object.
point through which the entire weight of the
object appears to act. How do we find the centre
of gravity of an object ?
CG CG

ACTIVITY 1
What about irregular shaped objects ?
Apparatus: Irregularly shaped card, string, Weight of card Weight of triangle

pendulum bob, stand

1. Make three holes in the lamina.
2. Suspend the lamina from the optical pin CG CG

through one of the holes as shown in

figure.
3. Suspend the plumbline from the pin and Weight of disc Weight of ring

mark the position of the plumbline on The ruler is in equilibrium when supported
the lamina.
at its centre of gravity. For a regular object such
4. Draw lines on the lamina representing as a uniform meter ruler, the centre of gravity
the positions of the plumbline. is at the centre of the object. When the object
5. Repeat the above steps for the other holes. is supported at that point, it will be balanced. If
6. Label the intersection of the three lines as it is supported at any other point, it will topple.
X, the position of the centre of gravity of
the lamina. 2.7 Stability
Stability is a measure of the body’s ability
to maintain its original position. Three types of
stability are:
a. Stable equilibrium
b. Unstable equilibrium
c. Neutral equilibrium
Let us demonstrate them by taking a
frustum.
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Stable Equilibrium Centre of gravity

remains at the
In stable equilibrium, the frustum can be
same height
tilted through quite a big angle without toppling.
Moment
of weight
Centre of W
gravity raises

Centre of 2.7.1 Condition for Stability

gravity
Stability can be increased by the following
Base Pivot ways.
area
•• Lowering its centre of gravity
•• Increasing the area of its base
Its centre of gravity is raised when it is •• A heavy base lowers the centre of gravity
displaced. The vertical line through its centre of So, the object will be stable.
gravity still falls within its base. So, it can return •• A broad base makes the object more stable.
to its original position.
The Thanjavur Doll
Unstable Equilibrium
It is s type of traditional
In this equilibrium, the frustum will topple
toy made in Thanjavur
with the slightest tilting. Its centre of gravity is from terracotta material. The centre of
lowered when it is displaced. gravity and the total weight of the doll
Centre of Moment is concentrated at its bottom most point,
gravity of weight
generating a dance-like continuous
lowers
movement with slow oscillations.

Centre of
gravity

Base Pivot
area

Here, the vertical line through its centre of

gravity falls outside its base. So, it will not come
back to its position.
2.7.2 Real Life Applications of Centre of
Neutral Equilibrium Gravity
It causes frustum to topple. The frustum • In order to have stability, the luggage
will roll about but does not topple. Its centre of compartment of a tour bus is located at the
gravity remains at the same height when it is bottom and not on the roof.
displaced. The body will stay at any position to • Extra passengers are not allowed on the
which it has been displaced. upper deck of a crowded double decker bus.
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• Racing cars are built low and broad for ™™Velocity is the rate of change in
stability. displacement. SI unit of velocity is metre /
• Table lamps and fans are designed with large second (m/s).
heavy bases to make them stable. ™™The centre of gravity of an object is the
point through which the entire weight of
the object appears to act.
Points to Remember
™™Generally the centre of gravity of the
™™The total length of a path taken by an object geometrical shaped object lie on the
to reach one place from the another place geometric centre of the object.
is called distance. ™™Stability is a measure of the body’s ability to
™™The shortest distance from the initial to the maintain its original position.
final position of an object. ™™The three types of stability are: stable
™™Acceleration is the rate of change in equilibrium, unstable equilibrium, neutral
velocity. SI unit of acceleration is m/s2. equilibrium.

Evaluation

I. Choose the best answer. c. in accelerated motion

d. moving with uniform velocity
1. A particle is moving in a circular path of
radius r. The displacement after half a circle 4. From the given v-t graph it can be inferred
would be that an object is
a. in uniform motion   b.  at rest
a. Zero  b. R  c. 2 r  d. r / 2
c. in non - uniform motion
2. Which of the following figures represent d. moving with uniform accelerations
uniform motion of a moving object correctly?
Distance
Distance

Distance

Time
Time
Time 5. How can we increase the stability of an object?
a. Lowering the centre of gravity
Distance

Distance

b. Raising the centre of gravity

c. Increasing the height of the object
Time Time
d. Shortening the base of the object
3. Suppose a boy is enjoying a ride on a merry
go round which is moving with a constant II. Fill in the blanks.
speed of 10 m/s. It implies that the boy is 1. Th
 e shortest distance between two places is
a. at rest ___________.
b. moving with no acceleration 2. The rate of change of velocity is_________.
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3. If the velocity of an object increases with 3. Correct your friend who says that
respect to time, then the object is said to be acceleration gives the idea of how fast the
in__________ acceleration. position changes.
4. The slope of the speed–time graph gives
VI. Answer briefly.
___________.
1. Show the shape of the distance – time
5. In ___________ equilibrium, the centre of
graph for the motion in the following cases.
gravity remains at the same height when it
a. A bus moving with a constant speed.
is displaced.
b. A car parked on a road side.
III. Match the following. 2. Distinguish between speed and velocity.
3. What do you mean by constant acceleration?
Displacement Knot
4. What is centre of gravity ?
Light travelling Geometric
through vacuum centre
VII. Answer in detail.
Speed of ship Metre
1. Explain the types of stability with suitable
Centre of gravity of
Larger base examples.
geometrical shaped
area 2. Write about the experiment to find the
objects
Stability Uniform velocity centre of gravity of the irregularly shaped
plate.
IV. Analogy
1. Velocity : metre/second :: Acceleration : VIII. Numerical problems.
____________ . 1. Geetha takes 15 minutes from her house to
2. Length of scale : metre :: Speed of aeroplane reach her school on a bicycle. If the bicycle
: ____________ . has a speed of 2 m/s, calculate the distance
3. Displacement / Time : Velocity :: Speed / between her house and the school.
Time : ____________ . 2. A car starts from rest and it is travelling
V. Answer very briefly. with a velocity of 20 m/s in 10 s. What is its
1. Asher says all objects having uniform speed acceleration?
need not have uniform velocity. Give reason. 3. A bus can accelerate with an acceleration
2. Saphira moves at a constant speed in the same of 1 m/s2. Find the minimum time for the
direction. Rephrase the same sentence in bus to attain the speed of 100 km/s from
fewer words using concepts related to motion. 50 km/s.

IX. Fill in the boxes.

S.No. First Move Seconde Move Distance (m) Displacement
1. Move 4 metres east Move 2 metres west 6 2 m east
2. Move 4 metres north Move 2 metres south
3. Move 2 metres east Move 4 metres west
4. Move 5 metres east Move 5 metres west
5. Move 5 metres south Move 2 metres north
6. Move 10 metres west Move 3 metres east

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Unit
3
Matter Around Us

Element Compound Mixture

(Hydrogen) (Water) (Hydrogen & Oxygen)

Learning Objectives

After studying this unit, students will be able to:

 know about the molecules of elements and compounds.

 write the symbols of common elements.
 calculate the atomicity of commonly used elements.
 know about the occurrence of elements and compounds in nature and human body / air.
 understand the effects of temperature on solid, liquid and gas.

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that exhibits the properties of that element

Introduction
is called as ‘atom’. All the matter is composed
We know that everything that occupies of tiny particles called atom. Water, rice and
space and has mass is called matter. Do you everything we see around is made up of atoms.
know what is matter is composed of? We have An atom is the basic unit of a matter.
studied earlier that matter is composed of tiny
little particles, which cannot be seen with naked
eye. That particle is called atom. In this lesson,
we will study about atoms, molecules, elements,
compounds, chemical formulae and atomicity.

3.1 Atoms
Graphite lead used in pencil is made up
of an element called carbon. We can break
graphite into smaller and smaller pieces. If we
have a finer knife, we can break it even smaller. Structure of an atom

If we keep cutting the minuscule graphite into Even with the best of optical microscope we
smaller and smaller particle, we will reach a cannot see atoms. However, there are advanced
point where we get the smallest constituent instruments that help us to imagine the atoms
of graphite - carbon atom. If we break the on the surface of a material. For example, the
carbon atom apart, the properties of carbon following figure shows the image of the surface
are exhibited. The smallest unit of an element of silicon.

Science
7th Std. Good afternoon, Oh, OhClass
“ they
Science
7th Std. are Ummmm I forgot Excellent. Okay Fine. Can you tell me about the
open your all states of matter” I was thinking about particles of a solid? How they move, how close
notebooks. Unicorns they are, any patterns and how strong they are?

Sure, the particles are packed very

close with little free space, they Hahaha that’s
Hi, can anyone tell me are in stacked pattern, stay in one funny. I like
what solids, liquids and place and vibrate. They are joined
strongly but don’t move much. A
chocolate too.
gases are called?
bit like a bar of chocolate.
Science Science Science
Solid 7th Std. Excellent fine. Solid 7th Std. Great research. Solid 7th Std. Does anyone know
Liquid
Gas
Now, what about Liquid
Gas Now who can tell Liquid
Gas about the fourth state
liquid Particles? me about gases? of matter?

Oh! I know the

fourth state of
Sure, liquid particles are packed loosely with Let me check my notes, gases have lots of matter is plasma.
a small amount of free space between them. free space, they are in a random formation Well done Somu
They are not in a pattern. They stay together and they move randomly all over the place.
but move freely around each other, also they
that’s right. See you
They are not attached to each other at all. guys on Thursday.
are loosely attached to each other.

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An atom of oxygen (O) and two atoms of

hydrogen (H) combine to form a molecule of
water (H2O).
Surface of Silicon
2H2 + O2  2H2O
The most abundant atom in
the universe is the hydrogen
Oxygen
atom. Nearly 74% of the
atoms in the universe are
Hydrogen  Water
hydrogen atoms. However, three most
abundant atoms on the Earth are iron,
oxygen and silicon.


3.2 Molecules Formation of water molecule

When an atom combines

Molecules exhibit the properties of
with another atom (or atoms)
matter and also have individual existence.
and forms a compound, it is
A molecule can be formed by the same or
called as molecule. A molecule
different kinds of atoms.
is made up of two or more
atoms chemically combined. Molecules can be classified as below.
Oxygen gas in the air that we breathe
• A molecule which contains only one
is made up of two oxygen atoms chemically
atom is called monatomic molecule (Inert
combined.
gases).

• A molecule which contains two atoms is

called diatomic molecule (Oxygen, Nitric
oxide, Hydrogen, etc.).

• A molecule containing three atoms is called

a triatomic molecule (Ozone, Sulphur
dioxide, Carbon dioxide, etc.).

• A molecule containing more than three

atoms is known as polyatomic molecule
Ozone is a substance that is made up of
(Phosphate, Sulphur, etc.).
three oxygen atoms chemically combined.
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3.2.1 Molecules of Elements

A molecule of an element consists of
fixed number of one types of atom chemically
combined. Table 3.1 shows that gases are
made up of two atoms of the same element.

3.2.2 Molecules of Compounds

Molecule of a compound consists of a fixed
number of different types of atoms chemically
combined. For example, let us look at the model Model of water molecule
of a water molecule below. Each molecule of water
consists of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen Bismuth in diarrhea
atoms. The ratio of oxygen and hydrogen atoms medicine
remains fixed whether water is in liquid, solid Bismuth is an element
that occurs naturally. It is
or gaseous state. This principle applies to the
combined with other elements to make
molecules of all compounds. Compounds with medicine for treating diarrhea.
different atoms are given in Table 3.2.

Table 3.1 Compounds with same atoms

Molecule Chlorine Gas Oxygen Gas Nitrogen Gas

Molecule
Diagram Cl Cl O O N N

Molecule Model
(Ball-and-Stick)

Chlorine Molecule Oxygen Molecule Nitrogen Molecule

Table 3.2 Compounds with different atoms

Molecule Carbon dioxide Ammonia Hydrogen Chloride

H H
N
Molecule Diagram o C o Cl
H
H

Molecule Model
(Ball-and-Stick)
Carbon-dioxide Ammonia Hydrogen
Molecule Molecule Chloride

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are malleable (a material may be flattened into

3.3 Elements
thin sheets or various shapes) are called as metals.
Matter is classified into
Metals are generally hard and shiny elements.
two broad categories, namely,
Sodium is one of the exceptions as it is soft.
pure substances and mixtures.
All metals, except mercury are solids at room
Pure substances are further
temperature. Mercury is the only metal that is liquid
divided into two categories as
at room temperature. Metals are malleable, can
elements and compounds.
be bent or beaten into sheets. They can be drawn
Matter in its simplest form is called an into wires. They are good conductors of heat and
element. We are using many elements in our electricity. Copper, lead, tin, nickel, iron, zinc, gold,
daily life. The common salt consists of two magnesium and calcium are examples of metals.
elements, sodium and chlorine. Water consists
of hydrogen and oxygen. Magnesium and
phosphorus are used for making crackers.
Sulphur is used as manure in agriculture.
Gallium is used for making mobile phones and CopperCopper Lead Lead
Copper
Copper Lead Lead
silicon is used for making computer chips. Copper Lead

There are 118 known elements till date.

Out of these, 94 elements occur naturally
while 24 elements are synthesised artificially
in the laboratory. NickelNickel Steel Steel
Nickel Nickel
Nickel Steel Steel Steel
Copper
Copper Lead
Lead Iron
Iron
3.3.1 Classification of Elements
We can classify the elements broadly into
metals, non-metals and metalloids based on
their chemical properties.

Copper
Copper Nickel
Nickel Boyle
Lead
Lead Steel
Steel Iron
Iron Zinc
Zinc
Robert is the first
scientist who used the term Metals
element. He is the early
Non-metals
prop onent
Non-metals are generally dull and soft.
of the elemental nature of
However, diamond is shiny and also the hardest
matter and the nature of
Nickel
Nickel vacuum. He is known best Steel Steel natural substance
Zinc
Zinc on earth. Non-metals can
for Boyle's Law. be gases, solids and liquids. Non-metals such
as oxygen, hydrogen and chlorine are gases at
room temperature. Carbon, iodine, sulphur and
Metals phosphorus are solids at room temperature.
We have tools, utensils and jewellery made Bromine is the only non-metal that is liquid at room
of silver, copper, iron, gold, aluminium, etc. temperature. Non-metals are poor conductors of
By hammering or rolling we can deform these heat and electricity. However, graphite (a form of the
materials into various shapes. Such elements that non-metal carbon) is a good conductor of electricity.
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3.3.2 Symbol of an element

A symbol is an
abbreviation or short
representation of a chemical
element. There is a unique
symbol for each element.
Phosphorus Sulpher
Non - metals It represents one atom of the element. The
Table 3.3 Difference between metals and symbol is usually derived from the name
non-metals of the element, which is either in English or
Metals Non-Metals Latin. These symbols are accepted by the
Metals are lustrous. Non metals are non International Union of Pure and Applied
They have a shiny lustrous. They have
surface. non- shiny surface. Chemistry (IUPAC).

Metals are generally Non-metals are Dalton was the first scientist to use the
hard. generally soft. symbols for elements in a very specific sense.
Most metals can be Non-metals can not be When he used a symbol for an element he
bent, beaten into sheets bent, beaten into sheets
also meant a definite quantity of that element,
and they can be drawn and they can not be
into wires. drawn into wires. that is, one atom of that element. Berzelius
Most metals are good Non-metals are suggested that the symbols of elements can be
conductors of electricity. bad conductors of written as one or two letters of the name of the
electricity.
element.
Most metals are good Non-metals are bad
conductors of heat. conductors of heat. The following rules are followed while
Most metals make ringing Non-metals does assigning symbol to an element.
sound when struck. not make any sound
Hence, they are used to when they are struck.
make objects like bells. In the beginning, the
Metalloids names of elements were
derived from the name of
Metalloids exhibit the properties of both
the place where they were
metals and non metals. Silicon, arsenic, antimony,
found for the first time. For example, the
and boron are some examples of metalloids.
name copper was taken from Cyprus.
Some names were taken from specific
colours. For example, gold was taken
from the English word meaning yellow.
Now-a-days, IUPAC approves names of
Boron (B) Silicon (Si) Germanium (Ge) elements. Many of the symbols are the
first one or two letters of the element’s
name in English. The first letter of a
symbol is always written as a capital letter
Arsenic (As) Antimony (Sb) Tellurium (Te) (uppercase) and the second letter as a
small letter (lowercase).
Metalloids

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3.3.4 Elements in air

ACTIVITY 1
Air is a mixture of gases. The molecules of
Find out the symbols of the elements with two different elements, nitrogen and oxygen,
the help of your teacher.
make up about 99% of the air. The rest includes
Elements Symbol small amounts of argon and carbon dioxide.
Gold Other gases such as neon, helium, and methane
Silver
are present in trace amounts. Oxygen is the life-
Copper
Iron giving element in the air.
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Aluminium
3.4 Compounds
Calcium A compound is a pure substance that is
Phosphorus
formed when the atoms of two or more elements
Magnesium
Potassium
combine chemically in definite proportions.
Sodium
Compounds exhibit properties that
are entirely different from the properties
™™ Chemical symbols usually consist of one or of their constituent elements. For example,
two letters.
the atoms of the elements hydrogen and
™™ The symbols of most elements correspond to oxygen combine chemically in a fixed ratio
the first letter (which is capitalized) of their to form the compound water. However,
English name. For example, the symbol for water does not have the same properties of
oxygen is O and that for hydrogen is H. You will hydrogen and oxygen. For example, at room
study about symbols in details in standard 8. temperature water exists as liquid while
hydrogen and oxygen exist as gases. Also,
3.3.3 Elements in human Body
oxygen supports fire whereas water is used
Nearly 99% of the mass of our human
as a fire extinguisher.
body consists of just six chemical elements
namely, oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, Similarly, common salt (Sodium chloride)
calcium, and phosphorus. Another five is a compound made up of elements sodium and
elements make up most of the least percentage. chlorine. It is used in our food, whereas sodium
They are potassium, sulphur, sodium, chlorine, and chlorine are poisonous, and both are unsafe
and magnesium. for consumption.

Sodium is a highly reactive solid at Chlorine is yellowish green Sodium Chloride

room temperature . It burns vigorously poisonous gas at room (Used for
when in contact with water temperature cooking)

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that are chemically combined. Sodium

chloride cannot be separated by physical
methods such as filtration.
™™ A compound can be separated into its
constituent elements by chemical methods
only.
Chalk (Calcium, Sugar (Carbon, Table 3.4 Difference between
Carbon and Oxygen) Hydrogen and Oxygen)
an element and a compound
3.4.1 Properties of Compounds Elements Compounds
™™ A compound is formed only when the An element is the A compound is a
constituent elements combine in a fixed simplest substance. chemical substance
proportion. formed by the
™™ The properties of a compound are different combination of two
from those of its constituent elements. or more elements.
™™ A compound cannot be broken down Elements combine to Compounds can be
by physical methods. This is because a form compounds. split into elements.
compound is made up of different elements Atoms are the Molecules are
fundamental the fundamental
ACTIVITY 2 particles of an particles of a
element. compound.
Complete the following table.
Compound
Constituent 3.5 Chemical Formulae
Elements
Water Often we write water as H2O. This is the
Salt (Sodium chloride) chemical formula for water molecule. This
Sodium carbonate means that each molecule of water has two
Baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) hydrogen atoms combined with one oxygen
Sugar atom. A chemical formula is a symbolic
Calcium oxide
representation of one molecule of an element
Calcium hydroxide
or a compound. It provides information about
Sodium hydroxide
the elements present in the molecule and the
Potassium hydroxide
number of atoms of each element. In H2O, small
number beside the 'H' is called subscript. It tells
ACTIVITY 3 us the number of atoms of that element present
in the molecule. Hence, there are two hydrogen
Complete the following table.
atoms in water molecule. There is no number of
No. of different Name of
Formula besides 'O'. It means that there is only one atom
elements Elements
H2O H–2 O–1 Hydrogen, Oxygen of that element present in the molecule. Hence,
NaCl there is 1 oxygen atom in a water molecule. Can
C6H12O6 you guess the types of atoms and number of
NaOH each of the atoms in sodium chloride? Which is
the chemical formula for cooking salt?
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Here are some examples of chemical For molecule containing more than one
formula. types of atoms, simply count the number of
Sodium Chloride : 1 atom of Sodium and each atom and that would be its atomicity.
(Nacl) 1 atom of chlorine For example, one molecule of sulphuric acid
Ammonia : 1 atom of Nitrogen and (H2SO4) consists of 2 hydrogen atom, 1 sulphur
(NH3) 3 atoms of Hydrogen atom and 4 oxygen atoms. Hence, its atomicity
Glucose : 6 Carbon atoms, 12 Hydrogen is 7(2+1+4).
(C6H12O6) atoms and 6 Oxygen atoms One molecule of water (H2O) contains two
The chemical formula tells us the types of atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
atoms and the number of each type of atom in Thus, the atomicity of water is three.
one molecule of substance.
Table 3.6 Atomicity of some elements
Table 3.5 Common compounds and
Element Atomicity Elements Atomicity
their chemical formula
H 2 F 2
Names Formula He 1 Ne 1
Water H2O Li 1 Na 1
Glucose C6H12O6 Be 1 Mg 1
Salt NaCl N 2 P 4
O 2 S 8
Ethanol C2H5OH
Ammonia NH3 ACTIVITY 4
Sulphuric Acid H2SO4
Write down the atomicity of the following
Methane CH4
elements and compounds
Sucrose C12H22O11
Elements / Compounds Atomicity
Cl
3.6 Atomicity Na
In chemistry, atomicity implies the total K
number of atoms present in one molecule of an Ca
element, compound or a substance. Let us see H2O
how to calculate the atomicity of elements. Nacl

For example, oxygen exists as a diatomic

molecule. It means that a molecule of oxygen 3.7 Effect of temperature on Solid,
contains two atoms hence its atomicity is 2. Liquid and Gas
O + O O2
In solids, particles are arranged very closely.
Oxygen atom + Oxygen atom Oxygen Molecule
When solids are heated, the particles in them
Similarly a phosphorus molecule (P4) gain energy and vibrate vigorously. They move
contains 4 atoms and a sulphur molecule (S8) slightly further apart from one another. This
contains 8 sulphur atoms. Hence, their atomicity causes the volume of matter to increase. This
is 4 and 8 respectively. process is called expansion. How it happens?
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The matter begins to expand when heated and

the volume increases due to the increase in the
distance between the particles. But, the size of
the particles remains same.

The melting of ice is an example for

How do hot-air balloons change of states of matter. The change in
float? When air inside the the states of matter occurs during melting,
hot air balloon is heated boiling and freezing and condensation.
with a burner, it expands. When the particles possess enough energy,
The expansion causes the density of the they overcome the strong forces of attraction
air inside the balloon to decrease. Hence, between one another. They break free from
the air inside the balloon has a lower
one another and move randomly. For example,
density than the air outside the balloon.
when solid ice is heated to 00C, it melts to
This difference in density allows the
become liquid water. In the same way, when
hot-air balloon to float.
liquid water is heated to 1000C, it boils to
become steam.

1. Solid
When solid is heated, the particles gain energy
and vibrate more vigorously
During heating or expansion, the mass of
matter does not change. Although the volume 2. Liquid
of the matter changes, the size and number of When the melting point is reached melting
the particles of matter do not change. Hence, occurs. The solid changes to its liquid state.
during heating, the mass of matter is conserved.
When a liquid is heated the particles gain energy
For example, in an iron lock the distance and vibrate more vigorously.
between the iron particles increases when they
3. Gas
gain enough heat. However, the number of iron
Boiling occurs when the boiling point is
particles does not change. Hence, the mass of
reached. The liquid changes to its gaseous state.
the iron lock is conserved.
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uration of Matter
Configuration
ATOM MOLECULE
Smallest particle of
Atoms makes molecules
an Element

ELEMENT COMPOUND
Chemically simplest substance Two or more elements which are chemically
which cannot be broken down bonded together

Iron ore

An Element A Compound
(Hydrogen) (Water)

CHEMICAL FORMULA CHEMICAL SYMBOL

Tells the number of atoms of an Short representation of
element in a compound an Element
Hydrogen atom H
Carbon
Car

H H
Hydrogen
Hy

H H
Oxygen
Oxygen
Oxy Carbon atom
ACETIC ACID (CH3 COOH) BENZENE (C6H6)
H

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™™ An atom is the smallest particle of an element.

Points to Remember
™™ The particulate nature of matter can be
™™ Elements are the simplest forms of pure used to explain heating effect of solid, liquid
substances. and gas.
™™ Molecules of an element consist of a fixed ™™ The mass of the matter remains same during
number of one type of atom. expansion.
™™ Molecules of a compound consist of a fixed ™™ A molecule is made up of two or more atoms
number of different types of atom. chemically combined.
™™ The molecules of the elements nitrogen and ™™ We can represent a molecule using chemical
oxygen make up 99 percent of the air. formula.

Evaluation

I. Choose the appropriate answer. II. Fill in the blanks.

1. Which one of the following is an example for 1. The smallest particle of matter that can exist
a metal? by itself is .
a. Iron b. Oxygen c. Helium d. Water 2. A compound containing one atom of carbon
2. Oxygen, hydrogen, and sulphur are examples and two atoms of oxygen is .
for 3.  is the only non-metal
a. metals b. non-metals which conducts electricity.
c. metalloids d. inert gases
4. Elements are made up of
Which of the following is a short and
3.  kinds of atoms.
scientific way of representing one molecule 5.  of some elements are
of an element or compound? derived from Latin or Greek names of the
a. Mathematical formula elements.
b. Chemical formula 6. There are number of
c. Mathematical symbol known elements.
d. Chemical symbol 7. Elements are the form of
The metal which is liquid at room
4.  pure substances.
temperature is 8. 
The first letter of an element is always
a. chlorine b. sulphur written in letter.
c. mercury d. silver 9. Molecule containing more than three atoms
An element which is always lustrous,
5.  are known as .
malleable and ductile is 10.  is the most abundant gas
a. non-metal b. metal c. metalloid d. gas in the atmosphere.
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III. Analogy. 4. Define the following terms with an example

1. Mercury : Liquid at room temperature :: for each.
Oxygen: . a. Element
b. Compound
Non-metal
2.  conducting electricity :
c. Metal
:: Metal conducting
d. Non-metal
electricity : Copper
e. Metalloid
3. Elements : Combine to form compounds ::
5. Write the symbols for the following elements
Compounds : .
and classify them as solid, liquid and gas.
4. Atoms : Fundamental particle of an element ::
 Aluminum, Carbon, Chlorine, Mercury,
: Fundamental particles of
Hydrogen and Helium
a compound.
6. Classify the following as metals, non-metals
IV. State true of false. If false, give the correct and metalloids.
statement. Sodium, Bismuth, Silver, Nitrogen, Silicon,
1. Two different elements may have similar atoms. Carbon, Chlorine, Iron, Copper
2. Compounds and elements are pure substances. 7. 
Classify the following as elements and
3. Atoms cannot exist alone. They can only compounds.
exist as groups called molecules. Water, Common salt, Sugar, Carbon dioxide,
4. NaCl represents one molecule of sodium Iodine and Lithium
chloride. 8. Write the chemical formula for the following
5. Argon is mono atomic gas. elements.
V. Answer in brief. a. Hydrogen b. Nitrogen
c. Ozone d. Sulphur
1. 
Write the chemical formula and name the
elements present in the following compounds. 9. What are elements? What are they made of?
a. Sodium chloride Give two examples.
b. Potassium hydroxide 10. Define molecule.
c. Carbon dioxide 11. What are compounds? Give two examples.
d. Calcium oxide 12. Give an example for the elements derived
e. Sulphur dioxide from their Latin names.
2. 
Classify the following molecules as the 13. What is atomicity of elements?
molecules of element or compound.
14. Calculate the atomicity of H2SO4.
1. O O 2. C
O
O

VI. Answer in detail.

1. Differentiate metals and non-metals.
3. 4.
N N Na Cl 2. Explain the characteristics of compounds

3. 
What do you understand by chemical 3. 
Describe the different ways in which we
formula of a compound? What is its can write the symbols of elements. Give
significance? appropriate examples.
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4. Differentiate between elements and 4. A

 akash noticed that the metal latch on gate
compounds. was difficult to open during hot sunny days.
5. Write any five characteristics of compounds. However, it was not difficult to open the same
6. Compare the properties of metals and non- latch at night. Aakash observed that the latch
metals. Give three examples for each. and the gate are exposed to the sun during
7. Write down the properties of metalloids. day time.
a. Formulate a hypothesis based on the
VII. Rewrite the given sentence in correct form. information provided.
1. Elements contain two or more kind of atoms b. Briefly state how you would test the
and compounds contain only one kind of hypothesis.
atom.
Consider the following statements
IX 
VIII. Higher Order Thinking Skills. and choose the correct option.
1. 
L ist out the metals, non-metals and 1. Assertion: Oxygen is a compound.
metalloids which you use in your house, Reason: Oxygen cannot be broken down
schools. Compare their properties. into anything simpler.
2. What changes take place in the movement 2. Assertion: Hydrogen is an element.
and arrangement of particles during Reason: Hydrogen cannot be broken down
heating process? into anything simpler.
3. In the diagram given below, the circle, 3. Assertion: Air is a compound.
square and triangle represent the atoms of Reason: Air consists of carbon dioxide.
different elements. 4. Assertion: Air is a mixture of elements only.
Reason: Only nitrogen, oxygen and neon
gases exist in air.
5. Assertion: Mercury is solid in room
temperature.
Reason: Mercury is a non-metal.

a. Both assertion and reason are true and

reason is the correct explanation of
I dentify all combinations that represent assertion.
a. molecule of a compound b. Both assertion and reason are true, but
b. molecule of an element consisting of two reason is not the correct explanation of
atoms assertion.
c. molecule of an element consisting of three c. Assertion is true but reason is false.
atoms d. Assertion is false but reason is true.

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ICT CORNER Matter around us

Let’s build the molecules.

PROCEDURE :

Step 1: Use the URL to reach stimulation page. Click ‘Download’ and launch the stimulation.

Step 2: Drag the atoms from the kit which is at the bottom of the display to ‘make molecule’.
Click on “3D” to see the molecule in 3 dimension. And drag that molecule to ‘Your
molecule collection’ on the left side window.

Step 3: Click on the ‘collect multiple’ tab on the top of the window for more molecules.

Step 4: Click on the ‘Larger molecules’ tab to make larger molecules.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Step 4

Matter around us URL:

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/build-a-molecule

*Pictures are indicative only

*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

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Unit
4 Atomic Structure

Form the Matter Molecule Atom to the

Quark to the Strings

Matter

Molecule

Electron
Gluon
Proton
Quark Up

Atom
Atomic Quark
Nucleus Down Strings

Neutron

Learning Objectives

After studying this unit, students will be able to:

 know the structure of an atom.
 know the position of the sub-atomic particles.
 understand and compare the properties of sub-atomic particles.
 understand the terms atomic number and mass number.
 calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in an atom from
the symbols given in the periodic table.
 understand the term valency.

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Introduction
In the last chapter we studied that anything
around us is matter and it is made up of
molecules. The molecules are combination of
atoms of different elements or the same element.
Table, chair, bag, book, chalk and blackboard,
in short everything you see around are made up
of atoms. Atoms are the smallest particles. They Atom (1 × 10 -10 m)
cannot be seen even through a microscope. In
this lesson, we are going to study about atomic 4.1.1 Dalton’s atomic theory
theories, sub-atomic particles, atomic number
John Dalton
and mass number and valency.
proposed an atomic
4.1 Atomic Theories theory in the year
1808. He proposed that
An atom is thousand times smaller than
matter consists of very
the thickest human hair. It has an average
small particles which
diameter of 0.000000001 m or 1 × 10-9 m. To
he named atoms. An John Dalton
understand the size of an atom, now let us find
atom is the smallest indivisible particle. It
what is the size of known things like pencil, red
is spherical in shape. His theory does not
blood cell, virus and dust particle.
propose anything about the positive and
negative charges of an atom. Hence, it was
not able to explain many of the properties of
substances.

Nanometer is the smallest

Pencil (1 × 10 -2 m) Red Blood Cell (1 × 10-4 m) unit used to measure small
lengths. One nanometer
is equal to 1 × 10-9 m.

4.1.2 Thomson’s theory

In 1897 J.J Thomoson
proposed a different
Virus (1 × 10 -6 m) Dust Particle (1 × 10 -7 m)
theory. He compared an
Now you could imagine how small an atom to a watermelon.
atom would be. His theory proposed that
Many scientists have studied the structure an atom has positively
of the atom and advanced their theories about charged part like the red J.J. Thomson
it. The theories proposed by Dalton, Thomson part of the watermelon and in it are embedded,
and Rutherford are given below. like the seeds, negatively charged particles
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ACTIVITY 1
Some known objects and its broken particles are shown.
1. Name the objects you see here. Also try to write the particles by which each of
them are made of ?

1. --------------------

2. --------------------

3. --------------------

4. --------------------

which he called electrons. According to this the sheet. Rutherford considered this remarkable
theory as the positive and negative charges and miraculous as if a bullet had turned back
are equal, the atom as a whole does not have after colliding with tissue paper. Based on this
any resultant charge. experiment, Rutherford proposed his famous
Thomson’s greatest contribution was theory. They are:
to prove the existence of the negatively 1. Th
 e fact that most alpha particles pass
charged particles or electrons in an atom by
through the gold sheet means that the atom
experimentation. For this discovery, he was
consists mainly of empty space.
awarded the Nobel Prize in 1906. Although
2. Th
 e part from which the positively charged
this theory explained why an atom is neutral,
it was an incomplete theory in other ways. particles turned back is positively charged
but it is very small in size as compared to
4.1.3 Rutherford’s theory the empty space.
There were From these inferences, Rutherford
shortcoming in presented his theory of the structure of atoms.
Thomson's theory. For this theory, he was awarded the Nobel prize
Earnest Rutherford for chemistry.
gave a better
Rutherford’s theory proposes the following.
understanding. Earnest
Rutherford conducted 1. The nucleus at the centre of the atom has
an experiment. He Rutherford positive charge. Most of the mass of the
bombarded a very thin layer of gold with atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
positively charged alpha rays. He found that most 2. The negatively charged electrons revolve
of these rays which travel at a great velocity passed around the nucleus in specific orbits.
through thin gold sheet without encountering any 3. In comparison with the size of the atom, the
obstacles. A few are, however, turned back from nucleus is very very small.
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Stages of discovery of the consitituents of an atom

Negatively charged
electrons
Positive charge

+
Empty
Hard and solid Negatively space
sphere Positive
charged electrons charged nucleus
Dalton’s model Thomson’s model Rutherford’s model
Year: 1808 Year: 1897 Year: 1911

Proton (p)
You have around 7 billion
The proton is the positively charged particle
atoms in your body, yet you
and it is located at the nucleus. Its positive
replace about 98% of them
charge is of the same magnitude as that of the
every year!
electron’s negative charge.

4.2 The sub-atomic particles Neutron (n)

Neutron is inside the nucleus. The neutron
The discoveries made
does not have any charge. Except hydrogen
during the twentieth century
(protium), the nucleus of all atoms contain
proved that atoms of all
neutrons. Protons and neutrons are the two
elements are made up of
types of particles in the nucleus of an atom.
smaller components - electron,
They are called nucleons.
proton and neutron. An electron from hydrogen
atom is no different from the electron of a carbon Electron (e)
atom. In the same manner, protons and neutrons This is a negatively charged particle.
of all elements also have same characteristics. Electrons revolve around the nucleus of the
These particles that make up the atom are called atom in specific orbits. The mass of an electron
'subatomic particles'. is negligible as compared to that of a proton or
neutron. Hence, the mass of an atom depends
on the number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus.
The total negative charge of all the electrons
outside the nucleus is equal to the total positive
charge in the nucleus. That makes the atom
electrically neutral.
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Table 4.1 Charge and mass of sub-atomic particles

Particle Discoverer Symbol Charge Mass (kg)
Proton Goldstein p +1 1.6726 × 10-27
Electron Sir John Joseph Thomson e -1 9.1093 × 10-31
Neutron James Chadwick n 0 1.6749 × 10-27

ACTIVITY 2 Is the structure of an atom

same as the structure of
Look at the given diagram and answer the
the solar system? Yes ! It is
following questions.
similar to the solar system.
–
It has a core (center) called nucleus and it
has paths called orbits around the nucleus.

– +
–
+ 4.3.1 Atomic number (z)
+ + –
The number of electrons or protons in an
+
atom is called the atomic number of that atom.
It is represented by the letter Z. If we know the
– atomic number of an atom, we can find the
1. The positively charged particle is number of electrons or protons in it.
_______________ .
Look at the figures. The nucleus of
2. The negatively charged particle is hydrogen atom has one proton around which
_______________ .
revolves one electron. It means that its atomic
3. _______________ is the neutral number (z) is 1.
particle.
e– e–

2p+
p+
2n

4.3 A
 tomic number and Mass number e–

Hydrogen Helium
e–
If all the elements are e– e–

made up of same sub-atomic e– 8p+ e–

8n
particles, how will a carbon e–
e–
e–
atom differ from an iron
Oxygen
atom? Further investigations
led to the discovery that the number of protons In a helium atom, there are two protons
inside the nucleus of an atom determines what in the nucleus and two electrons revolving in
element it is. For example, if the nucleus has only the orbit around the nucleus. So, the atomic
one proton, then all such atoms are hydrogen number(z) of helium is 2.
atoms. If there are eight protons then that atom Look at the atomic structure of oxygen
is oxygen. shown in the figure. What is its atomic number?
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While writing the symbol of an element,

Try yourself
its atomic number and mass number are also
If the atomic number of carbon is 6, what written. For example, the symbols of hydrogen,
is the number of electrons revolving in its carbon and oxygen are written as 1H1, 6C12, 8O16
orbit?
respectively. All the elements in the periodic
table have the following combination of protons,
4.3.2 Mass number (A) or electrons and neutrons.
Atomic mass
We have seen that the mass of an atom is Table 4.2 Symbols of elements
concentrated in its nucleus. From this, we can Number of proton,
Element Symbol
get the mass number (A). It is equal to the sum electron, neutron,
of the number of protons (p) and number of Carbon 6C
12 6p,6e,6n
neutrons (n) in the nucleus. 9
Beryllium 4Be 4p,4e,5n
Atomic mass or Mass number 14
Nitrogen 7N 7p,7e,7n
= Number of Protons + Number of Neutrons
Boron 11
5B 5p,5e,6n
A=p+n
Lithium atom contains 3 protons and 4 Isotopes
neutrons. Its mass number (A) = 3+4 = 7. In Atoms of element can have different
number of neutrons. Such atoms will
a sodium atom, there are 11 Protons and 12
have same atomic number but different
neutrons. Hence, its mass number (A) is 23
mass numbers. These atoms are called
(11 + 12). isotopes. For example, hydrogen has
three isotopes. They are: Proteum (1H1),
Try yourself
Deuterium (1H2), Tritium (1H3).
1. W
 hy the atomic numbers and mass
Isobars
numbers are always whole numbers?
Atoms that have the same mass
2. A
 sulphur atom contains 16 protons number but different atomic numbers are
and 16 neutrons. Calculate its atomic called isobars. Example: Calcium (20Ca40),
number and mass number. Argon (18Ar40).

Table 4.3 Elements and their symbols with their atomic number and mass number

Atomic Protons Mass

Element Symbol Neutrons(n)
number (p) number(p+n)
Hydrogen H 1 1 0 1
Helium He 2 2 2 4
Aluminium Al 13 13 14 27
Oxygen O 8 8 8 16
Sodium Na 11 11 12 23

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ACTIVITY 3

H He Li Be B
Atomic Number: 1 Atomic Number: 2 Atomic Number: 3 Atomic Number: 4 Atomic Number: 5
Atomic Mass: 1 Atomic Mass: 4 Atomic Mass: 7 Atomic Mass: 9 Atomic Mass: 11
Protons: 1 Protons: 2 Protons: 3 Protons: 4 Protons: 5
Neutrons: 0 Neutrons: 2 Neutrons: 4 Neutrons: 5 Boron Neutrons: 6
Hydrogen Electrons: 1 Helium Electrons: 2 Lithium Electrons: 3 Beryllium Electrons: 4 Electrons: 5

C N O F Ne
Atomic Number: 6 Atomic Number: 7 Atomic Number: 8 Atomic Number: 9 Atomic Number: 10
Atomic Mass: 12 Atomic Mass: 14 Atomic Mass: 16 Atomic Mass: 19 Atomic Mass: 20
Protons: 6 Protons: 7 Protons: 8 Protons: 9 Protons: 10
Carbon Neutrons: 6 Nitrogen Neutrons: 7 Oxygen Neutrons: 8
Electrons: 8
Fluorine Neutrons: 10 Neon Neutrons: 10
Electrons: 10
Electrons: 6 Electrons: 7 Electrons: 9

Na Mg Si
Atomic Number: 11 Atomic Number: 12 Atomic Number: 13 Atomic Number: 14 Atomic Number: 15

Sodium
Atomic Mass: 23
Protons: 11
Neutrons: 12
Magnesium
Atomic Mass: 24
Protons: 12
Neutrons: 12
Al Atomic Mass: 27
Protons: 13
Neutrons: 14
Silicon
Atomic Mass: 28
Protons: 14
Neutrons: 14
P
Phosphorus
Atomic Mass: 31
Protons: 15
Neutrons: 16
Electrons: 11 Electrons: 12 Aluminium Electrons: 13 Electrons: 14 Electrons: 15

S Cl Ar Ca
Atomic Number: 16 Atomic Number: 17 Atomic Number: 18 Atomic Number: 19 Atomic Mass: 20

Sulfur
Atomic Mass: 32
Protons: 16
Neutrons: 16 Chlorine
Atomic Mass: 35
Protons: 17
Neutrons: 18 Argon
Atomic Mass: 39
Protons: 19
Neutrons: 20
K Atomic Mass: 39
Protons: 19
Neutrons: 20 Calcium
Atomic Number: 40
Protons: 20
Neutrons: 20
Electrons: 16 Electrons: 17 Electrons: 19 Potassium Electrons: 19 Electrons: 20

Observe the table given above and answer the following questions.
1. I am used for breathing, without me you cannot live. Write my name and symbol.
_______________________________________________________________________.
2. I t is used in filling the balloons. It is a gas, identify it. What is its mass number?
_______________________________________________________________________.
3. Name the element present in banana. What is its atomic number?
_______________________________________________________________________.
4. I am found in crackers. How many protons do I have?
_______________________________________________________________________.
5. I am the most valuable element. Find who am I. Can you say my mass number?
_______________________________________________________________________.

our hands. If we have more hands, we can shake

4.4 Valency
hands with more persons. In the same manner
When we shake hands with others, we can atoms can share either one electron or two or
either shake hand with one persons using one three or four electrons and some cannot share
hand or shake hand with two persons using both any electron. This property is called valency.
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Table 4.4 Elements and their symbols with their atomic number and mass number and valency.
Element Symbol Atomic Number Mass Number Valency
Hydrogen H 1 1 1
Carbon C 6 12 4
Oxygen O 8 16 2
Sodium Na 11 23 1
Calcium Ca 20 40 2

For example, iron combines with oxygen to

What makes atoms stick form two types of oxides namely, ferrous oxide
together? (exhibits valency 2) and ferric oxide (exhibits
Electrons carry a negative valency 3). We will study about them in detail
electric charge, and protons later.
carry a positive charge. The attraction
When atoms of different elements combine
between them holds electrons in orbits.
with each other, molecules of compounds are
Valency is the combining property of an formed. In these instances, it is necessary to
atom. It is a measure of how many hydrogen know the valancies of those elements. Valencies
atoms it can combine with. For example, of some elements are given in Table 4.4.
oxygen can combine with two hydrogen atoms Points to Remember
and create water molecule. So, the valency of
oxygen atom is two. In the case of chlorine, it ™™ An atom is the smallest particle of an element
can combine with only one hydrogen to create that retains its chemical properties. They are
HCl (hydrochloric acid). Here, the valency very tiny compared to other particles.
of chlorine is one. Methane (CH4) has one ™™ Atoms are too small to be seen by the naked
carbon atom combining with four hydrogen eye or even through microscope.
atoms. Can you guess the valency of carbon ™™ An atom consists mostly of empty space.
in methane? In ammonia molecule, nitrogen ™™ Atoms of same element are identical, and
combines with three hydrogen atoms. What is atoms of different elements differ.
the valency of nitrogen in ammonia? ™™ An atom consists of a dense nucleus which has
Atoms of different elements combine positively-charged protons and electrically-
with each other to form molecules. Valency neutral neutrons.
determines the number of atoms of an element ™™ The protons and neutrons are called nucleons.
that combines with atom or atoms of another ™™ An atom is electrically neutral. They contain
type. equal number of protons and electrons.
The element having valency one is called ™™ Atomic number is the number of protons in an
monovalent. Example: Hydrogen and Sodium. atom.
The elements having valency two are called ™™ The total number of protons and neutrons
divalent. Example: Oxygen and Beryllium. present in the nucleus of an atom is called its
The elements having valency three are called mass number.
trivalent. Example: Nitrogen and Aluminium. ™™ Valency is defined as the combining capacity
Some elements exhibit more than one valency. of an element.
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Evolution of the atomic structure

Positive
charge DALTON THEORY
Negative
charge

- + -
+
J.J. THOMSON THEORY
- +
- +
J.J. Thomson proposes
the “plum pudding”
model of the atom,
picturing negatively
charged electrons
rotating in concentric
rings within a sphere RUTHERFORD THEORY
of positive electricity
(the nucleus)

BOHR THEORY
(the energy levels)

SCHRODINGER THEORY
(electron cloud model)
Modern atom

Proton

Nucleus

Electron
Neutron

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Evaluation

I. Choose the appropriate answer. 5. There are two electrons in the outermost
orbit of the magnesium atom. Hence, the
1. The basic unit of matter is ________
valency of magnesium is_______________ .
a. element b. atom
c. molecule d. electron
III. Match the following.
2. 
The sub-atomic particle which revolves
Valency Fe
around the nucleus is _______
Neutral particle Proton
a. atom b. neutron
Electrons in the
c. electron d. proton Iron
outermost orbit
3. _______ is positively charged. Hydrogen Neutron
a. Proton b. Electron Positively charged
Monovalent
c. Molecule d. Neutron particle

4. The atomic number of an atom is the _______ IV. State true or false. If false, correct the
a. number of neutrons statement.
b. number of protons 1. The basic unit of an element is molecule.
c.total number of protons and neutrons 2. The electrons are positively charged.
d. number of atoms 3. An atom is electrically neutral.
5. Nucleons comprises of _______________ 4. The nucleus is surrounded by protons.
a. protons and electrons
V. Complete the analogy.
b. neutrons and electrons
c. protons and neutrons 1. Sun : Nucleus :: Planets : ________________.
d. neutrons and positron 2. Atomic number : ________________ ::
Mass number : Number of protons and
II. Fill in the blanks. neutrons.
1. The smaller particles found in the atom are 3. K: Potassium :: C : ____________________.
called _________________.
VI. Consider the following statements and
2. The nucleus has __________________ and
choose the correct option.
_______________ .
1. Assertion: An atom is electrically neutral.
3. The _______________ revolve around the Reason: Atoms have equal number of
nucleus. protons and electrons.
4. If the valency of carbon is 4 and that of 2. Assertion: The mass of an atom is the mass
hydrogen is 1, then the molecular formula of its nucleus.
of methane is_________________ . Reason: The nucleus is at the centre.
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3. Assertion: The number of protons or the Calculate the number of electrons, protons
number of neutrons is known as atomic and neutrons in its atom. Draw the structure.
number. 3. What are nucleons? Why are they called so?
Reason: The mass number is the sum of Write the properties of the nucleons.
protons and neutrons. 4. Define valency. What is the valency of the
element with atomic number 8? What is
VII. Answer very briefly.
the compound format by this element with
1. Define – Atom. hydrogen?
2. Name the sub-atomic particles.
3. What is atomic number? X. Higher Order Thinking Skills.
4. What are the characteristics of proton? 1. An atom of an element has no electron. Will
5. Why neutrons are called neutral particles? that atom have any mass or not? Can an atom
exist without electron? If so then give example.
VIII. Answer briefly.
2. What is common salt? Name the elements
1. Distinguish isotopes from isobar. present in it. Write the formula of common
2. What are isotones? Give one example. salt. What are the atomic number and the
3. Differentiate mass number from atomic mass number of the elements? Write the
number. ions in the compound.
4. The atomic number of an element is 9. It has 10
neutrons. Find the element from the periodic XI. Project.
table. What will be its mass number? To have an idea of what atoms are, students
can be asked to construct atoms using pipe
IX. Answer in detail.
cleaners (thin metal wires-electron shells), pom-
1. Draw the structure of an atom and explain poms (balls-different colours for protons and
the position of the sub-atomic particles. neutrons) and beads (electrons). Students will love
2. The atomic number and the mass number and enjoy putting them together and they look
of an element is 26 and 56 respectively. great hanging from the ceiling in the classroom.

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ICT CORNER

Atomic Structure

Let’s build an atom.

PROCEDURE :

Step 1: Use the URL to reach stimulation page. Click play button to launch the simulation.
Step 2: Click on the”ATOM” , a new window will be open. Drag the particles (Protons,
Neutrons and Electrons) from the baskets which is at the bottom of the display.
Step 3: You can observe the changes in ‘Elements, Net charge and Mass number’ at the
right side windows.
Step 4: Click on the ‘Symbol” at the bottom. Drag the particles and get the Symbol of the
element.
Step 5: Click on the”GAME” and play the games.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Step 4

Atomic Structure URL:

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/build-an-atom

*Pictures are indicative only

*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

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Unit
5 Reproduction and
Modification in Plants

Pollination in Plant

Learning Objectives
After studying this lesson, students will be able to:
 understand how a flower becomes a fruit with seed through pollination
and fertilization.
 acquire knowledge about pollination and pollinators.
 differentiate self pollination and cross pollination in plants.
 know about the modification of root, stem and leaves.
 understand how these modifications are useful to animal and human being.

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The process by which plants and animals

Introduction
produce young ones and increase their number
We know already that flowering plants have is known as ‘reproduction’. Drumstick tree can
root, stem and leaves. They are called vegetative be grown from both seeds and stem cuttings.
organs. Flowers, fruits and seeds in a plant are When plants are reproduced from the seeds we
called reproductive organs. In earlier classes we call that process as sexual reproduction. All
have seen that new plants can be grown from other ways of reproduction without seed are
seeds. In this lesson, we are going to know
called as asexual reproduction.
how a flower changes itself into a fruit, and the
modifications of root, stem and leaves of a plant.

5.1 Reproduction

ACTIVITY 1
Aim
To raise a new generation of plant from
watermelon and potato.
Materials required
Two pots with soil, potato, watermelon
seeds and water.
Reproduction in plants
Procedure
Fill both pots with soil mixed with compost ACTIVITY 2
or manure. Take a young potato. Ensure Find out how these plants reproduce.
that it is not dried up and the skin still
Reproductive Part
looks fresh. Bury a potato in one pot. Sow Sl. Name of
No. the plant
watermelon seeds in another pot. Pour Seed Stem Cutting Layering
water regularly and maintain the plant. 1. Mango
Observation 2. Potato
After few days, we can see a single plant
3. Banana
arising from a buried potato. Plants arise
from the pot sowed with watermelon 4. Tamarind
seeds. Each seed produces a plant. 5. Rose
6. Mustard
We can see from this activity that
7. Coriander
watermelon plant is produced from that seeds.
Potato plant is not from seed, but from the stem 8. Moringa
tuber (vegetative part). Seed is not only the 9. Pumpkin
source for new generation, even vegetative part 10. Radish
of a plant can be used to produce a new plant.
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5.2 Sexual reproduction Hibiscus flower

Bud Opened flower
Seed is produced from a flower by the Green colour Bright colour
process of pollination and fertilization. This is Sepals Petals
known as sexual reproduction. To understand Dissected Hibiscus flower
how seeds are formed in a flower, first we need Bud Opened flower
to understand parts of a flower. Curled petals Expanded petals
Small tube with Expanded tube with
ACTIVITY 3 yellow lobes - Anthers yellow lobes -Anthers

Take a flower. Dissect it longitudinally

as shown in the figure and find the parts
inside the flower. Can you identify the male
reproductive part, androecium (stamen,
filament and pollen sac)? Carefully observe
Datura flower
the female reproductive part, gynoecium
(ovary, style and stigma). If they are not Bud Opened flower

seen clearly, gently pluck off the sepals and Green colour White colour
petals. Make a drawing of the parts and Sepals Petals
arrange them in your notebook.
Dissected Datura flower
Bud Opened flower
Curled petals Expanded petals
Small yellow lobes- Expanded yellow
Anthers lobes-Anthers

In a bud, we can see a green colour, leaf like

L.S. of a flower showing its parts
structure which cover the whole bud or flower.
Each of these green leaf like structure present as
5.2.1 Parts of flower an outermost layer is called as sepal. This outer
most ring of sepals is known as calyx.
Let us compare few buds and opened
flowers of Hibiscus and Datura. Observe bud Petals are the largest part of flowers.
and opened flower of Hibiscus and Datura. They are often attractive, brightly coloured,
We can tabulate the characteristics of Hibiscus sometimes sweet scented and attract the insects.
and Datura flowers as below. This ring of petals together is called corolla.

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Petal Sepal
Attracts insects and birds
for pollination.
Flower Hold and cover the young
developing flower bud.
The Reproductive organ of a plant.

Stamen
Male part of a flower
that produce pollen grains. Pistil
Female part of the
flower contains
ovary,style
and stigma.
Pollination
The pollen grains reaches
the stigma.

New plant
Seed germinates and
gives rise to a new plant.

Fertilization
Fusion of male and
female gametes.

Seed
Fertilized ovule
becomes seed.

Fruit
Fertilized ovary
becomes fruit.

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This is the ovary. Seeds are produced in this part.

On top of the ovary there is a slender tube like
structure called style. The top most sticky tip of
Petal
the style is stigma. Pollen grains are received by
the stigma. This is the fourth whorl of a flower.
Sepal
5.2.2 Types of flowers
Flowers can be divided into two types.
They are explained below.
Complete Flower
Sepal and Petal
If all the four whorls - calyx, corolla, stamens
Inside corolla, in Hibiscus, we can observe
and pistil are present, then it is called as complete
a long tube on which many stamens are
flower. Complete flowers are bisexual flowers.
arranged. But, in Datura we can see only five
Incomplete Flower
stalked structures, stamens. This ring or whorl
of a flower is called androecium. Each stamens If any of these four whorls is missing, then it
consists of two parts – a stalk called filament and is called as incomplete flower. Incomplete flowers
a lobe called anther. If you touch these lobes in a are unisexual flowers. There are two types of
mature flower, we can get a powdery substance unisexual flowers, male flower and female flower.
called pollen grains (male reproductive part). The flower with androecium and without
gynoecium is called as male flower and the one
with gynoecium and without androecium is
known as female flowers.

Sunflower is not a single flower.

It is a group of flowers clustered
together. A group of flowers
Androecium - Male part of the flower arranged together is called inflorescence.
Inside androecium whorl, we can find a female Tridax procumbens, looks like a single
reproductive part of the flower, called gynoecium. flower, but it is an inflorescence. Leaf juice
You will find this part with a swollen bottom part. of this plant is used to cure wounds and cuts.
Stigma
Style ACTIVITY 4
Make a flower album
Ovary Collect some flowers and press them between
pages of newspaper or book. Place two thick
Ovule sheets and keep a heavy object, such as brick, on
the top to apply pressure. Turn the sides every two
to three days. Allow flowers to dry completely.
Collect the dried flowers and paste them in an
album. Now, your flower album is ready.
Gynoecium – Female reproductive part
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ACTIVITY 5
Using the information from the above diagram complete the following table:
Name of the flower Complete / Incomplete Unisexual / Bisexual Male / Female
Hibiscus
Pumpkin
Rose
Coconut
Jasmine

ACTIVITY 6
Stigma Petal
Style Once flower buds appear,
immediately identify ten female flower
Ovary Anther buds from a pumpkin plant. Tie a plastic
bag around each bud so that no outside
material can enter inside. Ensure to make

Pedicel Sepal small holes with a pin to allow air flow.

Wait for two to three days to bloom.
Bisexual Flower

Stigma
Style Petal

Overy Female Male

Choose three to four male flowers.

Pluck the stamens of these flowers and
Sepal
Pedicel dust the pollen grains in a sheet of paper
and collect it. Open five out of ten bags
Unisexual Flower
containing female flowers. Brush the
5.2.3 Pollination collected pollen grains on the stigma
We know that flowers of with a soft paint brush. Take care not to
pumpkin are unisexual - that damage the stigma. After few days we can
is some flowers are male while see that flower in all bags that were not
many are female flowers. We
opened at all would wilt without forming
can easily identify the male and female flower
a fruit, while most of the flowers to which
of pumpkin, even before the buds bloom. To
understand how a flower develops into fruit, let pollens have been applied bear fruits.
us perform an experiment on pumpkin plant.
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In the above experiment we transferred the are carried by wind to other flower. Insects,
pollen grains from male flower to the female birds are also agents of pollination. Bees,
flower. This is called as an artificial pollination. butterflies and variety of birds hover around
However, in nature there are many ways in flowers. They help to carry pollen from one
which pollen grains reach the stigma of the flower to another. Pollen grains stick to their
flower and it is called as natural pollination. legs, wings or abdomen when they move from
one flower to another. This is called as cross
pollination

When you shake stamens, pollen grains

fall. Thus, when wind shakes the flower or
when a butterfly agitates the flower, pollen
grains could fall onto the stigma of the same
flower. Some plants that have both the male
and female parts within a single flower
In some plants like grasses, pollen grains (bisexual) pollinate by this means. This is
are light. Stamens shed pollen grains, and called as self pollination.

Table 5.1 Differences between self pollination and cross pollination.

Self Pollination Cross Pollination

Pollen grains are transferred from the anther of
Pollen grains are transferred from the anther to
one flower to the stigma of another flower of the
the stigma of the same flower.
same plant or same variety.
Plants do not need to produce pollen grains in a Plants need to produce pollen grains in larger
large quantity for self pollination quantities to increase the chance of pollination.
It does not produce changes in the characteristics Cross pollination does introduce variations in
of new plants. the characteristics of new plants.

Pollination in Plant

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Beans (Fabaceae) and tomatoes 5.2.4 Fertilization

(Solanaceae) commonly self-pollinate. Even During pollination, pollen grains reach
though, for example, tomato self pollinate, stigma. What happens to them after this?
they need the help of the insects to create Substances produced on the stigma causes
vibrations within the flowers that will the pollen grain to germinate. During
effectively loosen the pollen. Paddy is mostly the germination a tube develops from the
self pollinating using just gentle wind as the pollen grain which carries male gametes and
pollinating agent. The agents that are helping ultimately reaches female gamete inside the
in pollination are called pollinators.
ovary through the style. Male gamete fuses
In many plants, pollens have to come with the female gamete to form zygote. This
from some other flowers. This is obvious process is known as fertilization.
in case of plants which have distinct male
Where is this female gamete located?
and female flowers like pumpkin. In some
Inside the ovary, small rounded structures,
flowers the gynoecium matures first before
the androecium shed pollens. Such plants ovules are present. In these ovules, female
need cross pollination. Plants such as apples, gamete is present. To know more about this,
plums, strawberries, pumpkins use insects for we should cut ovary of a flower in longitudinal
cross-pollination. and transverse ways.

Life cycle
of a plant

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Cut a ovary of a flower both vertically and membranous with some granule like, which
horizontally. Observe the ovules. Compare is edible.
the ovary and ovules from few different
• In mango the outer skin and middle pulpy
flowers. Are there one or more ovules? Can
are edible and sweet. The inner most part is
you see any connection between the number
with single seed.
of ovules in the ovary and number of seeds in
each fruit? • In pea the fruit is not fleshy, but forms a
covering pouch for many seeds.

In all the above fruits, ovary, a lower most

swollen part of pistil develops into a fleshy
fruit. Ovules present inside the ovary gets
transformed into a seed.

Hence, now with these observations, we

Ovary shall list the changes taking place in a flower
after fertilization. These are collectively said to
Ovule
be post fertilization changes

Pedicel
™™ Calyx sometimes persist with fruit.
Longitudinal Section Transverse Section ™™ Petals fall off.
of an Ovary of an Ovary
™™ Androecium fall off.
Collect some fruits like tomato, brinjal,
™™ Pistil remain and develops into a fruit.
lady’s finger (vegetable), mango, peas and
custard apple and observe. You can see some ™™ Style and stigma fall off
green part above brinjal and lady’s finger. What ™™ Ovary enlarges to store food materials
are they? and develops into a fruit.
Compare mango, custard apple and peas. ™™ Ovules present inside the ovary develops
All these are single fruits but custard apple into seeds.
has many small parts in it, each with a seed.
Mango has a single seed and pea has many The world’s largest and
seeds. What do you understand from the above heaviest seed is the double
observations? coconut. The seed looks like
• A green part above fruits of brinjal and two coconut fused together. It grows only
lady’s finger are sepals of a flower. In in two islands of the Seychelles. A single
some plants, after fertilization, sepal will seed may be 12 inches long, nearly 3 feet
not fall from fruit and remain or persist in circumference and weighs about 18 kg.
with fruit. Orchids have the smallest seeds in
the plant kingdom. 35 million seeds may
• Custard apple is made up of many fruits,
weight only about 25 gram.
aggregated together. Each fruit part is thin,
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piece of a filament will grow into a new filament

5.3 Asexual reproduction
or individual. Likewise spirogyra produces so
We saw that plants reproduce not only many young ones and this process is known as
from seeds but by other processes as well. fragmentation.
The production of new plants without the
involvement of pollination and fertilization is
known as asexual reproduction. Let us study the
types of asexual reproduction.

5.3.1 Vegetative Propagation

In potato, shoot arise from eyes. Sugar cane
and yam also grow like this. Vegetative parts of
the plants such as root, stem and leaves can
help to produce the plant.
5.3.4 Spore Formation
Scarcity of water, high temperature,
nutrient deficiency in soil etc., are
unfavourable conditions. During these
conditions non-flowering plants like algae,
fungi, moss and ferns produce spores. They
germinate into a new plant when favourable
conditions return.
5.3.2 Budding
When we go to a bakery we see so many
types of cakes and breads. These are very soft
in nature. This is due to the presence of yeast.
Single yeast undergoes asymmetric division. It
produces a small protuberance which gradually
grow and detach from the parent cell. This
process is called budding.
Emerging bud Bud
Nucleus
5.4 Modifications of plant parts
Compare the given plants and discuss with
Vacuole your teacher.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Parent cell Movement of nucleus

5.3.3 Fragmentation
In a pond we see so many algae. Spirogyra
is a filamentous alga. When it matures, the
filament divides into pieces. Each fragment or Carrot Plant Grass

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pluck it from the ground if you wash them

gently, you will notice small roots dangling
from their surface. All these vegetables are in
fact roots of the plant. Instead of thin slender
roots, they have become a place to store the
Onion Potato
food produced by them. Hence, they are thick
Carefully remove a fresh carrot plant from and swollen. One can notice that the tap root of
the soil and observe it. Look at the part we usually
radish is in the shape of spindle, swollen in the
consume as ‘carrot vegetable’. It is not a unripe
middle and tapering at both ends. Such type of
fruit, but the tap root of the carrot plant. We can
modified roots are called spindle shaped root.
see that the tap root of the carrot is swollen. In the
case of the carrot plant, the tap root has a different
characteristics than the usual plants. Normally,
each plant organ originally evolves to meet certain
needs of the plant. For example, roots evolve
primarily to anchor the plant and also to absorb Radish
water and mineral nutrients from the soil.
At times, like in the case of turnip and beet
Leaves are adapted to optimize root, the tap root can acquire a shape of top, that is
photosynthesis. Stems evolve to reach out to spherical at the base and tapering shortly towards
sunlight and also to conduct water from roots to
the apex. They are called as top shaped root.
leaves. However in certain plant species, specific
parts have evolved further in unusual and
surprising ways to meet certain other specific
needs, In some plants, root, stem, and leaves
change their shape and structure to perform
special functions like storage of food, mechanical
support, protection and other vital functions.
This is known as modification.
What appear as the ‘leaf ’ of a cacti are
Beet Root
actually their stem and what appear as ‘spine’ on
them are actually leaf. Its leaves are modified into In case of carrot, the shape is conical, broad
spines, an adaptation to reduce transpiration. at the apex and tapering gradually towards the
Photosynthesis is performed by the stem part of base and such modified roots are called conical
the plant. In this section let us study about the shaped root.
modification of root, stem and leaves.

5.4.1 Modification of Root

a. Roots for storage
Look at radish, turnip, beet
root, and carrot. They all grow
under the soil. As soon as you Carrot
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Modification Modification
of Root of Leaf
To perform special functions Leaves have changed themselves
the roots change their size and shape. to adopt to their environment

PLANT
MODIFICATION
Modification
of stem
STORAGE OF FOOD Stem modified for storing the SPINES
e.g. Beet root food materials and for e.g.Opuntia
vegetative propagation.

MECHANICAL SUPPORT TENDRILS

AERIAL MODIFIED
e.g. Banyan tree e.g.Pisum
e.g. Cactus

GASES EXCHANGE SUB-AERIAL MODIFIED PHYLLODE

e.g. Avicennia e.g. Eichhornia e.g. Acacia

SUCKING ROOT UNDERGROUND STEM TRAPS

e.g.Cuscuta e.g. ColoCasia e.g. Nepenthus

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Stilt roots
ACTIVITY 7
In sugar cane and maize, adventitious roots
Aim: To study the modification of root. arise from the nodes in cluster at the base of the
Materials Required: Sample / Charts of stem. These roots are called stilt roots which
radish, carrot, beet root, sweet potato, stilt give additional support.
roots and pneumatophores.
Procedure: Carefully observe the shape of
each specimen.
Observation: Draw the diagram and
observe the morphological differences
between the samples. Stilt roots

b. Mechanical Support
Look at a banyan tree. It seems to have
many trunk, supporting it. However many of
them are actually roots. As the banyan tree is
large and huge, it needs support so that it does
not tilt and fall down. Many plants require such
additional support. Such plants develop roots Sugar cane
on their aerial parts to provide mechanical
Climbing roots
support. These roots grow downward and act
In betel and black pepper, nodes or
as supportive organs. There are three types of
internodes bear roots which help in climbing.
modified roots for support.

Prop roots
Roots are modified to provide mechanical
support as seen in banyan tree. These roots
grow vertically from horizontal branches of a
tree.

Betel

A root growing from a location

other than the underground,
such as from a stem or leaf is
called as adventitious root
Banyan
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c. Breathing roots or Respiratory roots haustorial roots to penetrate the tissue of the
Avicennia is a tree which grows in host plant and suck nutrients from them. They
mangroves or swamps. They have roots which are usually found in parasitic plants that depend
are seen above the ground for the purpose of on the host plants for nutrients.
gaseous exchange. These roots are erect, peg like
structures with numerous pores through which
air circulates. These roots are called breathing
roots or pneumatophores.

Cuscuta

5.4.2 Modification of stems

Can you guess what is common between
ginger, onion bulb and potatoes. All three
Avicennia
are stems. Some plants have their stems
modified for storing food and for vegetative
Vanda is an epiphytic plant,
propagation. Modified stem may be aerial,
which grows on trees. The
subaerial or underground stems.
velamen tissue present in the
epiphytic root absorbs moisture to perform
a. Aerial Modifications
photosynthesis.
Phylloclade
In dry climate, conserving water is a
challenge. Water evaporates from the surface.
If the surface area is larger, evaporation would
be more and if the surface area is smaller, the
evaporation will be less. Plants with many
leaves have more surface area. Cactus hence
vanda

Vanda

d. Haustorial roots
Roots may also perform some special
functions. Haustoria or sucking roots, are one
such example. Cuscuta a parasite plant, climb
the trees and other vegetation and use the Cactus
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has a thick stem which does most of the food Sucker

production through photosynthesis and Sucker is a short and weak lateral branch
leaves are reduced to small spines with less that grows diagonally upwards and directly
surface area. gives rise to a new shoot. E.g. Chrysanthemum

b. Sub – aerial Modifications

Stem of some plants remains sub – aerial
which grow horizontally on the surface of the
soil for the purpose of reproduction. There are
four types.

Runner
The stem which grows laterally on the
surface of the soil, breaks up to produce roots Chrysanthemum
where it touches the ground to give rise to new
Offset
plants. E.g. Centella (Vallarai)
An offset is a short and thick branch that
arises from the axial part of a leaf. It has thick
internodes. It produces a tuft of leaves and
cluster of small roots below. E.g. Eichhornia

Centella
Stolon
Stolon is a slender branch of the stem
that grows upwards to some distance and then
Eichhornia
bends towards the ground. Upon touching the
ground, it gives rise to a new plant. E.g. Wild c. Underground modifications
strawberry
In aerial and sub aerial modifications, stem
has indefinite growth. In underground modified
stem, whole stem is burried under the ground
and it has definite growth. Usually stem grows
above the ground, but there are some stems that
grow under the ground to store food. These
underground stems swell and become thick. There
are four types of underground stems. They are:
1. Rhizome    2. Corm
Wild strawberry 3. Tuber     4. Bulb
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1. Rhizome 4. Bulb

It is an underground thick stem with nodes It is a condensed stem which is disc like
and internodes with scale leaves at the node. It and stores food in the fleshy leaves. The bulb has
grows horizontally and has an irregular shape. two types of leaves.
Rhizome have buds. It gives rise to new stem and
• Fleshy Leaves   • Scaly Leaves
leaves. E.g. Ginger and Turmeric
The upper part of the stem has a terminal
bud and it is covered by many scaly leaves. The
inner fleshy leaves store food as seen in garlic
and onion.

Turmeric
2. Corm
This underground stem is round in shape and
flat at the top and bottom. It is a condensed form of
rhizome and bears one or more buds in the axils of
scale leaves. Daughter plants arise from their buds.
E.g. Colocasia
Onion

ACTIVITY 8

Aim: To study the modification of stem

Materials Required: Specimens of ginger,
potato, onion, mint, bougainvillea, acacia,
Colocasia opuntia and locally available specimens.
3. Tuber Procedure: Observe the external
It is an enlarged, spherical underground stem morphology of each specimen.
that stores food. It has many dormant buds on its
Observation: Draw diagram and bring
surface known as 'eyes'. If we plant a part of tuber
out the differences and their function in
with the bud, it grows into a new plant. E.g. Potato
each type of stem modifications.

5.4.3 Modifications of Leaf

Plants have changed themselves to adapt to
the environment they grow. One of them is the
modification of leaves. Leaves of several plants
get modified into different form based on the
Potato purpose and environment.
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1. Spines 4. Traps
Leaves are reduced to spines, and the stem Plants that grow in nitrogen deficient places
is modified into green succulent part to perform adapt themselves well to get it. In Nepenthes,
photosynthesis. Eg. Opuntia the leaves are modified into a flask like structure,
which is used to attract insects and other tiny
animals. The inner wall of the leaf secretes
digestive enzymes that help to digest the insects
and extract the nitrogen needed for the plant.

Opuntia
2. Tendrils
In climbers, the leaf of plant are modified
into elongated structure to help the plants climb
efficiently.
• Gloriosa superba – Leaf tips are modified
into tendrils.
• Pisum sativum (Pea) –Terminal leaflets are
modified into tendrils.

Nepenthes

Points to Remember

™™ Reproduction is an essential function

of living organisms. In plants there are
two types of reproduction – asexual
Pisum sativum reproduction and sexual reproduction.
3. Phyllode ™™ In flowering plants, flowers are the
In Acacia auriculiformis, petioles expand reproductive organs. They produce
to form leaf like structure. They carry out the fruits and seeds through pollination and
function of leaf (Photosynthesis). fertilization.
™™ The male reproductive organ of a flower is
androecium and the female reproductive
organ of a flower is gynoecium.
™™ Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to
stigma is called pollination. There are two
types of pollination - self pollination and
Acacia cross pollination.

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™™ Agents like wind, water, insects and animals ™™ To perform the special function other
are helpful for pollination and are known as than the normal function, the root, stem
pollinators. and leaf externally modify themselves
™™ After pollination, the fusion of male and female according to the environment. So, they
gametes takes place. It is called fertilization. change their size, shape and colour. These
After fertilization, ovary becomes the fruit are called the modification of root, stem
and ovule becomes the seed. and leaves.

Evaluation

I. Choose the appropriate answer. III. S

 tate true or false. If false, correct the
statement.
1. Vegetative propagation by leaves takes place in
1. A complete flower has four whorls.
a. bryophyllum b. fungi
2. The transfer of pollen to the stigma is known
c. virus d. bacteria
as pollination.
2. Asexual reproduction in yeast is
3. Conical shaped root is carrot.
a. spore formation b. fragmentation
4. Ginger is an underground root.
c. pollination d. budding
5. Leaves of Aloe vera are fleshy and store
3. Reproductive part of a plant is
water.
a. root   b. stem   c. leaf   d. flower
IV. Match the following
4. Pollinators are
a. wind b. water c. insect d. All the above Petal Opuntia
Fern Chrysanthemum
5. Climbing roots are seen in
Phylloclade Attracts insect
a. betel b. black pepper
Hooks Spore
c. Both of them d. None of them
Sucker Bignonia

II. Fill in the blanks.

V. Answer very briefly.
1. The male reproductive part of a flower is
1. Write two types of reproduction in plants.
__________.
2. What are the two important parts of a
2. __________ is the basal swollen part of the
flower?
gynoecium.
3. Define – Pollination.
3. After fertilization the ovule becomes
4. What are the agents of pollination?
__________.
5. Give example for Corm and Tuber
4. Breathing roots are seen in _________ plants. 6. What is tendril?
5. Onion and garlic are example for __________. 7. What are thorns?
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VI. Answer briefly. a. Assertion is incorrect, Reasoning is correct.

1. Differentiate bisexual flower from unisexual b. 
Assertion is incorrect, Reasoning is
flower? incorrect.
2. What is cross pollination? c. Assertion is correct, Reasoning is correct.
3. Write notes on phyllode. d. Assertion is correct, Reasoning is incorrect.

VII. Answer in detail. X. Picture based question.

1. Write a brief account on pollination. i. Label the picture
Partsgiven
of a below.
Flower
2. Explain the underground stems.

VIII. Higher Order Questions.

1. Ginger is considered to be a stem, not a
root. Why?
2. What will happen if pollen grain of rose
gets deposited on stigma of lily flower? Will
pollen germination takes place? Why?

IX. C
onsider the following statements and
choose the correct one. ii. Identify the four plants shown in the following
1. Assertion: Pollination and fertilization in table. Name the different modifications in each
flowers produce fruits and seeds. of them.
 Reason: After fertilization the ovary becomes Name Modification
fruit and ovule becomes seed.
Garlic
2. Assertion: An example for conical root is
Turnip
carrot.
Rose plant
Reason: It is an adventitious
 root
modification. Maize

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ICT CORNER

Reproduction and Modification in Plants

Let’s label the parts of the flower.

PROCEDURE :

Step 1: Use the URL to reach stimulation page. Click ‘Run adobe flash’ to launch the
simulation.

Step 2: Select ‘OK’ button to run the activity.

Step 3: Drag a Stamen into the labelled box. Then click ‘OK’ button.

Step 4: Read the instructions at the top of the screen to do the activity.

Step 5: Click ‘Reset’ to refresh.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Step 4
Reproduction plants URL:
http://www.sciencekids.co.nz/gamesactivities/lifecycles.html

*Pictures are indicative only

*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

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Unit
6 Health and Hygiene

Awakening

Happy

Sleep
Suprachiasmatic
nucleus
(body clock)

Learning Objectives

After studying this unit, students will be able to:

 describe ways to take care of the body.
 know how to take care of the teeth, eye, hair and follow the hygienic
habits.
 understand the communicable and non-communicable diseases.
 know and understand some common ailments and the remedies for them.
 know first aid and safety measures.

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which is essential for good health. To protect us

Introduction
from diseases it is essential to maintain good
Have you ever taken leave from the school health by taking regular bath, cleaning the
due to sickness? What happens exactly when clothes and surroundings and also avoiding
we become sick? Sometimes, we feel good even unhygienic food consumption.
without taking any medicines and sometimes
we need to consult a doctor and take regular 6.1.1 Personal hygiene
medicines to be healed. Why is it so? Personal hygiene is
To prevent and treat sickness successfully, defined as the branch of health
it is necessary to have complete understanding which is concerned with the
of the common sicknesses in the area and the individual’s adjustment to
combination of things that caused them. This the physiological needs of
lesson may help you to understand the various the body and mind for the attainment of the
causes of sickness. In this lesson we are going maximum level of health. It also refers to the
to study about health and hygiene, care of the cleaning and grooming of the body.
body, dieseases, health problems of children
and safety.
Shower
6.1 Hygiene Brush teeth
daily
at least
twice a day
Health is the best wealth. If you have
good health, you will have a sound mind and
PERSONAL
you will gain good knowledge and wealth also. HYGIENE
Health refers to a state of a sound mind and
body free from any sickness or ailment, stress Washing Clothes Wash hair
and clean regularly
and problems. In simple words, health refers to Uniform

the physical, emotional and psychological well-

Wash face
being of a person. To maintain good health, you and hands
Food Covered regularly
should follow good hygiene, eat nutritious food, with Lid

do exercise, take rest and have a sound sleep.

Cold and flu are some of the common
Hygiene refers to the good habits and their communicable diseases. They are caused not
practices which are followed to prevent diseases, only by bacteria but also by virus. When you
maintain good health, especially through have cold and flu, you may also have running
cleanliness, consumption of safe drinking water nose, cough, sore throat, and sometimes fever
and proper disposal of sewage. It refers to all or pain in the joints. For some, this condition
those activities that are done for improving and may also lead to mild diarrhoea.
maintaining good health and sound mind.
What will happen, if cold affected friend/
Maintenance of personal and classmate of you, sneezes or cough in front of
environmental hygiene is called cleanliness. In you? When he sneezes some secretions may
simple words, it refers to the state of being clean come out of his nose. Secretions oozing out
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from the nose may contains the bacteria or 6.1.2 Community Hygiene
virus. When the patient touches some other A community is formed by a group of
object or someone else after touching the nose, people living together in a particular area. If the
the virus is transferred. When the patient people in a community wish to lead a healthy
sneezes or coughs the virus comes out with the life, they should maintain basic community
droplets and become airborne. Hence, it is a hygiene. It can be done by adopting the
good practice for the patient with cold and flu following measures.
to use a hand kerchief to blow the noses and ¾¾ The surroundings should be kept clean.
also wash the hands often to ensure that they ¾¾ Drains should be covered properly.
do not accidentally spread the virus to others. ¾¾ Used water from houses should not be let
out into open drains or open areas.

Dengue is spread by
mosquitoes of Aedes
aegypti caused by DEN-1, 2
virus belonging to the type - flavivirus.
It decreases the counting of the blood
platelets of human blood and it has a
maximum flight
range of 50–100
metres in and
around the places.

ACTIVITY 2
ACTIVITY 1

List out your daily activities in the given table.

Number of times
Activities
in a day
Brush teeth
Take shower
Wash hair
Wash hands and feet
Wearing Clean
clothes / Uniforms
Do you follow personal hygiene properly?
How these activities will keep you Observe the picture and write remedial
physically fit? measures

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¾¾ The domestic wastes should be segregated

and properly disposed off safely in separate
dust bins provided by the government
(Green and Blue).

6.2 Care of the body

Human body is a massive miracle.
It consists of organs and systems, which • Brushing two times a day, will prevent the
function continuously. Our body is compared formation of tartar and plaque on your
to a machine. Human body works well with teeth and gums.
proper maintenance and guidance. For
• When you floss, it will remove food particles,
smooth functioning, all the parts of the body
plaque and bacteria which build up between
should work in unison. The digestive system,
your teeth (When you start flossing, your
circulatory system and muscular system are the
gums may bleed a little bit, but after few days
core systems that should be in synchronization
that will be stopped. It should be started
and function well. We need to keep them well
only with proper medical guidance).
by proper care.
Diseases affecting the teeth
6.2.1 Dental Care
Failure to have oral hygiene results in
Dental care or broadly speaking oral diseases affecting the teeth. Some of the
hygiene is an important aspect of the personal diseases affecting the teeth and gums, their
health of an individual. Good oral hygiene causative agents and remedial measure are
implies sound teeth and healthy gums with given below in the table.
healthy surrounding tissues. The physical act
of chewing food promotes saliva and gastric 6.2.2 Eye Care
secretions which help digestion. The act of Eyes are an important organ of our
chewing and tasting is called ‘mastication’. body. They are considered as windows to the
It gives pleasure and emotional satisfaction world. Eyesight is the most important sense.
of eating food. Teeth is essential for good 80% of what we perceive comes through
appearance and clear speech also. the sense of sight. Protecting the eyes, can

Table 6.1 Diseases affecting teeth

Sl. Name of the Impacts /

Causative Agents Remedial measures
No. Diseases Consequences
1 Bleeding gums Vitamin C deficiency Bleeding of the gums Eating citrus fruits
2 Tooth decay Bacteria in teeth Bacteria produce acids Brushing and flossing the
teeth can prevent decay.
3 Periodontitis Tobacco chewing Severe form of gum Chewing type of tobacco
disease ruin the bones, should be avoided.
gums, and other tissues Eat a well-balanced diet.

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reduce the odds of blindness and vision loss. Diseases affecting Eye
We should protect our eye from the diseases, Diseases affecting the eyes and the
surroundings and climate condition. remedial measures are given below.

Table 6.2 Diseases affecting eye

Name of the
S.No. Causative Agents Impacts/Consequences Remedial measures
Disease
1. Night Lack of vitamin A. Makes it hard to see well at Eat foods rich
Blindness Disorder of the cells night or in poor light. in vitamins like
in your retina carrots, papaya.
2. Conjunctivitis Caused by a virus One or both eyes can Antibiotic
(Pink eye) and bacteria be affected. Highly eye drops or
contagious; can be spread ointments, home
by contamination and remedy
sneezing.
3. Colour Genetic condition • D ifficulty in distinguishing There is no known
blindness between colours. cure for colour
• Inability to see shades or blindness. Contact
tones of the same colour. lenses and glasses
with filters.

ACTIVITY 3

Observe the pictures and tick do’s and don’ts in the given tables

Sl .
Practices I Do I Don’t do
No.

1. Do you rub the eyes?

Do you watch TV/work on computer
2.
for a long time?
Do you use cold water for cleaning
3.
your eyes?
4. Do you like eating carrot?
Do you regularly eat fruits like orange,
5.
sweet lemon and lemon?

In the above checklist what do you understand?

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6.2.3 Hair Care understanding. They are communicable and

The condition of the hair reflects to some non-communicable disease.
extent the nutritional status and general health
6.3.1 Communicable Diseases
of the body. Thin, sparse hair and the loss of
Communicable diseases are those diseases
hair indicates a poor nutritional status. The
that spread from one person to another.
deficiencies in diet, physical and mental illness
Healthy persons must be protected from people
of various kinds may also lead to premature
with communicable diseases. Diseases spread
greying of hair.
through contaminated air, water, food or vectors
The hair follicles from which the hair grows (insects and other animals).
produce oil which keeps the hair smooth. The
sweat and the dead skin cells come off the scalp. a. Diseases caused by Bacteria
The oil, sweat and dead cells all add together Communicable diseases like
and can make the hair greasy and look dirty tuberculosis, cholera and typhoid, are caused
unless it is washed regularly. by bacteria. These diseases spread through
air, water and some other organisms.
Keeping hair clean and healthy
• Regular hair wash and massage of the scalp 1. Tuberculosis
will remove the dead skin cells, excess oil Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by
and dust. Mycobacterium tuberculae and spreads
from one person to another person through
• Rinsing the hair well with clear water and
air, spitting, prolonged contact and sharing
using good toothed comb for hair dressing is
materials of the patient. The symptoms are fever,
highly essential for the maintenance of hair.
weight loss, chronic cough, bloody spitting and
6.3 Diseases difficulty in breathing.

A disease is the functional

or physical change from a
normal state that affects the
health of a person by causing
disability or discomfort. The
following are the conditions that could lead to
the development of disease in an individual.

• Infection caused by disease-causing microbes.

• Lack of balanced diet. Mycobacterium tuberculae
• Poor lifestyle and unhealthy habits.
Prevention and treatment
•  alfunctioning of one or more body parts
M
or organs. ¾¾ BCG vaccination.

The prevention and treatment of diseases ¾¾ Giving special attention to the patient.
can be considered in two groups for their better ¾¾ Regular medication like DOT.
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Unsafe
drinking water

Not washing
food before
preparing

Flies on
Not using food
Latrine
Not washing Not washing
hands before hands before
preparing foods eating
Not washing
hands after
touching faeces

2. Cholera 3. Typhoid
Cholera is caused by Vibrio cholerae Typhoid is caused by Salmonella typhi and
and spread through the consumption of spreads by contaminated food and water. The
contaminated food or water. The symptoms symptoms are anorexia, headache, rashes on
of cholera is vomiting, severe diarrhoea and abdomen, dysentery and high fever up to 104°F.
cramps in legs.

Vibrio Cholerae
Salmonella typhi
Drinking contaminated
water can be a cause.
TYPHOID FEVER
Enlarged Liver
Vibrio cholerae and Spleen

Ulcers
Prevention and treatment Rash on
Body
in the
Intestine
White coating
¾¾ Good hygienic practices like washing hands on the tongue

before eating.
¾¾ Avoid eating uncovered food from street Prevention and treatment
vendors. ¾¾ Drinking boiled clean water
¾¾ Drinking boiled water. ¾¾ Proper disposal of sewage
¾¾ Getting vaccination against cholera ¾¾ Vaccination
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b. Diseases caused by Virus through air and contact with an infected

Viral diseases are extremely widespread person. Its symptoms are appearance of
infections caused by many type of viruses. rashes on the whole body, fever, headache
Some diseases caused by viruses are hepatitis, and tiredness.
chickenpox and rabies.
Prevention and treatment
1. Hepatitis
¾¾ The chickenpox (varicella) vaccine is the
Hepatitis is one of the most dangerous
best way to prevent chickenpox
and fatal diseases caused by Hepatitis virus-
A, B, C, D, E. Its mode of transmission is ¾¾ Special attention should be given to the
contaminated water, sharing of needles and infected persons.
blood transfusion. The symptoms of hepatitis
c. Rabies
is loss of appetite (anorexia), vomiting, eyes
and urine turning to yellow colour. Rabies is a fatal disease which is
transmitted by the bite of the infected dog,
rabbit, monkey, cat etc. The virus present in
the saliva of dog enters the brain via neurons.
The symptoms of rabies are hydrophobia
(extreme fear for water), fever for 2 – 12 weeks
and exaggerations in behaviour.

Prevention and treatment

Prevention and treatment ¾¾ In early stages rabies is very difficult to
¾¾ Drinking boiled water detect.
¾¾ Proper cleaning of hands
¾¾ After an animal is bitten it usually takes two
2. Chickenpox to twelve weeks to show any symptoms and
Chickenpox also known as varicella is it may take as long as two years also.
a highly contagious infection caused by the ¾¾ Fatality can be prevented by timely
varicella zoster virus. This disease spreads vaccination before the onset of symptoms.

ACTIVITY 4
Visit a nearby Primary Health Centre and
collect information about vaccination given
to children of 0-15 years. Meet a doctor or
a health worker in the hospital and enquire
about the following.
• The types of vaccines available there.
• Can disease be prevented by their usage?
• The age at which it should be given.

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Rabies

5. Brain infected 6. Virus travels from

brain via nerves to
other tissues such as
eye, kidneys,
salivary glands

4. Virus replicates in
dorsal root ganglion
3. Virus infects nerve in
and travels up spinal
peripheral nervous
cord to brain
system. Moves by
retrograde transport
1. Virus enters
via animal bite
2. Virus replicates in
muscle at site of bite

a. Wearing out of body parts

Vaccine
Rheumatism, heart attack, epileptic
Vaccine is a biological
seizures, stroke, migraine headache,
preparation that provides
cataract and cancer.
active acquired immunity to a particular
disease. Vaccines like (BCG, Polio, MMR) b. External harmful agents entering the
are given at early childhood to protect
body
from other diseases.
Allergies, asthma, poisons, snakebite,
cough from smoking, stomach ulcer,
6.3.2 Non-communicable diseases
alcoholism.
Non-communicable diseases do not
spread from person to person. They are caused c. Lack of trace elements in the body
by other factors. Therefore, it is important Anemia, pellagra, night blindness
to know which diseases are communicable and xerophthalmia, goiter and
and which are not. They are never caused by hypothyroidism.
germs, bacteria, or other living organisms
that infect the body. Antibiotics or medicines d Malnutrition
that fight against germs do not help to cure Nutritious food is needed for a person to
non-communicable diseases. Some of the grow well, work hard, and stay healthy.
non-communicable diseases are explained Many common sicknesses are caused by
below. malnutrition.
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Food
Leucoderma is a non –
Moringa leaves, dates, liver (sheep and
communicable diseases
chicken), green, green leafy vegetables like
caused by partial or total
beans, peas, lentils and greed banana.
loss of pigmentation in the skin (melanin
pigment). This condition affects people Pills
of any age, gender and ethnicity. There is Cod liver oil tablet, Ferrous sulphate.
no cure. It does not spread by touching,
sharing food or sitting together. 6.5 Safety and First Aid
First aid is the immediate
6.4 Specific health problems of
treatment given to the
children
victim of trauma or sudden
Anaemia illness before medical help
It is caused by eating food with less is made available. First aid is
iron content and can also be caused due to important for following reasons.
feeding some other foods instead of breast
™™ It saves the life.
milk. Severe anaemia in children may lead
™™ It prevents further bleeding and determine
to hookworm infection, chronic diarrhoea
the condition of the patient.
and dysentery. In the recent days, school
™™ It relieves the pain.
going children, especially girls are affected
™™ It provides a medical care available at the
by anaemia. The Government of Tamil Nadu
provides iron folic tablets to all the girls in the earliest.
schools of all areas every week.

The signs of anaemia

™™ Pale or transparent skin, the inner surface
of eye lids are pale, white fingernails, pale
gums, weakness and fatigue.
™™ In severe cases, face and feet may be swollen,
the heart beat is rapid and with shortness of
breath.
™™ Children and women who eat mud are 6.5.1 Burns
usually anaemic. The tissue damage caused by heat,
chemical, electricity, sunlight or nuclear
Treatment and prevention of anaemia
radiation is known as burns. Mostly burns are
Anaemia can be preventing by takes
caused by scalds, building fires, flammable
proper food and diet.
liquid and gases. There are three types of
As a general rule, iron burns, according to degree of burning.
supplements should be given ¾¾ First-degree burns affect only the outer
orally, not to be injected,
layer (called the epidermis) of the skin.
because it is dangerous.

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6.5.2 Cut and Scratches

Cuts and scratches are the areas of damage
on the surface of the skin. A cut is a line of
damage that can go through the skin and into
the muscle tissues below, whereas a scratch is
surface damage that does not penetrate the
lower tissues. Cuts and scratches may bleed or
turn red, become infected and leave scars.
¾¾ Second-degree burns damage the
epidermis and the layer beneath it (called
the dermis).
¾¾ Third-degree burns involve damage or
complete destruction of the skin to its full
depth and damage to underlying tissues
also. People who experience such burns
often require skin grafting.

First aid for cuts

For minor cuts, the affected area should be
washed with cold running water and cleaned
with an antiseptic liquid. Then an antiseptic
cream should be applied on the wound and
sterilized bandage should be tied to prevent
infection. If the cut is deep, a clean cotton pad
should be placed on the cut and pressed, and
the injured person should be taken to a doctor
immediately.
First aid for Burning
In case of minor burns, the affected area
should be washed with cold water and an
antiseptic cream should be applied. In case of
severe burns, where deeper layers of tissues
get destroyed and blisters appear, use of water
should be avoided. The burnt area should
6.6 Basic cleanliness and protection
be covered with a clean non-sticking cloth
or bandages. Larger burns need immediate The most important thing is to help
medical attention. It is very important to keep a anybody, but you must also protect yourself
fire extinguisher readily available. from HIV and other blood-borne diseases
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when you help someone who is bleeding. You ™™Diseases that are caused by pathogens and
should wear gloves or a clean plastic bag on can be transmitted from an infected person
your hands. Be careful not to prick yourself to a healthy person directly or indirectly
with needles or other sharp objects around the are called communicable diseases.
person you are helping. ™™Diseases that are not caused by pathogens
and cannot be passed on by a sick person
Points to Remember to a healthy person are called non-
™™Health is a state of complete physical, communicable diseases.
mental and social well-being and not ™™First Aid is the immediate care given to a
merely the absence of disease or infirmity. patient before a medical person arrives.

Evaluation

I. Choose the appropriate answer. 2. I am green colour box with garbage. I am

________ .
1. Ravi has sound mind and physically fit body.
It refers to 3. Eyes are considered as ___________ to the
a. hygiene   b. health world.

c. cleanliness   d. wealth 4. 
The hair follicles produce ___________
which keeps the hair smooth.
2. Sleep is not only good for our body, but it is
Tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium
5. 
also good for
___________.
a. enjoyment   b. relaxation
c. mind   d. environment III. State true or false. If false, correct the
statement.
3. Our living place should be
a. open   b. closed 1. All food should be covered.
c. clean   d. unclean / untidy 2. Chicken pox is also known as leucoderma.
Stomach ulcer is a non- communicable
3. 
4. Tobacco chewing causes
a. anemia   b. periodontitis disease.
c. tuberculosis   d. pneumonia 4. Rabies is a fatal disease.
5. First – degree burns damage the whole skin.
5. The first aid is to
a. save money     b. prevent scars IV. Match the following.
c. prevent the medical care
Rabies Salmonella
d. relieve the pain
Cholera Yellow Urine
II. Fill in the blanks. Tuberculosis Cramps in legs
1. 
A group of people living together in a Hepatitis Hydrophobia
particular area is called ___________ Typhoid Mycobacterium

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V. Analogy. 3. What does this picture mean?

1. First degree burn : Epidermis :: Second
degree burn : ______________
2. Typhoid : Bacteria :: Hepatitis : ________
3. Tuberculosis : Air :: Cholera : ___________

VI. Consider the following statements and

choose the correct option.
1. Assertion: Oral hygiene is good.
 eason: Sound teeth has healthy gums with
R 4. Distinguish communicable diseases and
healthy surrounding tissues. non-communicable diseases.
2. Assertion: Chicken pox is a viral 5. Name the mode of transmission of
communicable disease. communicable diseases.
Reason: It is characterized by rashes on the
6. Your friend says that her hair is thin,
whole body, fever, head ache and tiredness.
spares and lost very often. Suggest your
a) Both A and R are true
ideas to reduce this problem.
b) Both A and R are false
c) A is true but R is false. IX. Answer in detail.

d) A is false but R is true. 1. Write about any three communicable

diseases in detail.
VII. Answer very briefly. 2. List the situations in which first aid is given.
1. What is hygiene? What would you do if a person suffers from
2. Write about the right way of protecting the skin burns?
eyes. 3. How the diseases are transmitted from one
3. How to keep your hair clean and healthy? person to the other person?
4. Sobi frequently plays with her mobile. Suggest
X. Higher order thinking question.
your ideas to protect her eye from irritation?
A person is sleeping during day time. Why
5. Give any two communicable diseases, which
does this happen to some people that they
spread in your locality during monsoon.
feel sleepy during day time in office or in the
6. What first aid will you provide in the case
classroom? Have you ever come across such
of bruises?
situation? Explain.
7. Ravi said, Ganga had minor burn, so I
washed it with water. Do you agree with his
statement? Explain, why?

VIII. Answer briefly.

1. Why first aid is essential?
2. What steps you will follow to keep your
teeth healthy?
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Queen of Medicines – Penicillin

Alexander Fleming Alexander Fleming did his

(1881 - 1955) school educaon at
St. Mary’s school in London

As he was very much interested in studying medicine

at the age of 20, he joined medical course at
St. Mary’s Medical College and Hospital
with the help of his uncle

In the first world war, soldiers were He was appointed the Chairman of the
wounded heavily and hence many Medical Board for military soldiers
were infected with contagious diseases

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They were neither cured even aer

applying an sep cs nor their These germs have spread to others too!
wounds healed

The an sep cs reduced immunity. They

spread bacteria. So an alterna ve I cultured staphylococci
to this was to be discovered bacteria in these culture
media

What? In this culture media, a mould is

formed but and I could not see What a surprise! (aer the research)
staphalococci bacteria! Penicillin produced by the fungus
Penicillium notatum destroyed the bacteria

Penicillin cured Pneumenia, Diphtheria and infected

wounds. Alexander saved the life of many soldiers
and prevented the communicable disease by using
The world’s first an bio c penicillin was penicillin. later, penicillin is used as the universal
an bio c. The discovery of Alexander is known
discovered in 1928. “We are happier in
as the ‘Queen of Medicines’ as the provided
curing millions of soldiers than ge„ng great benefits in the field of medicine
the Nobel prize”

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Unit
7 Computer - Visual
Communication

Learning Objectives

After learning the lesson, students will be able to:

 differentiate a file from a folder
 know how to create a file and a folder
 use the system application like 'paint' to create images.
 use the system application like 'photo story' to create video from images.

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take the example of a bookshelf in a library.

Introduction
The individual book can be considered as a
In general, whenever we think of ‘file’ and the whole set of books in a shelf can
computers, the things that come to our mind be considered as folders. When we right click
are computer screen, keyboard, mouse and CPU. on the mouse, the pop-up menu appears on
We have learnt about computer and the parts of the screen with multiple options. Select ‘New’
a computer as introductory part in standard VI. option and a secondary menu comes up with
Apart from them, software and hardware also another set of options. Select Folder option in
play vital role in the working of computer. Now, the menu. You can now save your file(s) in the
we shall learn how to operate the computer. newly created folder.

7.1 File and Folder

The reason we prefer computer is its
speed and the ability to store data. How can
we save data and information in computer?
We can save them in folders which
accommodate multiple files or a single file. Folder
Let us understand the terminologies like file
and folder before moving further. 7.2 Creating Files
More people are using Windows and
7.1.1 File LINUX operating systems in their computers.
The output we get from any application We can do many activities like collecting notes,
is commonly referred as ‘file’. Therefore, drawing / painting, creating animations /
the application for the specific purposes spreadsheets / word docs / PPTs etc.
determines the nature of the file.
We use ‘Guide Board’ to go to unknown
places. When we ‘On’ the computer and click the
‘Start’ button at the left corner of the computer,
it shows the list of all programs in the computer.
Now select the required program and create
the required files.

Files
7.1.2 Folder
A folder is a storage space that contains
multiple files. We can create files as per the
user’s need. For clear understanding, we can
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If the computer is operating on the software known as ‘Photoshop’. Can we make

Windows OS, we can collect our notes in photo gallery only with the help of photos or
‘Notepad’ application and draw pictures in is there anything more to do with a bunch of
‘Paint’ application. As per its name we can type photos? We can make photostory. Yes, with the
notes in ‘Notepad’ and save the created files in a photos we can make a story.
folder. Likewise in the ‘Paint’ app we can draw In our primary classes we have studied
and edit pictures. Let us see how we can create photo stories like this. Children learn
image gallery, animations and graphics easily. concepts easily through photo stories than by
reading words. This type of photo stories can
7.3 Visual Communication Divices be converted easily into videos with the help
of the software ‘Microsoft Photostory’.
Pictures and audio-visuals gives us more
understanding than teaching and writing on the
black board. Is it right?

Microsoft Photostory
Instead of saying a story like ‘once upon To make videos with the help of this
a time there was a king’ we can understand software we have to order the photos first, then
the concept easily by seeing the video. Also it we have to select a music and keep it in a file.
registers firmly in the minds of the students. Step 1
The device which helps in explaining the
Open the application of ‘Microsoft
concepts easily through pictures is known as Photostory’. In that select ‘Begin a new story’
‘Visual Communication Device’. For example and click on ‘Next’.
photos, audio – visuals, drawings, animations
all these can be created easily with the help
of computer. Cinema is a good example for
‘Visual Communication Device’.

7.3.1 Photo Gallery and Photostory

You all must have
admired the photos in
the albums. To beautify
photos and edit the photos,
photographers are using a
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Step 2 Step 5
Click ‘Import Picture’ in the next Next select a title for the story and select
screen. Now, the files in our computer will the place where it has to be saved in your
appear. Select 'Saved pictures' for video. computer. Then, through ‘Settings’, change
There is a provision for editing the picture. the format of the video.
If required, we can edit the image and click
on ‘Next”.

Step 6
Now our video is ready to view. Click ‘View
your story’. You can see your video now.
Step 3
Now we can input small text which is apt
to the pictures. Then click on ‘Next’ and give
animation to the videos. We can give audio
effect also to these images. After finishing
this click on ‘Next”.

Step 4

To provide background music, we can

select a music file through 'Select Music' and
click on 'Next'.
7.3.2 Graphics and Animation
a. Raster Graphics
The picture or image
which is created by Raster
Graphics is entered ‘as file and
data’. Pictures are of two types
one is Vector another one is
Raster.
Raster Graphics are created on the basis
of ‘Pixels’. The photos taken by camera and the
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photos scanned by a scanner are of the Raster type. Inkscape software is used to convert image
When we enlarge this type of photos we could see drawn on paper into vector image.
the pictures as rectangular layers or grids. Step 1
Types of Raster Files First we have to scan the picture we have
• .png (Portable Network Graphics) drawn in the computer.
• .jpg or .jpeg (Joint Photographics Experts
Group)
• .gif (Graphics interchange Format)
• .tiff (Tagged Image File Format)
• .psd (Photoshop Document)
The Software which edit the Raster Graphics
is Adobe Photoshop.
b. Vector Graphics
As the Vector Pictures are created on the Step 2
basis of Mathematics, even when we enlarge the Then we have to open this picture in the
picture its accuracy will not change. ‘Inkscape’ software. Select the entire picture.

Types of Vector Graphics Files

• .eps (Encapsulated Post Script)
• .ai (Adobe Illustrator Artwork)
• .pdf (Portable Document Format)
• .svg (Scalable Vector Graphics)
• .sketch
The softwares which edit the Vector
Graphic Images are:
Step 3
• Adobe Illustrator
Select ‘Path’ option. From the submenu,
• Sketch
select ‘Trace Bitmap’ option.
• Inkscape
Creating vector image through Inkscape
software

Step 4
Do corrections in the small screen which
appears. Now upload this edited image and
click on OK.
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As soon as we see the above picture we

know the difference between the two. The
first is TWO DIMENSIONAL (2D) another
one is THREE DIMENSIONAL (3D). The
two dimensional (2D) images have only the
two dimensions - length and height. But
three dimensional images (3D) have length,
height and width. 3D images appear in front
of our eyes like it happens in the real world.
Step 5
Now close the screen of TRACE BITMAP.
Now click the picture that appears on the
present screen and drag it. You will get the
vector graphics of the drawn picture. SAVE it
by clicking the ‘save button’ and save it in your
choice of file format.

Three dimensional videos will bring

7.4 Dimensional and 3 Dimensional the scenes alive before our eyes. Already
Images there are three dimensional films. Now three
dimensional games have also got released.

Now there is a new technology -

VIRTUAL REALITY in 3D. VIRTUAL
REALITY is a technology which shows the
computer image as real image. When we see
games through this technology we can feel /
perceive the setting of the game as real. Now
this technology has been introduced in Smart
Phones too.

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Evaluation

I. Choose the correct answer. 5. 

Which technology uses pixels to create
pictures?
1. Which of the following is an example for
a) Vector b) Raster
animation? c) Both d) None
a) Sound communication 6. Which software is used to create symbols?
b) Visual communication a) Photoshop
c) Vector communication b) Illustrator
d) Raster communication c) Vector Graphics
d) Photostory
2. Who uses the photoshop software more ?
a) Teacher
II. Match the following.
b) Doctor
c) Painter Animations 3D
d) Photographer Raster Visual Communication
3. 
Which option is used in the Microsoft Vector Pixles
Photostory to upload the photos? Virtual Reality Microsoft Photostory
a) Begin a Story
Video Story Illustrator
b) Import Pictures
c) Settings
d) View your Story III. Answer briefly.
1. What is Raster Graphics?
4. 
Which technology shows the computer-
drawn pictures as real picture? 2. Write a note on 2D and 3D pictures.
a) Inkscape 3. Differentiate between Raster and Vector
b) Photo Story images.
c) Virtual Reality 4. With the help of Microsoft Photostory how
d) Adobe Illustrator will you create a video?

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Atoms - அணுக்கள்
Anion - எதிர்மின் அயனி
Asexual Reproduction - பாலிலா இனப்பெருக்கம்
Androecium - மகரந்தத்தாள் வட்டம்
Anemia - இரத்த ச�ோகை
Antiseptic - கிருமிநாசினி / நச்சுத்தடை ப�ொருள்
Acceleration - முடுக்கம்
Aphelion - சூரியனுக்கு த�ொலைவில் இருக்கும் பூமியின் நிலை (portion)
Astronomy - வானியல் ப�ொருட்களைப் பற்றி படிக்கும் இயற்பியல் பிரிவு
Budding - ம�ொட்டு விடுதல்
Burn - தீக்காயம்
Bruise - கன்றிப்போன காயம்
Compound - இரண்டு அல்லது அதற்கு மேலான, வேறுபட்ட மூலக்கூறுகளிலான சேர்மம்
Chemical formula - அணுக்கள் மற்றும் மூலக்கூறுகளைக் குறிக்கக்கூடிய குறியீடு
Cation - நேர்மின் அயனி
Coloumb - மின்னூட்டத்தின் அலகு
Calyx - புல்லி வட்டம்
Corolla - அல்லி வட்டம்
Communicable disease - த�ொற்று ந�ோய்கள்
Cross Pollination - அயல் மகரந்தச் சேர்க்கை
Centre of gravity - ஈர்ப்பு மையம்
Celestial bodies - வானியல் ப�ொருள்கள்
Ductile - கம்பியாக மாற்றக்கூடிய தன்மைவாய்ந்த உல�ோகம்
Density - ஓரலகு பருமனில் அடங்கியுள்ள ம�ொத்த ப�ொருளின் நிறை
Distance - த�ொலைவு
Displacement - இடப்பெயர்ச்சி
Derived quantities - அடிப்படை அளவுகளிலிருந்து தருவிக்கப்பட்ட அளவுகள்
Element - ஒரே வகை அணுக்களினால் ஆன தனிமம்
Equilibrium - சமநிலை
Free radical - முடிவுறா மூலக்கூறு
Fragmentation - துண்டாதல்
Fertilization - கருவுறுதல்
First aid - முதலுதவி

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VII Std Science Term-1 EM Unit 7.indd 96 12/9/2022 12:12:10 PM
 Gynoecium - சூலக வட்டம்
Gingivitis - பல்ஈறு வீக்கம்
Ion - அயனி
Inter - atomic distance - இரு அணுக்களுக்கு இடையே உள்ள த�ொலைவு
Matter - அணு மற்றும் மூலக்கூறுகளினால் ஆன பருப்பொருள்
Malleable - தகடாக மாற்றக்கூடிய தன்மைவாய்ந்த உல�ோகம்
Mass - பருப்பொருள்களில் அடங்கியுள்ள ப�ொருளின் அளவு
Melting - திடப்பொருள் திரவமாக மாறக்கூடிய நிகழ்வு
Matter - பருப்பொருள்
Molecules - மூலக்கூறுகள்
Meditation - தியானம்
Measuring container - அளவுகள் குறிக்கப்பட்ட க�ொள்கலன்
Non - unifor acceleration - சீரற்ற முடுக்கம்
Negative acceleration - எதிர் முடுக்கம்
Neptune - சூரிய குடும்பத்தில் உள்ள ஒரு க�ோளின் பெயர்
Orbit - ஆற்றல் மட்டம்
Particles - சிறிய துகள்கள்
Pollination - மகரந்தச் சேர்க்கை
Plaque - பல் ச�ொத்தை / பல்தட்டை
Pustules - க�ொப்பளங்கள்
Positive acceleration - நேர் முடுக்கம்
Perihelion - சூரியனுக்கு அருகில் இருக்கும் பூமியின் நிலை (position)
Physical quantity - ஒரு ப�ொருளின் இயற்பியல் பண்புகளின் அளவுகள்
Sexual reproduction - பாலினப் பெருக்கம்
Subatomic particles - அணுவகத் துகள்கள்
Self Pollination - தன் மகரந்தச் சேர்க்கை
Speed - வேகம்
System of international unit (SI) - பன்னாட்டு அலகு முறை
Tuberculosis - காச ந�ோய்
Uniform acceleration - சீரான முடுக்கம்
Valency - இணைதிறன்
Vegetative propagation - உடலவழி இனப்பெருக்கம்
Velocity - திசைவேகம்
Vacuum - வெற்றிடம் (காற்று இல்லாத இடம்)

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 Authors List - VII Science

Advisory Committee & Chairperson Experts & Coordinators

Dr. T.V. Venkateswaran Dr. D. Prabakaran
Scientist, DST, Vigyanaprasar, Assistant Professor,
New Delhi. SCERT, Chennai.
Dr. Mazher Sulthana S. Rajesh
Professor & Head (Rtd.), B.T. Asst. GHSS, Vanganoor,
P.G. Department of Zoology, Thiruvallur.
Presidency College, Chennai.
Authors
Reviewers D. Perumal Raj
Prof. Reeta John BT Asst.,
Professor & Head, PUMS, Manickamangalam, Valaingaiman Block, Thiruvarur.
Dept. of Theoretical Physics,
Madras University, Chennai. M. Mohanapriya
PGT. Asst., GGHSS, Koradachery, Thiruvarur Dt.
Dr. V. Sivamadavi
Associate Professor, N. Ramesh Babu
Bharathi Women's College, Chennai. BT Asst., PUMS, Sholavaram, Thiruvallur Dt.
Dr. R. Kumaran Dr. N. Vidhyageetha
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Chemistry, Lecturer - DIET Aduthurai, Thanjavur.
Vaishnav College, Arumbakkam, Chennai.
M. Ananthan
Dr. G. Rajalakshmi BT Asst., GHS, Servaikaranpatti, Dindigul.
Assistant Professor,
Department of Botany, S. Shyamala
Bharathi Women's College, Chennai. BT Asst., Govt. Adi- dravidar Welfare High School, Pulianthope,
Chennai.
Dr. K. Chinthanaiyalan,
N. Manikandan
B.T. Assistant,
BT Asst., GHS, Rasingapuram, Theni.
GHS, Periyarnagar, Nandampakkam, Kanchipuram.
N. Balusamy
Content Readers HM (Retd.), Corporation Hr. Sec. School, Peelamedu,
Dr. K.P. Girivasan Coimbatore.
Associate Professor,
M. Tamilarasi
Department of Botany,
PGT (Retd.), St. Joseph GHSS, Vadugarpet, Lalgudi, Trichy.
Govt. Arts & Science College, Nandanam, Chennai.
D. Revathy
Dr. S. Shameem
B.T, Municipal Higher Secondary School,
Deputy Director,
Rajagopalapuram, Pudhukottai Dt.
SCERT, Chennai.
ICT Coordinators
A.Saranya
S.G.T, P.U.P. School,
Sellathapalayam, Modakkurichi Block,
Erode Dt.
EMIS Technology Team
Art and Design Team R.M. Satheesh
State Coordinator Technical,
Illustration TN EMIS, Samagra Shiksha.
Charles, Pramoth, Velmurugan
K.P. Sathya Narayana
Layout Design IT Consultant,
V.S. Johnsmith TN EMIS, Samagra Shikaha
R. Gopinath
R. Arun Maruthi Selvan
V. Sridhar
Technical Project Consultant,
Info Graph TN EMIS, Samagra Shiksha
V. Srinivasan

Wrapper Design
Kathir Arumugam

QC
Manohar Radhakrishnan
Co-ordination
Ramesh munisamy

Typing
M. Sathya

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 SOCIAL SCIENCE
TERM - I
VOLUME - 3

7th_SS_History_Unit_1.indd 99 12/2/2022 2:41:36 PM

 CONTENTS
History
Unit Titles Page No. Month

1. Sources of Medieval India 102 June

2. Emergence of New Kingdoms in North India 110 July

Emergence of New Kingdoms in South India:
3. 122 August
Later Cholas and Pandyas
August &
4. The Delhi Sultanate 134
September
Geography
1. Interior of the Earth 145 June

2. Landforms 155 July

3. Population and Settlement 163 August

Civics
1. Equality 172 June

2. Political Parties 177 August

Economics
1. Production 186 July

E - Book Assessment

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 HISTORY

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 Unit -1

Sources of
Medieval India

Learning Objectives

To acquaint ourselves with

™™Sources of the study of medieval India
™™Temples, mosques, tombs, palaces and forts as important sources
™™Literary and inscriptional texts
™™Accounts of Arab and Turkish travellers

Introduction:
Do you know the famous words of Khafi
The periods from A.D. (CE) 700 to 1200 Khan, a courtier of Emperor Aurangzeb?
and from A.D. (CE) 1200 to 1700 are classified He says, ‘It is the duty of an historian to
as Early Medieval and Later Medieval periods, be faithful, to have no hope of profit, no
respectively, in Indian history. Numerous and fear of injury, to show no partiality on one
varied sources are fortunately available to the side, or animosity on the other, to know no
historians engaging in the study of Medieval difference between friend and stranger, and
India. Added to the information that can be to write nothing but with sincerity.’
gleaned from inscriptions, monuments and
coins are the accounts left by Arab, Persian and Sources
Turkish chroniclers. These accounts are rich in Sources are the supporting materials,
detail and have given first-hand information on documents or records in the form of evidence
the life of kings, though they provide very little that help to reconstruct the past.
information on the life of the common people.
The opinions of the courtiers and chroniclers Classification of Sources
are often one-sided, written in a hyperbolic
language, exaggerating the king’s achievements.
Let us now explore the various sources available Primary Sources Secondary Sources
for the study of the history of Medieval India.
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 We examine the details of political,
economic and socio-cultural developments
with the aid of sources.
Primary Sources: Inscriptions, monuments
and coins, and the information available in
them.
Copper plate Inscription
Secondary Sources: Literary works, chronicles,
In stone inscriptions, the beneficence of a
travelogues, biographies and autobiographies.
donor is recorded. The major focus is upon the
Inscriptions giver. Tiruvalangadu plates of Rajendra Chola
Inscriptions are writings engraved on I and the Anbil plates of Sundara Chola are
solid surfaces such as rocks, stones, temple notable examples. Uttiramerur inscriptions
walls and metals. The king’s royal decrees, in Kanchipuram district provide details of the
dedications and donations, monuments raised way in which the village administration was
in commemoration of victories in wars, those conducted.
built in memory of deceased warriors, contain Various types of lands gifted by the Chola
rich information about the concerned era. kings are known from the inscriptions and
Copper-plate grants, which were treated as copper plates. They are:
legal documents, have significant source value. land of non-brahmin
Vellanvagai
The Islamic-Persian practices and the relatively proprietors
high cost of copper plates made palm leaf and Brahmadeya land gifted to Brahmins
paper cheaper alternatives from 13th century land for the maintenance of
Shalabhoga
onwards. a school
Devadana land gifted to temples
land donated to Jaina
Pallichchandam
institutions
Monuments
Temples, palaces,
mosques, tombs, forts, minars
and minarets are called by the
collective name monuments.
Rock Inscription
Several copper-plate grants issued during
the later Chola period (10th to 13th century)
record gifts to individual priests or teachers
who were Hindu, Buddhist, or Jaina, or to
persons of eminence. Both the giver and the
receiver are elaborately described. By contrast,
most stone inscriptions differ in their content. Dilwara Temple Mt. Abu
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 The Sultans of Delhi introduced a new type The forts of historical importance are Agra
of architecture. The monuments they built had Fort, Chittor Fort, Gwalior Fort and Delhi
arches, domes and minarets as the main features. Red Fort as well as the forts of Daulatabad
The inscriptions in these monuments contain (Aurangabad) and Firoz Shah Kotla (Delhi).
rich information, which can be used to construct Palaces in Jaipur, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur signify
history. The medieval Khajuraho monuments the greatness of the Rajput dynasty that wielded
(Madhya Pradesh) and temples in Konark enormous power from these places. Qutb Minar
(Odisha) and Dilwara (Mt.Abu, Rajastan) and Alai-Darwaza, the tombs of Iltutmish,
constitute valuable sources to understand the Balban and all the Mughal rulers are the other
religion-centered cultural evolution in northern prominent structures recognised as valuable
India. Temples in Thanjavur (Brihadeshwara), sources of information. Cities in ruin such as
Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Darasuram Firozabad and Tughlaqabad in north India and
symbolise the magnificent structures the Hampi in south India remain rich repositories
Later Cholas built in Tamil Nadu. Vitala and of the history of medieval India.
Virupaksha temples at Hampi similarly speak
Coins
of the contribution of Vijayanagara rulers (15th
century). The portrait and the legend on the coins
convey the names of kings with their titles,
events, places, dates, dynasties and Royal
emblems. The composition of metals in the coins
gives us information on the economic condition
of the empire. Mention of king’s achievements
like military conquests, territorial expansion,
trade links and religious faith can also be found
in the coins.
Hampi - Vijayanagar
Quwwat-ul Islam Masjid, Moth-ki-Masjid, Muhammad Ghori had stamped the figure
Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri Dargah (all in and of Goddess Lakshmi on his gold coins and had
around Delhi) and Charminar (Hyderabad) his name inscribed on it. This coin tells us that
are the important mosques belonging to the this early Turkish invader was in all likelihood
medieval times. liberal in religious outlook.
Copper Jitals are available for the
study of the period of the Delhi Sultans.

Charminar Lakshmi Coin of Ghori Coins of Khalji

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 Silver Tanka introduced by Iltutmish, Ala- Rajput king’s valour. For pre-Islamic periods,
ud-din Khalji’s gold coins, Muhammad-bin- the only exception was Kalhana’s Rajtarangini
Tughluq’s copper token currency are indicative (11th century).
of coinage as well as the economic prosperity or Books, Biographies and Autobiographies
otherwise of the country of the time.
Minhaj-us-Siraj, patronised by Sultan
Nazir-ud-din Mahmud of Slave Dynasty, wrote
A jital contained 3.6 grains of
Tabakat-i-Nasiri. The compendium deals with
silver. Forty-eight jitals were
the period from the conquest of Muhammad
equal to 1 silver tanka.
Ghori to A.D. (CE) 1260. The compendium
was named after his patron. In the 13th century,
Hasan Nizami, a migrant from Ghazni wrote.
Taj-ul-Ma’asir towards the end of Iltutmish’s
rule. It provides information about Qutb-ud-
din Aibak and is considered the first official
Religious Literature history of the Delhi Sultanate. Zia-ud-din
Barani, a courtier of Muhammad Tughluq,
Devotional movement in South India and
wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, in which he dealt
later in North resulted in the development
with the history of Delhi Sultanate from Ghiyas-
of bhakti or devotional literature. The
ud-din Balban to the early years of the reign of
Chola period was known as the period of
Firoz Shah Tughluq. Ferishta’s Tarikh-i-Frishta
devotional literature and works such as
(16th century) deals with the history of the rise
Kamba Ramayanam, Sekkizhar’s Periyapuranam,
of the Mughal power in India.
Nalayira Divyaprabhandham, composed by
12 Azhwars and compiled by Nathamuni, Tabakat is an Arabic word meaning
Devaram composed by Appar, Sambandar 'generations or centuries'.
and Sundarar and compiled by Nambiyandar Tuzk is a Persian word meaning
Nambi, Manikkavasakar’s Thiruvasagam, all 'autobiography'.
were scripted during the Chola times. Jayadeva’s Tarikh or Tahquiq are Arabic words
Gita Govindam (12th century) was a follow-up meaning 'history'.
of the Bhakti Movement in South India. Kabir
Das, a 15th century mystic poet, also had an In the 16th century, emperor Babur’s
influence on the Bhakti Movement in India. Babur Nama and Abul Fazal’s Ain-i-Akbari and
Secular Literature Akbar Nama provided detailed information
about these two emperors. In the 17th century,
Madura Vijayam and Amuktamalyatha
Jahangir wrote his memoir, Tuzk-i-Jahangiri,
were poems composed by Gangadevi and
throwing a lot of light on the period. Apart from
Krishnadevaraya respectively that help us
autobiographies of emperors, Tabakat-i-Akbari,
gain insight into the events and individuals
authored by Nizam-ud-din Ahmad, is
associated with the Vijayanagara Empire.
considered reliable than the exaggerated account
Chand Bardai’s Prithiviraj Raso portrays the
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 of Abul Fazal. Similarly, Badauni’s outstanding people and the countries he visited. According
work, Tarikh-i-Badauni (Badauni's History), to him, Egypt was rich then, because of the
was published in 1595. This work spans three whole of the Indian trade with the West passed
volumes. The volume on Akbar’s reign is a frank through it. Ibn Battuta tells us of caste in India
and critical account of Akbar's administration, and the practice of sati. We learn from him
particularly of his religious policy. that Indian merchants were carrying on a brisk
Travellers and Travelogues trade in foreign ports and Indian ships in the
seas. He describes the city of Delhi a vast and
Marco Polo, a Venetian traveller, visited
magnificent city. Those were the days when
when the Pandya kingdom was becoming
Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq transferred his
the leading Tamil power in the 13th century.
capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad) in
Marco Polo was twice in Kayal, which was a
the south, converting this city into a desert.
port city (presently in Thoothukudi district of
Tamilnadu). It was full of ships from Arabia
and China. Marco Polo tells us that he himself
came by a ship from China. According to Marco
Polo, thousands of horses were imported into
southern India by sea from Arabia and Persia.
Al-Beruni (11th century) accompanied
Mahmud of Ghazni in one of his campaigns, and
stayed in India for 10 years. The most accurate
account of Mahmud’s Somnath expedition is
that of Alberuni. As learned man and a scholar,
he travelled all over India trying to understand
India and her people. He learnt Sanskrit and Ibn Battuta
studied the philosophy of India. In his book In the South, Vijayanagar had many foreign
Tahquiq-i-Hind, Alberuni discussed the Indian visitors who left behind their detailed accounts of
conditions, systems of knowledge, social norms the state. An Italian named Nicolo Conti came in
and religion. 1420. Abdur-Razzaq came from Herat (the court
Ibn Battuta (14th century), an Arab-born of Great Khan in Central Asia) in 1443. Domingo
Morocco scholar, travelled from Morocco Paes, a Portuguese traveller, visited the city in
right across North Africa to Egypt and then to 1522. All of them recorded their observations,
Central Asia and India. His travelogue (Rihla which are very useful for us today to know the
[The Travels]) contains rich details about the glory of the Vijayanagar Empire.

Summary
™™The period from A.D. (CE) 700 to 1200 and from A.D. (CE) 1200 to 1700 are classified as Early
Medieval and Later Medieval periods in Indian history.
™™Sources are classified as primary and secondary sources.

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 ™™Inscriptions on stones, rocks and temple walls and copper-plate grants with royal orders and
events in the courts, which have evidentiary value are dealt with.
™™Temples, palaces, mosques, tombs, forts, minars and minarets, collectively known as monuments,
belonging to early Medieval and Mughal periods, are highlighted.
™™The coins of Iltutmish, Ala-ud-din Khalji and copper coins of the later Islamic rulers are
discussed.
™™Devotional literature belonging to the era of Bhakthi Movement is provided.
™™Books, biographies and autobiographies that provide information about the political, social and
economic conditions of the medieval times are detailed.
™™Travallers’ accounts mostly by the visiting Arab and Persian scholars are given in the end.

Glossary
a person who writes accounts of important
chronicler வரலாற்றுப் பதிவாளர்
historical events
animosity hostility, antagonism விர�ோதம், பகைமை
a book or illustrated account of the places visited
travelogue பயணக்குறிப்புகள்
and experiences encountered by a traveller
commemoration in remembrance of நினைவாக
elaborately in detail விரிவாக
minarets a tall tower, typically part of a mosque தூபிகள்
the places, buildings where materials are stored or
repositories களஞ்சியங்கள்
kept
portraits pictures , images in drawing or painting உருவப்படங்கள்
a collection of detailed information about a
compendium த�ொகுப்பு
particular subject , especially in a book
substantiate to prove with evidence சான்றுகளுடன் நிரூபித்தல்

Evaluation

I. Choose the correct answer 2. _____________ was the land gifted to

1. ____________ are the temples.
writings engraved on a) Vellanvagai b) Shalabhoga
solid surfaces such as c) Brahmadeya d) Devadana
rocks, stones, temple 3. _____________period was known as the
walls and metals. period of devotional literature.
a) Chronicles b) Travelogues a) Chola b) Pandya
c) Coins d) Inscriptions c) Rajput d) Vijayanagara
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 4. _________ provides information about 4. Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller,
the first Sultan of Delhi. visited the Chola Empire in 1522.
a) Ain-i-Akbari b) Taj-ul-Ma’asir V 
Match the statement with the
c) Tuzk-i-Jahangiri d) Tarikh-i-Frishta reason
5. _____________ , an Arab-born Morocco Tick ( √ ) the appropriate answer.
scholar, travelled from Morocco to India. 1) Assertion(A): Muhammad Ghori’s gold
a) Marco Polo b) Al Beruni coins carried the figure of Goddess
Lakshmi.
c) Domingo Paes d) Ibn Battuta
Reason(R): The Turkish invader was
II Fill in the Blanks liberal in his religious outlook.
1. ___________ inscriptions provide details a) R is the correct explanation of A.
about administration in a Brahmadeya b) R is not the correct explanation of A.
village.
c) A is wrong and R is correct.
2. ___________ had stamped the figure of
d) A and R are wrong.
Goddess Lakshmi on his gold coins and
had his name inscribed on it. 2) Find out the wrong pair
3. 3.6 grains of silver amounted to a) Madura Vijayam - Gangadevi
a ___________. b) Abul Fazal - Ain-i-Akbari
4. ______________ was patronised by Sultan c) Ibn Battuta - Tahquiq-i-Hind
Nazir-ud-din Mahmud of Slave Dynasty. d) Amuktamalyatha - Krishnadevaraya
5. An Italian traveller _____________ visited 3) Find out the odd one
Vijayanagar Empire in 1420. a) Inscriptions b) Travelogues

III Match the following c) Monuments d) Coins

1. Khajuraho - Odisha
VI Answer the following in one or two
sentences
2. Konark - Hampi
1. Who compiled Nalayira Divyaprabhandham?
3. Dilwara - Madhya Pradesh
2. What does the word Tuzk mean?
4. Virupaksha - Rajasthan
3. Name Jahangir’s memoir.
IV State true or false 4. Name the two different types of sources for
the study of history.
1. Pallichchandam was the land donated to
Jaina institution. 5. List out the important mosques and forts
constructed during the medieval times.
2. The composition of metal coins gives us
information on the political condition of 6. Mention the important foreign travellers who
the empire. visited India during the medieval period.

3. The high cost of copper made palm leaf and VII Answer the following in detail
paper cheaper alternatives for recording 1. Describe the different types of coins
royal orders and events in royal courts. introduced by the rulers of Delhi Sultanate.
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 VIII Answer Grid
1. _____________ was a courtier of Emperor 2. Tiruvalangadu copper plates belong to
Aurangazeb. _________.
Ans: Ans:

3. ______ was the land for the maintenance 4. ______________ compiled Periyapuranam.
of the school.
Ans:
Ans:
5. ______ is an Arabic word meaning history. 6. Muhammed bin Tughluq transferred his capital
from Delhi to ________ in the south.
Ans:
Ans:

IX HOTs
1. The composition of metals in coins is indicative of the economic prosperity of the empire –
Substantiate.
X Student Activity
1. Prepare an album collecting pictures of palaces, tombs, mosques and forts of Medieval India.
XI Life skill
1. Find out from the libraries in your town or village and prepare a report about the primary and
secondary sources available there.
References
1. Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath, New Delhi:Penguin Group, 2014.
2. Burton Stein, A History of India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004 (Reprint).
3. K.A. Neelankanta Shastri, Cholas. Madras: University of Madras (Reprint).
4. S.K. Singh, History of Medieval India. New Delhi: Axis Books Private Ltd, 2013.

ICT CORNER
Sources of Medieval India
PROCEDURE :
Step 1: Open the Browser and type the given URL (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step 2: Click “India ” Option and then select any period (Ex. Medieval)
Step 3: Select any dynasty and then select any Kingdom (Ex. Sultanate)
Step 4: Explore the coins with pictorial descriptions.

Sources of Medieval India URL:

https://www.mintageworld.com/ (or) scan the QR Code

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 Unit -2

Emergence of
New Kingdoms in
North India

Learning Objectives

™™To acquire knowledge about the kingdoms of Rajputs and their

counterparts in North India
™™To assess the contributions of Rajputs and Palas to Indian culture
™™To know about the early military expeditions of Arabs and Turks

Introduction: than in A.D. (CE)1200. But the resistance

shown by the kings of Kanauj, especially of
Rajput states formed a collective entity that was
Yasovarman (A.D. (CE)736) and later by the
called Rajputana. Chittor was prominent and
Rajput chiefs and kings who held Kanauj and
had become the rallying point for all Rajput
most of northern India until the middle of the
clans. It was small compared to Malwa and
10th century made it impossible.
Gujarat. Yet the Rajputs ruled over these states.
In commemoration of the victory of Rana of
Chittor over Malwa, the Jaya Stambha, the tower
of victory, was built in Chittor. The Pratiharas
and the Palas had established their powerful
kingdoms in western India and in eastern India
respectively. By the 9th century, the Pratihara
dynasty had progressed to such an extent that
it called itself the sovereigns of Rajasthan and
Kanauj. The decline of Pratihara kingdom led
to the rise of Palas in Bengal and Chauhans
in north-western India. India’s Islamic period
might have begun in the immediate context of
Arabs’ conquest of Sind (A.D. (CE)712) rather Jaya Stambha
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 Origin of the Rajputs Chandelas of Bundelkhand were prominent.
The word ‘Rajput’ is derived from the Tomaras were ruling in the Haryana region. But
Sanskrit word Rajputra, which means ‘scion of they were overthrown by the Chauhans in the
the royal blood’. After the death of Harsha in 12th century.
A.D. (CE) 647, various Rajput clans established
Thirty-six royal Rajput clans were listed
kingdoms in different parts of northern and
by the Oriental scholar James Tod in A.D. (CE)
central India. The Rajputs trace their pedigree far
1829. Among them four claimed a special status:
back into the past. Their three principal houses
are the Suryavanshi or the Race of the Sun, the the Pratiharas, the Chauhans, the Chalukyas
Chandravanshi or the Race of the Moon and the (different from the Deccan Chalukyas), known
Agnikula or the Race of Fire God. Among those as Solankis, and the Paramaras of Pawars. All
who claimed descent from solar and lunar lines, the four clans were of the Agnikula origin.

NORTH INDIAN KINGDOMS

N
W E
S

TOMARAS
DELHI

CHAUHANS Kanauj
KAMARUPA
PRATIHARAS
Nalanda

CHANDELAS
PARAMARAS
SOLANKIS PALAS

RASHTRAKUTAS

CHOLAS

Not to Scale

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 Pratiharas centuries. Taking advantage of these internecine
The Pratiharas or Gurjara Pratiharas, one quarrels, many local kings succeeded in making
of the four prominent clans of the Rajputs, ruled themselves independent.
from Gurjaratra (in Jodhpur). In the 6th century Palas
A.D. (CE), Harichandra laid the foundation
Dharmapala (A.D. (CE) 770 - 810)
of the Gurjara dynasty. Nagabhatta I was the
first and prominent ruler of Pratiharas. In the Gopala, who founded the Pala dynasty,
8th century, he ruled over Broach and Jodhpur did not have royal antecedents. He was elected
and extended his dominion upto Gwalior. by the people for his superior capabilities.
He repulsed the invasion of the Arabs of Sind During his reign from 750 to 770, Gopala laid
from the east and checked their expansion. He the foundations for the future greatness of
was succeeded by Vatsaraja, who desired to this dynasty in Bengal. Dharmapala, his son,
dominate the whole of North India. His attempt made the Pala kingdom a powerful force in
to control over Kanauj brought him into conflict northern Indian politics. He led a successful
with the Pala ruler Dharmapala. campaign against Kanauj. He was a great
patron of Buddhism. He founded Vikramashila
There was a prolonged tripartite struggle Monastery, which became a great centre of
between the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, Buddhist learning.
the Rashtrakutas of Deccan and the Palas
of Bengal, as each one of them wanted to
establish their supremacy over the fertile
region of Kanauj. In the process, all the three
powers were weakened.

Vatsaraja’s successors Nagabhatta-II and

Rambhadra did not do anything impressively.
Vikramashila Monastery
Mihirabhoja or Bhoja, son of Rambhadra,
within a few years of his accession, succeeded Dharmapala was succeeded by his son,
in consolidating the power of the Pratiharas. As Devapala, who extended Pala control eastwards
a strong ruler, Bhoja was able to maintain peace into Kamarupa (Assam). Devapala was also a
in his kingdom. The Arab menace was firmly great patron of Buddhism. He gifted five villages
tackled by him. After Bhoja, the Pratihara to Buddhists. He also constructed many temples
Empire continued its full glory for nearly a along with monasteries in Magadha. According
century. to the historian R.C. Majumdar, ‘The reigns of
Dharmapala and Devapala constitute the most
Having successfully resisted the Arabs, the
brilliant chapter in the history of Bengal.’
Pratiharas turned their attention towards the
east and by the end of millennium, they ruled After Devapala, five rulers ruled the
over a large part of Rajasthan and Malwa. They region insignificantly. The kingdom attained
also held Kanauj for some time. The Rajputs unprecedented glory when Mahipala ascended
fought each other endlessly in the 11th and 12th the throne in 988.
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 Mahipala I (988 - 1038) fought in 1191. However, he was defeated and
killed in the second battle of Tarain in 1192.
Mahipala I was the most powerful ruler of
the Pala dynasty. He is called the founder of the Contribution of Rajputs to Art and
second Pala dynasty. The decline of Pratiharas Architecture
gave the Palas an opportunity to take a leading Art
role in north Indian affairs. But he could not
Rajput courts were centres of culture where
extend his domain beyond Banaras because of
literature, music, dance, paintings, fine arts and
the impressive campaigns of the Chola king from
sculpture flourished. A specific style of Rajput
the South, Rajendra Chola. Mahipala restored
painting—often focusing on religious themes
the old glory of the Palas. He constructed and
emerged at Rajput courts. Their style of painting
repaired a large number of religious buildings
is called ‘Rajasthani’. The Rajasthani style
at Banaras, Sarnath and Nalanda.
of painting can be seen at Bikaner, Jodhpur,
The Pala dynasty declined soon after the Mewar, Jaisalmer (all in Rajasthan).
death of Mahipala and gave way to the Sena
dynasty.
The Chauhans
The Chauhans ruled between A.D. (CE)
956 and 1192 over the eastern parts of the
present-day Rajasthan, establishing their capital
at Sakambari. This Rajput dynasty was founded
by Simharaji, who was popularly known as the
founder of the city of Ajmer.
Rajasthani Painting
The Chauhans were the feudatories of
the Pratiharas and staunchly stood by them to
Architecture
check the Arab invasions. The last of Chauhan The Rajputs were great builders. Some
kings, Prithiviraj Chauhan, was considered of the important examples of the Rajput
the greatest of all Chauhan rulers. He defeated buildings are the strong fortresses of
Muhammad Ghori in the first battle of Tarain Chittorgarh. Ranathambhor and Kumbahlgarh

There is a long epic poem Prithvirajraso, composed by the bard Chand Bardai, a few
centuries later. The story goes like this: The daughter of the King of Kanauj was to marry.
A suyamwara (the bride choosing the bridegroom of her choice) was held to enable her
to choose her husband. But she was in love with Prithiviraj and desired to marry him.
Prithiviraj was the enemy of her father. In order to insult him, the King of Kanauj had not only denied
him an invitation but had placed a statue of Prithiviraj as door keeper at the entrance to his court. To
the shock of everyone assembled, the princess rejected the princes present and garlanded the statue
of Prithiviraj, indicating her choice. Prithiviraj, who had been hiding in the vicinity, jumped in and
rode away with the princess in a horse. Later both of them were married.

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 Udaipur Lake Palace Jaipur Amber Fort Gwalior Palace

(all in Rajasthan), Mandu, Gwalior, Chanderi fine sculptures. These temples are dedicated to
and Asirgarh (all in Madhya Pradesh). Jain Tirthankaras and Hindu deities like Shiva
and Vishnu.
The examples of domestic architecture
of the Rajputs are the palaces of Mansingh at
Gwalior, the buildings at Amber (Jaipur) and
lake palaces at Udaipur. Many of the Rajput
cities and palaces stand among the hills in forts
or by the side of beautiful artificial lakes. The
castle of Jodhpur in Rajasthan is perched upon
a lofty rock overlooking the town.

The temples the Rajput rulers built have

won the admiration of art critics. The temples
in Khajuraho, the Sun temple in Konark, the
Dhilwara Jain temple constructed in Mount
Abu and Khandarya temple at Madhya Pradesh
are illustrious examples of their architecture.

The Khajuraho in Bundelkhand has 30

temples. The shikharas of the Khajuraho temples
are most elegant. The exterior and interior
parts of the temples are adorned with very Kajuraho

The Raksha Bandan (Rakhi) tradition is attributed to Rajputs. Raksha (protection) Bandhan (to
tie or relationship) is a festival that celebrates brotherhood and love. It is believed that if a woman
ties a rakhi around the wrists of male members, it means they are treating them like brothers. Such
men are placed under an obligation to protect them.

Rabindranath Tagore started a mass Raksha Bandhan festival during the Partition of Bengal
(1905), in which he encouraged Hindu and Muslim women to tie a rakhi on men from the other
community and make them their brothers. The exercise was designed to counter British efforts to
create a divide between Hindus and Muslims.

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 There are sixteen Hindu and Jain temples
at Osian, which is 32 miles away from Jodhpur.
The Jain temple at Mount Abu has a white
marble hall and a central dome of 11 concentric
rings and richly carved vaulted ceiling and
pillars. Palm Leaf Painting of Palas
Advent of Islam
Islam as a religious faith originated at
Mecca in Arabia. The founder of Islam was
Prophet Muhammad. The followers of Islam
are called Muslims. An Islamic state, especially
the one ruled by a single religious and political
leader, was known as ‘Caliphate’. Caliph means
a representative of the Prophet Muhammad.
Two early Caliphates were ‘Umayyads’ and the
Temple at Osian
‘Abbasids’. Both the Umayyads and the Abbasids
Contribution of Palas to Culture expanded their rule separately by their conquests
The Palas were adherents to the Mahayana and by preaching the principles of Islam.
school of Buddhism. They were generous In the 8th century India, the Arab presence
patrons of Buddhist temples and the famous appeared in the form of a Muslim army that
universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. It conquered the Sind. But their further expansion
was through their missionaries that Buddhism was made impossible by the kings of Gangetic
was established in Tibet. The celebrated plains and the Deccan. By the end of the
Buddhist monk, Atisha (981-1054), who 9th century, with the decline of the Abbasid
reformed Tibetan Buddhism, was the president Caliphate, the Arab garrisons in India and
of the Vikramashila monastery. The Palas also elsewhere threw off Caliph’s control and began
maintained cordial relations with the Hindu- to rule independently.
Buddhist state of the Shailendras of Sumatra
The Turkish governor, Alp-Tegin, was
and Java.
one among them whose capital was Ghazni
Under Pala patronage, a distinctive school (Afghanistan). His successor and son-in-law
of art arose, called Pala art or Eastern Indian Sabuktigin wanted to conquer India from
art. Pala artistic style flourished in present- the north-west. But only his son Mahmud
day states of Bihar and West Bengal, and also succeeded in this endeavour.
in present-day Bangladesh. It was chiefly
represented by bronze sculptures and palm-leaf
Mahmud of Ghazni
paintings, celebrating the Buddha and other
(A.D. (CE) 997 -1030)
divinities. The Pala bronze sculptures from this Mahmud is said to have conducted 17 raids
area played an important part in the spread of into India. At that time, North India was divided
Indian culture in Southeast Asia. into number of small kingdoms. One of them was
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 Arab Conquest of Sind and its Impact
In A.D. (CE) 712, Muhammad bin Qasim who was the commander of the Umayyad kingdom
invaded Sind. Qasim defeated Dahir, the ruler of Sind, and killed him in the battle. The capital
of Sind, Aror, was captured. Qasim extended his conquest further into Multan. He organised the
administration of Sind. The people of Sind were given the status of ‘protected subjects’. There was
no interference in the lives and religions of the people. But soon Qasim was recalled by the Caliph.
The Arab scholars visited Sind and studied many Indian literary works. They translated many
Sanskrit books on astronomy, philosophy, mathematics and medicine into Arabic. They learnt
the numerals 0 to 9 from India. Until then, the people in the West did not know the use of zero.
Through the Arabs, Europe gained more knowledge in mathematics. The importance of zero was
learnt by them from India. It is believed that the people in the West and the Arabs learnt the game
of chess only from the Indians.

Arrival of Turks in India

Shahi kingdom, which extended from Punjab immolated himself because he thought that this
to Kabul. The other important kingdoms were defeat was a disgrace. His successor Anandapala
Kanauj, Gujarat, Kashmir, Nepal, Malwa and fought against Mahmud but was defeated in
Bundelkhand. The initial raids were against the battle of Waihind, near Peshawar, in 1008.
the Shahi kingdom in which its king Jayapala As a result of his victory at Waihind, Mahmud
was defeated in 1001. After his defeat, Jayapala extended his rule over Punjab.
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 The subsequent raids turned his attention to India. Unlike Mahmud
of Mahmud into India were of Ghazni, he wanted to extend his empire
aimed at plundering the rich by conquering India. In 1175 Muhammad
temples and cities of North captured Multan and occupied whole of it in
India. In 1011 he raided his subsequent expeditions. In 1186 he attacked
Nagarkot in Punjab hills and Thaneshwar near Punjab and captured it.
Delhi. The Battle of Tarain (1191 - 1192)
Realising the grave situation in which they
were caught, the Hindu princes of North India
formed a confederacy under the command of
Prithiviraj Chauhan. Prithiviraj rose to the
occasion and defeated Muhammad in the
battle of Tarain near Delhi in 1191. This was
called the first battle of Tarain. To avenge this
Ruins of Somnath Temple
defeat, Muhammad made serious preparations
In 1018 Mahmud plundered the holy city and gathered a huge army. He arrived with his
of Mathura. He also attacked Kanauj. The ruler large force in Lahore via Peshawar and Multan.
of Kanauj, Rajyapala, abandoned Kanauj and He sent a message to Prithiviraj, asking him
later died. Mahmud returned with enormous to acknowledge his supremacy and become a
riches. His next important raid took place in Muslim. But Prithiviraj rejected the proposal
Gujarat. In 1024 A.D. (CE) Mahmud marched and prepared his army to resist the invader.
from Multan across Rajaputana and defeated Many Hindu kings and chieftains also joined
the Solanki king Bhimadeva I and plundered him. In the ensuing second battle of Tarain in
1192, Muhammad thoroughly routed the army
Anhilwad. Mahmud is said to have sacked the
of Prithiviraj who was defeated and killed.
famous temple of Somanath, breaking the idol.
Then he returned through the Sind desert. That The second battle of Tarain was a major
was his last campaign in India. Mahmud died in disaster for the Rajputs. Their political prestige
1030 A.D. (CE) The Ghaznavid Empire roughly suffered a serious setback. The whole Chauhan
included Persia, Trans-Oxyana, Afghanistan kingdom now lay at the feet of the invader.
and Punjab. The first Muslim kingdom was thus firmly
established in India at Ajmer and a new era in
Muhammad of Ghor (1149 - 1206)
the history of India began. After his victory over
Muhammad of Ghor or Muhammad Prithiviraj at Tarain, Muhammad returned to
Ghori started as a vassal of Ghazni but became Ghazni to deal with the threat from the Turks
independent after the death of Mahmud. Taking and the Mongols. After the death of Muhammad
advantage of the decline of the Ghaznavid in 1206, his most capable general Qutb-ud-din
Empire, Muhammad Ghori brought Ghazni Aibak who had been left behind in India took
under his control. Having made his position control of Muhammad’s territories in India and
strong and secure at Ghazni, Muhammad declared himself as the First Sultan of Delhi.
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 Summary
™™After Harsha, new regional powers emerged. Prominent ruling dynasties among them were
Pratiharas, Palas, Chauhans and Paramaras.
™™Pratiharas and Palas were battling to control the northern plains. Their focus was on capturing
the city of Kanauj.
™™The continued conflict over the possession of Kanauj prompted the local chieftains and kings to
declare themselves independent.
™™The Rajputs and Palas made impressive contribution to the evolving Indian culture.
™™The attempts of Arabs to expand were resisted by various rulers.
™™Military raids of Mahmud of Ghazni in the 11th century followed by expeditions of Muhammad
of Ghor paved the way for the establishment of Islamic rule in India.

Glossary
scion a descendant of the notable family வாரிசு, வழித்தோன்றல்
unprecedented exceptional முன்னெப்போதுமில்லாத
internecine mutually destructive இருசாராருக்கும் நாசத்தை விளைவிக்கின்ற
portraiture the art of painting சித்தரிக்கும் கலை
elegant grand நேர்த்தியான
monastery a place where monks live மடாலயம்
confederacy a league or alliance of states கூட்டமைப்பு

Evaluation
4. What was the most important cause of the
invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni?
I. Choose the correct answer
a) To destroy idolatry
1. Who wrote Prithivirajraso? b) To plunder the wealth of India
c) To spread Islam in India
a) Kalhana
d) To establish a Muslim state in India
b) Vishakadatta
c) Rajasekara
II Fill in the blanks
d) Chand Bardai
1. _____________ was the founder of
2. Who was the first prominent ruler of
Vikramashila University.
Pratiharas?
2. Arabs conquered Sind in
a) Bhoja I b) Naga Bhatta I
________________.
c) Jayapala d) Chandradeva
3. The city of Ajmeer was founded by
3. Ghazni was a small principality in _______ ______________.
a) Mangolia b) Turkey 4. The Khandarya temple is in
c) Persia d) Afghanistan __________________________.
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 III Match the following a) R is the correct explanation of A.

1. K
 hajuraho - Mount Abu b) R is not the correct explanation of A.

2. Sun temple - Bundelkhand c) A is correct and R is wrong.

d) A is wrong and R is correct.
3. Dilwara Temple - Konark
4. Assertion:- The second battle of Tarain
IV True or False was lost by Prithiviraj.
1. Rajputra is a Latin word. Reason:-There was disunity among the
2. King Gopala was elected by the people. Rajputs
3. The temple at Mount Abu is dedicated to
a) R is the correct explanation of A.
Lord Shiva.
b) R is not the correct explanation of A.
4. Raksha Bandan is a festival of brotherhood.
c) A is correct and R is wrong.
5. Indians learnt the numerals 0 – 9 from
Arabs. d) A is wrong and R is correct.
5. Consider the following statements and
V Consider the following statements.
find out which is/are correct.
Tick ( √ ) the appropriate answer.
1. R
 aksha Bandan tradition is attributed to
1. Assertion:- The tripartite struggle was to
Rajputs.
have control over Kanauj.
2. Tagore started a mass Raksha Bandan
Reason:-Kanauj was a big city. festival during Partition of Bengal
a) R is the correct explanation of A. 3. R
 aksha Bandan was to counter the
b) R is not the correct explanation of A. British attempt to create a divide
c) A is wrong and R is correct. between Hindus and Muslims.
d) A and R are wrong. a) 1 is correct.
2. Statement I. Mahipala could not extend b) 2 is correct.
his domain beyond Benaras. c) 3 is correct.
Statement II. Mahipala and Rajendra d) All the above are correct.
Chola were contemporaries. VI Answer in one or two sentences
a) I is correct. 1. Write about tripartite struggle over Kanauj.
b) II is correct. 2. Name any four Rajput clans.
c) I and II are correct. 3. Who was the founder of Pala dynasty?
d) I and II are false. 4. Mention the first two early Caliphates.
5. Name the ruler of Sind who was defeated
3. Assertion:- India’s Islamic period did not
by Qasim.
begin after Arab conquest of Sind in AD
(CE)712. VII Answer the following in detail
Reason:- Gurjara Pratiharas gave a stiff 1. What was the impact of Arab conquest of
resistance to Arabs. Sind? (point out any five)
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 VIII HOTs
a. Difference between Mahmud Ghazni’s invasion and Muhammad Ghor’s invasion.
b. Find out
First battle of Tarain Second battle of Tarain

Fought in the year

Causes for the battle

Who defeated whom?

What was the result?

IX Students activity
a) Word Splash

(Students discuss what they know about the Harsha Rajputs

words given here. They use the words from Kanauj Vikramashila
what they have learnt in a narrative form) Prithiviraj Caliph

b) Time Line

Write the event for the given year in each column.

Advent of Islam in India

A.D.( C.E) 1192

A.D. ( C.E)1191

A.D. ( C.E) 1175

A.D. ( C.E) 1030

A.D. ( C.E)1001
A.D. ( C.E)712

X Map work
On the river map of India mark the territories ruled by Pratiharas, Chauhans, Palas and Paramaras.

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 XI Answer Grid
1. W
 ho was the Shahi ruler of Punjab 2. Rajput style of Painting is called _________
defeated by Mahmud of Ghazni? Ans:
Ans:
3. How many Rajput clans were there? 4. W
 ho established the first Islamic empire in
Ans: India?
Ans:
5. Who was the first Sultan of Delhi? 6. Where is Mecca?
Ans: Ans:

XII Life skill

1. Make an album with the pictures of temples built by Rajput rulers.

References
1. Romila Thapar, Early India, New Delhi: Penguin, 2002.
2. Burton Stein, A History of India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004 (Reprint).
3. S.K. Singh, History of Medieval India, New Delhi: Axis Books, 2013.
4. K.V Rajendra, Ancient and Medieval Indian History, New Delhi: Pacific Publication, 2010.

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 Unit -3

Emergence of New
Kingdoms in South India:
Later Cholas and Pandyas

Learning Objectives

™™To trace the origin of the later Cholas and the later Pandyas
™™To know about the prominent rulers of both the kingdoms
™™To acquaint with their administrative system
™™To understand the social, economic and cultural development during
their reign

I. The Later Cholas In the 9th century Vijayalaya, ruling over a

small territory lying north of the Kaveri, revived
Introduction
the Chola Dynasty. He conquered Thanjavur
The Cholas are one among the popular and and made it his capital. Later Rajendra I and his
well-known Tamil monarchs in the history of successors ruled the empire from Gangaikonda
South India. The elaborate state structure, the Cholapuram, the newly built capital.
extensive irrigation network, the vast number
Rajaraja I (A.D. (CE) 985 - 1014) was the
of temples they built, their great contributions
most powerful ruler of Chola empire and also
to art and architecture and their overseas
grew popular beyond his times. He established
exploits have given them a pre-eminent position
Chola authority over large parts of South India.
in history.
His much-acclaimed naval expeditions led to
Revival of the Chola Rule the expansion of Cholas into the West Coast and
The ancient Chola kingdom reigned Sri Lanka. He built the famous Rajarajeswaram
supreme with the Kaveri delta forming the (Brihadeshwara) Temple in Thanjavur. His son
core area of its rule and with Uraiyur (present- and successor, Rajendra Chola I (A.D. (CE)
day Tiruchirappalli) as its capital. It rose to 1014 - 1044, matched his father in his ability to
prominence during the reign of Karikala expand the empire. The Chola empire remained
but gradually declined under his successors. a powerful force in South India during his reign.
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 After his accession, his striking military Kulothunga established himself firmly on the
expedition was to northern India, capturing Chola throne soon eliminating all the threats
much territory there. He proclaimed himself to the Chola Empire. He avoided unnecessary
the Gangaikondan (conqueror of the Gangai wars and earned the goodwill of his subjects.
region). The Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple But Kulothunga lost the territories in Ceylon.
was built to commemorate his victories in North The Pandya territory also began to slip out of
India. The navy of Rajendra Chola enabled him Chola control. Kanchipuram was lost to the
to conquer the kingdom of Srivijaya (southern Telugu Cholas. The year 1279 marks the end
Sumatra). Cholas’ control over the seas of Chola dynasty when King Maravarman
facilitated a flourishing overseas trade. Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated the last king
Rajendra Chola III and established the rule of
Decline of the Chola Empire
the Pandyas in present-day Tamil Nadu.
Rajendra Chola’s three successors were
Administration
not capable rulers. The third successor
Veerarajendra’s son Athirajendra was killed in The central administration was in the
civil unrest. With his death ended the Vijayalaya hands of king. As the head of the state, the king
line of Chola rule. enjoyed enormous powers. The king’s orders
were written down in palm leaves by his officials
or inscribed on the temple walls. The kingship
was hereditary in nature. The ruler selected his
eldest son as the heir apparent. He was known
as Yuvaraja. The Yuvarajas were appointed
as Governors in the provinces mainly for
administrative training.
The Chola rulers established a well-
organised system of administration. The
Ruins of Gangaikonda Cholapuram
empire, for administrative convenience, was
Matrimonial alliances between the divided into provinces or mandalams. Each
Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas began mandalam was sub-divided into naadus.
during the reign of Rajaraja I. His daughter Within each naadu, there were many kurrams
Kundavai was married to Chalukya prince (groups of villages). The lowest unit was the
Vimaladitya. Their son was Rajaraja gramam (village).
Narendra who married the daughter of
Local Governance
Rajendra Chola named Ammangadevi.
Their son was Kulothunga I. Local administration worked through
various bodies such as Urar, Sabhaiyar,
On hearing the death of Athirajendra, the Nagarattar and Nattar. With the expansion
Eastern Chalukya prince Rajendra Chalukya of agriculture, numerous peasant settlements
seized the Chola throne and began the rule came up on the countryside. They were known
of Chalukya-Chola dynasty as Kulothunga I. as Ur. The Urar, who were landholders acted as
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 spokesmen in the Ur. Sabhaiyar in Brahman of qualified candidates from each ward were
villages also functioned in carrying out written on the palm-leaf slips and put into a
administrative, financial and judicial functions. pot. The eldest of the assembly would engage a
Nagarattar administered the settlement of boy to pull out one slip and declare his name.
traders. However, skilled artisans like masons, Various committees were decided in this way.
blacksmiths, goldsmiths, weavers and potters
Revenue
also lived in Nagaram. Nattar functioned as an
assembly of Nadu and decided all the disputes The revenue of the Chola state came
and issues pertaining to Nadu. mainly from the land. The land tax was known
as Kanikadan. The Chola rulers carried out
The assemblies in Ur, Sabha, Nagaram and
an elaborate survey of land in order to fix the
Nadu worked through various committees.
government’s share of the land revenue. One-
The committees took care of irrigation, roads,
third of produce was collected as land tax. It
temples, gardens, collection of revenue and
was collected mostly in kind. In addition to
conduct of religious festivals.
land tax, there were taxes on profession and
Uttiramerur Inscriptions tolls on trade.

Social Structure Based on Land

Relations
The Chola rulers gifted tax-free lands to
royal officials, Brahmins, temples (devadana
villages) and religious institutions. Land granted
to Jain institutions was called pallichchandam.
There were also of vellanvagai land and the
holders of this land were called Vellalars. Ulu-
kudi, a sub-section of Vellalar, could not own
Uttiramerur Inscriptions
land but had to cultivate Brahmadeya and
Uttiramerur presently vellanvagai lands. The holders of vellanvagai
in Kanchipuram district was land retained melvaram (major share in
a Brahmadeya village (land harvest). The ulu-kudi got kil-varam (lower
grants given to Brahmins). share). Adimai (slaves) and panicey-makkal
There is a detailed description (labourers) occupied the lowest rung of society.
of how members were elected to the committees In the intermediate section came the armed
of the village sabha in the inscriptions found men and traders.
there. One member was to be elected from
each ward. There were 30 wards in total. The
Irrigation
eligibility to contest was to men in the age Cholas gave importance to irrigation.
group of 35–70, well-versed in vedic texts and The 16-mile long embankment built by Rajendra
scriptures, and also owned land and house. The Chola in Gangaikonda Cholapuram is an
process of election was as follows: The names illustrious example. Vati-vaykkal, a criss-cross
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 channel, is a traditional type of harnessing rain Cholas as Patrons of Learning
water in the Cauvery delta. Vati is a drainage
Chola kings were great patrons of learning.
channel and a vaykkal is the supply channel. The
Rajendra I established a Vedic college at
commonly owned village channel was called ur- Ennayiram (now in Villupuram District). There
vaykkal. The nadu level vaykkal is referred to as were 340 students learning the Vedas, grammar
nadu-vaykkal. The turn-system was in practice and Upanishads under 14 teachers. This example
in distributing the water. was later followed by his successors and as a result
Religion two more such colleges had been founded, at
Tirubuvanai near present-day Puducherry and
Chola rulers were ardent Saivites. Hymns,
Tirumukkoodal in present-day Chengalpattu
in praise of the deeds of Lord Siva, were
district, in 1048 and 1067 respectively. The
composed by the Saiva saints, the Nayanmars.
great literary works Periyapuranam and
NambiyandarNambi codified them, which
Kamba Ramayanam belong to this period.
came to be known as the Thirumurai.
Trade
Temples
There was a flourishing trade during the
The Chola period witnessed an extensive
Chola period. Trade was carried out by two
construction of temples. The temples in guild-like groups: anju-vannattar and mani-
Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram and gramattar. Anju-vannattar comprised West
Darasuram are the repository of architecture, Asians, Arabs, Jews, Christians and Muslims.
sculpture, paintings and iconography of the They were maritime traders and settled on the
Chola art. Temples during the Chola period port towns all along the West Coast. It is said
were not merely places of worship. They were that mani-gramattar were the traders engaged
the largest landholders. Temples promoted in inland trade. In due course, both groups
education, and devotional forms of art such merged under the banner of ai-nutruvar and
as dance, music and drama. The staff of the disai-ayirattu-ai-nutruvar functioning through
temples included temple officials, dancing the head guild in Ayyavole, Karnataka. This
girls, musicians, singers, players of musical ai-nutruvar guild operated the maritime
instruments and the priests. trade covering South-East Asian countries.

Big Temple Thanjavur Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple

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 Through overseas trade with South-East Narsimahvarman I. Inscriptions and copper
Asian countries elephant tusks, coral, conch plates praise his victory over his counterparts:
transparent glass, betel nuts, cardamom, opaque Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Sinhalese.
glass, cotton stuff with coloured silk threads Arikesari Maravarman is identified with the
were imported. The items exported from here Kun Pandian, the persecutor of Jains.
were sandalwood, ebony, condiments, precious
gems, pepper, oil, paddy, grains and salt. Saivite saint Thirugnanasambandar
converted Arikesari from Jainism to
II. The Later Pandyas
Saivism. On his conversion, Arikesari is
Introduction alleged to have impaled Jains on stakes.
Pandyas were one of the three ancient The anti-Jain attitude of Arikesari after his
Tamil dynasties that ruled southern India since conversion to Saivism cannot be doubted.
the 4th century B.C. (BCE) but intermittently.
Korkai, associated with pearl fisheries, is
After Arikesari, the greatest of the dynasty
believed to have been their early capital and
was Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadayan (Varaguna
port. They moved to Madurai later, as many
early Tamil inscriptions of Pandyas have been I) (756-815), the donor of the Velvikkudi plates.
unearthed in Madurai and its surroundings. Nedunjadayan expanded the Pandya territory
Under the Pandya kings of the Sangam Age, to include Thanjavur, Tiruchirappalli, Salem
Madurai was a great centre of culture. Poets and Coimbatore districts. Nedunjadayan’s
and writers of Tamil language gathered there successors Srimara Srivallabha and Varaguna
and contributed to the development of Tamil II, were successively defeated by Pallavas. Later
Classics. The Pandyas had re-established their they could not face the rising Chola dynasty
strong position in south Tamil Nadu by the end under Parantaka I. Parantaka I defeated the
of the 6th century A.D. (CE), after eliminating Pandya king Rajasimha II who fled the country
the rule of Kalabhras. But they could not resist in 920. Thus ended the Pandya rule revived by
the rising power of the later Cholas who ruled Kadungon.
South India from 9th to 13th century. Thereafter Rise of Later Pandyas (1190 - 1310)
taking advantage of the decline of Chola power,
The Chola viceroyalty became weak in
the later Pandyas re-established their authority.
Pandya country after the death of Adhirajendra
Their rule continued until 16th century.
(the last king of Vijayalaya line). Eventually
Revival of Pandya Kingdom the Pandya kingdom could emerge as the only
(A.D. (CE) 600 - 920) leading Tamil dynasty in the 13th century.
Kadunkon recovered Pandya territory from Madurai continued to be their capital. Now
the Kalabhras towards the close of 6th century. Kayal was their great port. Marco Polo, a famous
He was succeeded by two others. Arikesari traveller from Venice, visited Kayal twice, in
Maravarman was the first strong Pandya ruler 1288 and 1293. He tells us that this port town
who ascended the throne in A.D. (CE) 642. He was full of ships from Arabia and China and
was a contemporary of Mahendravarman I and bustling with business activities.
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 There were two or three co-regents who ruled
Marco Polo hailed the Pandyan Kingdom as
simultaneously along with Sundarapandyan:
‘the richest and the most splendid province
VikramaPandyan and ViraPandyan. After
in the world’. Together with Ceylon, he
Sundarapandyan, MaravarmanKulasekaran
added, it ‘produced most of the gems and
ruled successfully for a period of 40 years , giving
pearls that are found in the world’. In his
the country peace and prosperity. He had two
travel account he recorded the incidents of
sons. The king’s appointment of ViraPandyan
sati and the polygamy practiced by the kings.
as a co-regent provoked the other son Sundara
Pandyan who killed his father Maravarman
Sadaiyavarman Sundarapandyan
Kulasekaran. In the civil war that ensued,
The illustrious ruler of the second Pandya ViraPandyan won and became firmly
Kingdom was Sadaiyavarman (Jatavarman)
established in his kingdom. The defeated
Sundarapandyan (1251 to 1268). He brought
SundaraPandyan fled to Delhi and took refuge
the entire Tamil Nadu under his rule, which
under the protection of Ala-ud-din Khalji. This
extended up to Nellore in Andhra. He held the
provided the opening for the invasion of Malik
Hoysalas in check. The Chera ruler, the chief of
Kafur.
Malanadu, accepted his feudatory position and
paid tribute to Sundarapandyan. Emboldened After Malik Kafur’s invasion, the Pandyan
by the decline of the Chola state, the Boja King Kingdom came to be divided among a number
of Malwa region Vira Someswara challenged of kings from the main ruling Pandya’s family.
Sundarapandyan. In a war at Kannanur, In Madurai, a Muslim State subordinate to the
Sundarapandyan defeated Someswara. Delhi Sultan came to be established.
Sundarapandyan succeeded in establishing Polity and Society
his authority over the chieftains of Cuddalore,
State
Kanchipuram in northern Tamil Nadu, Arcot
and Salem in the western region. Pandya kings preferred Madurai as their
capital. Madurai has been popularly venerated
as Koodal. The kings are traditionally revered
as Koodal-kon, Koodal Nagar Kavalan. The
Pandyas derived military advantage over
their neighbours by means of their horses.
They imported these horses through Arabs
with whom they had commercial and cultural
contact.
The king claimed that he was ruling
according to Manu Sastra. This doctrine
supported the social hierarchy in the
society. Kings and local chiefs created
Brahmin settlements called Mangalam or
Coin of Pandya Kingdom
Chatur-vedi-mangalam with irrigation facilities.
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 The actual landowning groups are described Vaigai and Tamiraparani, channels leading
as the Bumiputtirar, otherwise called the to the irrigation tanks were built. In southern
vellalar. Historically they were locals and Tamilnadu, like the Cholas, Pandyas introduced
hence they were referred to as nattu-makkal. the new irrigation technology. Irrigation works
The communal assembly of this group is were done by local administrative bodies,
Cittira Meli Periyanattar. local chiefs and officials. Repairs were mostly

Royal Officials undertaken by local bodies. Sometimes, traders

also dug out tanks for irrigation.
A band of officials executed the royal orders.
The prime minister was uttara-mantri. The Religion
historical personalities like Manickavasagar, Pandyas extended patronage to vedic
Kulaciraiyar and Marankari worked as practices. Velvikkudi copper plates as well as
ministers. The royal secretariat was known inscriptional sources mention the rituals like
as eluttu-mandapam. The most respected Asvameda yaga, Hiranya garbha and Vajapeya
officials were maran-eyinan, sattan-ganapathy, yaga, conducted by every great Pandya king.
enathi-sattan, tira-tiran, murthi-eyinan and The impartiality of rulers towards both Saivism
others. The titles of military commanders and Vaishnavism is also made known in the
were palli-velan, parantakan-palli-velan, invocatory portions of the inscriptions. Temples
maran-adittan and tennavan-tamilvel. of both sects were patronised through land
grant, tax-exemption and renovation.
Administrative Divisions
The great Saiva and Vaishnava saints
Pandy nadu, as in Chola state, consisted of
(Nayanmaras and Alwars) combined
many provinces known as vala-nadus, which,
contributed to the growth of Tamil literature
in turn, were divided into many nadus and
and spiritual enlightenment. The period was
kurrams. The administrative authorities of nadus
marked by intense religious conflict. The Bhakti
were the nattars. Nadu and Kurram contained
movement of the time prompted the heterodox
settlements, viz. mangalam, nagaram, ur and
scholars for a debate. Many instances of the
kudi, where different social groups inhabited.
defeat of Buddhists and Jains in such debates
Village Administration are mentioned in Bhakti literature. The Pandya
An inscription from Manur (Tirunelveli kings of the period supported and promoted
district) dated A.D. (CE) 800 provides an Tamil and Sanskrit.
account of village administration. It looks Temples
similar to Chola’s local governance that included
Medieval Pandyas and later Pandyas did
village assemblies and committees. Both civil
not build any new temples but maintained
and military powers seem to have been vested
the existing temples, enlarging them with
in the same person.
the addition of gopuras, and mandapas. The
Irrigation monolithic mega size ornamented pillars are
The Pandya rulers created a number of the unique feature of the medieval Pandya style.
irrigation sources. On either side of the rivers The sculptures of Siva, Vishnu, Kotravai, Ganesa
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 and Subramanyar are the best specimens in of port dues and tolls. In Kayal, there was
these temples. Pandyas specially patronised the an agency established by an Arab chieftain
historic Meenakshi temple at Madurai and kept by name Malik-ul-Islam Jamal-ud-din. This
expanding its premises by adding gopuras and agency facilitated availability of horses to
mandapas. Pandya kings.
In 13th and 14th centuries, horse trade
became brisk. Marco Polo and Wassaff state
that the kings invested in horses as there was
a need of horse for ceremonial purposes as
well as for fighting wars. Those who were
trading in horses were called kudirai chetties.
They were active in maritime trade also.
The busiest port town under the Pandyas
was Kayal Pattinam (now in Thoothukudi
district) on the east coast. Gold coins were in
circulation as the trade was carried through
Meenakshi Temple, Madurai the medium of gold. It was variously called
Trade kasu, kalanchu and pon.

Arab settlements on the west coast of The vast trade in horses of that time has been
southern India, from 7th century, had led to recorded by Wassaff. He writes: ‘…as many
the expansion of their trade connection to the as 10,000 horses were imported into Kayal
east coast because the governments of the east and other ports of India of which 1,400
coast pursued a more liberal and enlightened were to be of Jamal-ud-din’s own breed. The
policy towards overseas traders. Their average cost of each horse was 220 dinars of
charters exempted traders from various types 'red gold'.

Summary
™™The Cholas and Pandyas are well known Tamil monarchs.
™™Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty.
™™The prominent Chola rulers are Rajaraja I and Rajendra I.
™™Uttiramerur inscriptions provide details of village administration.
™™Kodunkon recovered Pandya territory from Kalabhras. Arikesari Maravavarman and
Parantaka Nedunjadayan were his two prominent successors.
™™The illustrious rulers of later Pandya kingdom were Sadaayavarman Sundarapandyan and
Maravarman Kulasekaran.
™™Maritime trade during Pandyas is highlighted by Marco Polo and Wassaff.

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 Glossary
Matrimonial திருமண உறவுகள் மூலம்
political alliances through marriages
alliances அரசியல் கூட்டு
a wall or stone structure built to prevent a river
Embankment தடுப்பணை
flooding an area as well as to store its water
Ardent passionate தீவிரமான

அரசருக்குக் கட்டுப்பட்ட குறுநில

Feudatory a subordinate to another sovereign/ruler
மன்னர்

Refuge shelter புகலிடம்

Repository place in which things are stored கருவூலம்

Evaluation

I. Choose the Correct answer 5. An example of Chola architecture can be

seen at .
1. Who revived the later
Chola dynasty? a) Kannayiram b) Uraiyur
c) Kanchipuram d) Thanjavur
a) Vijayalaya
b) Rajaraja I 6. To which of the following, Marco Polo
c) Rajendra I went in the last decade of 13th century in
d) Athirajendra India?

2. Who among the following Pandya rulers is a) Chola mandalam

known for ending the Kalabhra rule? b) Pandya country
c) Kongu region
a) Kadunkon b) ViraPandyan
d) Malainadu
c) Kun Pandyan d) Varaguna
II Fill in the blanks
3. Which of the following was the lowest unit
1. built the famous
of Chola administration?
Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjavur.
a) Mandalam b) Nadu
2. established a Vedic college at
c) Kurram d) Ur
Ennayiram.
4. Who was the last ruler Vijayalaya line of
3. was the donor of Velvikudi
Chola dyanasty?
copper plates.
a) VeeraRajendra b) Rajadhiraja
4. The royal sectretariat of Pandya kingdom
c) AthiRajendra d) Rajaraja II
was known as .
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 III Match the Following a) 1 and 2 b) 3 and 4
c) 1,2 and 4 d) All the above
1. Madurai Inland traders
3. Assertion:- The Yuvarajas were appointed
2.  Gangaikonda Maritime traders Governors in the provinces.
Cholapuram Reason:- This was done for their training
3. Anju- Vannattar Capital of Cholas in administration.
4. Mani- gramattar Capital of Pandyas a) R is the correct explanation of A.
b) R is not the correct explanation of A.
IV. True or False c) A is wrong and R is correct.
d) A and R are wrong.
1. A Muslim state subordinate to Delhi Sultan
4. Arrange the following administration
was in Madurai.
divisions in descending order.
2. Koodal – nagar Kavalan was the title of a
1. Nadu 2. Mandalam
Pandya king.
3. Ur 4. Kurram
3. Chola kingdom was situated in Vaigai 5. Arrange the events in chronological order.
delta. 1. Maravarman appointed Virapandyan as
4. Kulothunga I belonged to Chalukya – co – regent.
Chola dynasty. 2. Civil war broke out.
5. The elder son of the Chola king was called 3. 
A Muslim State was established in
Yuvaraja. Madurai.
V Consider the following statements. 4. 
MaravarmanKulasekaran had two
Tick ( √ ) the appropriate answer. sons – Virapandyan and Sundrapandyan
1. Which of the following statements about 5. 
SundraPandyan sought help from
Later Cholas are correct? Ala–ud-din Khalji.
1. They had a system of Local self 6. Malik Kafur invaded Madurai.
government. 6. Find out
2. They maintained a strong navy.
Brahmadeya
3. They were the followers of Buddhism.
4. They built big temples.
a) 1,2 and 3 b) 2,3 and 4 Devadana
c) 1,2 and 4 d) 1,3 and 4
2. Which of the following statements are true Pallichchandam
with regard to Rajendra Chola?
1. He assumed the title Gangaikonda
Vellanvagai
Chola.
2. He conquered Southern Sumatra.
3. He is credited with consolidating the
Chola power.
VI Answer in one or two sentences
4. His naval power enabled him to conquer 1. What were the items exported during the
Srivijaya. later Chola period?
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 2. What was called Chatur-vedi-mangalam? IX Students activity

3. Write about Kanikadan. Who am I?

1. I was responsible for Malik Kafur invasion.

VII Answer the following in detail
2. I built 16-mile embankment-lake in
1. Highlight any five aspects of Cholas’ legacy. Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
3. I am a water supply channel.
VIII HOTs
4. I codified Thirumurai.
1. Chola kings were great patrons of learning: 5. I was a great port. Marco Polo visited me
Support the statement with details. twice.

Who is he? Why is this person so

important?

Marco Polo

What are his observaons about Why do you think his observaons
Pandya Kingdoms? are so important?

X Answer Grid
1. Name the two literary works of Chola 2. Which port is associated with pearl fishery?
period. Ans:
Ans:

3. What do kasu, kalanchu and pon refer to? 4. In which district is Kayal -Pattinam located?
Ans: Ans:

5. Who was the Pandya king, defeated by 6. Where is the famous Meenakshi temple located?
Parantaka I? Ans:
Ans:

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 XI Field trip
1. Visit any one temple built during Chola or Pandya period and see its magnificence.

References
1. K.A Nilakanda Sastri, A History of South India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002.

2. Y. Subbarayalu, South India under The Cholas, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2012.

3. R Champakalakshmi, Trade, Ideology and Urbanization South India- 300 BC to AD 1300, New
Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996.

4. Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India, New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 2010.

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 Unit -4

The Delhi Sultanate

Learning Objectives

To acquaint ourselves with

™™Turkish Sultans of various dynasties who ruled India from Delhi
™™Their military conquests and extension of sovereignty
™™Administration of the Delhi Sultanate
™™Art and architecture of this period

Introduction Mamluk Dynasty (1206 - 1290)

During the eleventh century, the Turkish Muslim rule in India was established by
horsemen pillaged northern India and due to Muhammad Ghori in 12th century A.D. (CE).
their persistent campaigns, they succeeded As he had no sons, he nurtured special slaves
in seizing political control of the Gangetic called bandagan (a Persian term used for slaves
plain by the next century. Though the success purchased for military service). These slaves were
of their conquests could be attributed to their
posted as governors and they were later raised to
audacity and ferocity, their success is really due
the status of Sultans. After Ghori’s death in 1206,
to the failure of Indians to defend themselves
one of his slaves Qutb-ud-din-Aibak who had
and their territories. Indians viewed each
been left behind by Muhammad Ghori to govern
other with distrust, failing to take note of the
the territories he had conqured, proclaimed
success of Islam in early years of its spread. The
superior military might of Muslim soldiers was himself ruler of the Turkish territories in India.
yet another factor that contributed to success He laid the foundation of the Slave Dynasty.
in their conquests. In this lesson, we discuss This dynasty is also known as Mamluk dynasty.
how Turkish warriors set about founding and Mamluk is an Arabic word meaning ‘‘slave’’.
consolidating their Islamic rule till the advent Qutb-ud-din-Aibak, Shams-ud-din-Iltutmish
of Babur. and Ghiyas-ud-din-Balban were the three great
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 Sultans of this dynasty. The Slave Dynasty ruled reign that the threat of Mongols under Chengiz
over the sub-continent for about 84 years. Khan loomed large over the frontiers of India.
He averted the impending danger by refusing
Qutb-ud-din-Aibak (1206 - 1210)
to provide shelter to the Kwarezm Shah Jalal-
Qutb-ud-din-Aibak began his rule by ud-din, who had been driven out by Chengiz
establishing Lahore as the capital of his kingdom. Khan. In order to counter the possible attack
Later he shifted his capital to Delhi. He was of the Mongols, Iltutmish organised Turkish
active all through his rule in Delhi conquering nobility into a select group of 40 nobles known
new territories and suppressing rebellions. as chahalgani or The Forty.
He personally led military campaigns to the
Iltutmish granted iqtas (land) to members
central and western Indo-Gangetic plain (north
of his army. Iqta is the land granted to army
India) and left the conquest of the eastern
officials in lieu of a regular wage. The iqta
Gangetic Plain (Bihar, Bengal) to the care of
holder is called the iqtadar or muqti who had
Bakhtiar Khalji. Aibak built the Quwwat-ul-
to provide the Sultan with military assistance
Islam Masjid (mosque) in Delhi. This mosque is
in times of war. The iqtadar collected revenue
considered to be the oldest in India. He also laid
from his iqta to meet the cost of maintaining his
the foundation of the Qutb-Minar, but he was
troops and horses.
unable to complete it. It was later finished by his
son-in-law and his successor Iltutmish. Aibak
died of injuries received during an accidental
fall from a horse, while playing polo in 1210.

Quwwat-ul-Islam Masjid

Iltutmish (1210 - 1236)

Aibak’s son Aram Shah proved incompetent
and so the Turkish nobles chose Iltutmish, the
son-in-law of Aibak as the Sultan, who served Qutb-Minar

as a military commander of Aibak. Iltutmish Iltutmish completed the construction of

firmly established his control over the territories the Qutb-Minar, started by Aibak. Iltutmish
by suppressing rebellions. It was during his died in April 1236 after ruling for 26 years.
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 Razia (1236 - 1240) cordial relationship with the Mongols. He
obtained from Hulagu Khan, a grandson of
As the most capable son of Iltutmish, Rukn-
Chengiz Khan and the Mongol viceroy in Iran,
ud-din-Firuz, was dead, Iltutmish nominated
the assurance that Mongols would not advance
his daughter Razia Sultana as his successor to
beyond Sutlej.
the throne of Delhi. Razia was an able and brave
fighter. But she had a tough time with Turkish Balban built forts to guard his empire
nobles as she favoured non-Turkish nobles. She against the Mongol attacks. He patronised the
also faced the situation of the ferocious Mongols famous Persian poet Amir Khusru. Balban died
raiding Punjab during her reign. in 1287. Balban’s son Kaiqubad turned out to
be weak. In 1290 Malik Jalal-ud-din Khalji, the
Razia made an Ethiopian slave named
commander of the army, assumed the office
Jalal-ud-din Yakut as her personal attendant
of Naib (a deputy to the Sultan) and ruled the
and started trusting him completely. This led
kingdom in the name of Kaiqubad. Then one
to a revolt of the Turkish nobles who conspired
day, Jalal-ud-din sent one of his officers and had
against her and got her murdered in 1240.
Kaiqubad murdered. Jalal-ud-din then formally
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266 - 1287) ascended the throne. With him began the rule
After Razia, three weak rulers in succession of Khalji dynasty.
ascended the throne. After them came Ghiyas-
Khalji Dynasty (1290 - 1320)
ud-din Balban. Balban abolished The Forty
Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290 - 1296)
as it was hostile to him. He established a
department of spies to gather intelligence There were many military campaigns
about the conspirators and the trouble makers during the reign of Jalal-ud-din. But they were
against his rule. He dealt with insubordination mostly organised and led by his nephew, Ala-
and defiance of royal authority sternly. Tughril ud-din, the governor of Kara. One significant
Khan, a provincial governor of Bengal, who military expedition was against the Deccan
raised a banner of revolt against Balban, was kingdom Devagiri. Ala-ud-din, after defeating
captured and beheaded. He was ruthless in the Yadava king Ramachandra, plundered
dealing with enemies like Meos of Mewat (a the city and returned with huge wealth. Ala-
Muslim Rajput community from north-western ud-din treacherously killed Jalal-ud-din after
India). Balban, however, took care to maintain buying off the prominent nobles and important
commanders with the wealth he had brought
from the Deccan and declared himself as the
Sultan of Delhi in 1296.
Ala-ud-din Khalji (1296 - 1316)
Ala-ud-din Khalji consolidated the
Delhi Sultanate. The range of his conquests is
impressive: in the Punjab (against the Mongols),
in Rajasthan and in Gujarat. With his northern
Tomb of Balban frontiers secure, he sent his chief lieutenant
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 Malik Kafur into the southern parts who took Ala-ud-din died in 1316. The failure of his
even the distant Madurai in 1310. The Yadavas successors to retain power led to the seizure of
of Devagiri, the Kakatias of Warangal, the power by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq, who founded
Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and the Pandyas of the Tughluq dynasty.
Madurai accepted Ala-ud-din’s suzerainty.
Tughluq Dynasty (1320 - 1414)
Sack of Chittor (1303): Ghiyas-ud-din (1320 - 1324)
When Ala-ud-din’s army One of the major tasks of Ghiyas-ud-
overwhelmed the Rajput
din as the Sultan was to recover the territories
army in Chittor and in
that the Sultanate had lost during the turmoil
the context of threat of
following the death of Ala-ud-din. Ghiyas-
defeat, the men and women of the fortress,
ud-din Tughluq sent his son Jauna Khan to
in accordance with their old custom,
fight against Warangal. Jauna Khan defeated
performed the rite of jauhar. According
Pratabarudra of Warangal and returned with a
to this custom, left with no other way to
rich booty. With this looted wealth, Ghiyas-ud-
survive, the men would go out and die in
din is said to have laid the foundation of the city
the field of battle and women would burn
Tughluqabad near Delhi. However, as Ala-ud-
themselves on a pyre.
din treacherously killed his uncle, Jauna Khan
was said to have killed his father and ascended
the throne with title Muhammad-bin-Tughluq
in 1325.

Muhammad-bin-Tughluq (1325 - 1351)

Chittor Fort
Muhammad-bin-Tughluq was a learned
Ala-ud-din’s political and administrative man. Yet he was a person of cruelty. Ala-ud-
reforms were as impressive as his military din had conquered, looted and left the old
conquests. Ala-ud-din undertook a survey of ruling families as his dependents. In contrast,
the agrarian resources around his capital and Muhammad Tughluq dreamt of making the
fixed a standard revenue demand. He entrusted whole of the subcontinent his domain. With
the task of collecting the revenue to the military the view to facilitating extended sovereignty, he
officers. This measure deprived the local chiefs shifted his capital from Delhi to the centre of
and rajas of their time memorial privilege. the kingdom, namely Devagiri. He also changed
Ala-ud-din established a system of forced its name to Daulatabad. When Muhammad
procurement of food grains for Delhi and other himself decided that the move was a mistake,
garrison centres. The procurement prices were he ordered a return to Delhi as the capital again.
fixed and grain collected as tax was stored in state When Ibn Battuta, the Morocco traveller who
granaries. In order to ensure the enforcement
was with the Sultan, returned to Delhi, he found
of his new regulations, he employed spies who
Delhi ‘empty, abandoned and had but a small
were responsible to report to him directly.
population’.
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 and declared themselves independent. In South
When Muhammad-bin-Tughluq
India, several states arose. The new Daulatabad
moved his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad,
and the conquered territories around them were
he displaced all the citizens of Delhi and also
declared independent sultanate called Bahmani.
the cattle.
Its founder after whom it was named, was a
soldier formerly in Tughluq service. Madurai
Tughluq changed the Ala-ud-din’s system
was proclaimed a separate sultanate in 1335.
of revenue collections in grain and ordered
Bengal became independent in 1346. Tughluq
that land revenue, which was increased, should
died on 23 March 1351.
henceforward be collected in money. This
proved disastrous during famines. When he
Firoz Shah Tughluq (1351 - 1388)
discovered that the stock of coins and silver
was inadequate for minting, he issued a token
currency in copper. Counterfeiting soon
became order of the day and, as a result, the
entire revenue system collapsed. Trade suffered
as foreign merchants stopped business. This
forced Sultan to withdraw the token currency
and pay gold and silver coins in exchange.
This move led the state to become bankrupt. Tomb of Firoz Shah Tughluq

Tughluq increased land tax in the Doab region,

Firoz, the son of Ghiyas-ud-din’s younger
which triggered peasant revolts. As the revolts
brother, succeeded Muhammad-bin-Tughluq.
were cruelly dealt with, peasants abandoned
Firoz could neither suppress revolts nor win
cultivation, which resulted in the outbreak of back the provinces that had broken away. He
frequent famines. also showed no interest in re-conquering the
southern provinces. He refused to accept an
invitation (c. 1365) from a Bahmani prince to
intervene in the affairs of the Deccan. Firoz
rewarded Sufis and other religious leaders
generously and listened to their advice. He also
created charities to aid poor Muslims, built
colleges, mosques, and hospitals. He adopted
Coins of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq many humanitarian measures. He banned
inhuman punishments and abolished taxes not
Tughluq ruled as Sultan for 25 years.
recognised by Muslim law.
During his long reign, he had to face many
revolts of the provincial governors. The He promoted agriculture by waiving off the
Governors of Awadh, Multan and Sind revolted debts of the agriculturalists and constructing
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 many canals for irrigation. He laid out 1200 Timur’s Invasion (1398)
new gardens and restored 30 old gardens of Ala-
The sacking and massacre by Tamerlane or
ud-din-Khalji. He had built new towns such as
Timur of Delhi came a decade after Firuz
Firozabad, Jaunpur, Hissar and Firozpur.
Shah Tughluq died. As a ruler of the region
Despite adopting a peaceful approach and around Samarkand in Central Asia, Timur had
taking efforts to organise the Sultanate well, he occupied some parts in the north-west of India.
had to spend his last days in unhappiness. His Taking advantage of India’s weakness, he entered
own son Muhammad Khan revolted against India in December 1398 and plundered Delhi.
him and Firoz Shah died in September 1388, at Punjab, besides the Delhi city, was the province
the age of 83. that suffered most by Timur’s raid. Timur, apart
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 from carrying huge wealth in the form of gold, throne in 1451. This gave Bahlol Lodi, then the
silver, jewels, also took along Indian artisans like governor of Sirhind (Punjab), the opportunity
carpenters and masons to work on monuments to become the new Sultan of Delhi, leading to
in Samarkand. the establishment of Lodi dynasty.
Sayyid Dynasty (1414 - 1451) Lodi Dynasty (1451 - 1526)
Though the Sultanate fragmented into a In 1489, Bahlol Lodi was succeeded by his son
number of independent kingdoms, it endured Sikandar Lodi. Sikandar was a patron of arts
for 114 years more, till the Mughal invasion. and learning. He founded the city of Agra and
Before leaving Delhi, Timur had left behind his made it his capital. He died in 1517 and was
representative Khizr Khan as the governor of succeeded by his son, Ibrahim Lodi, who was
the territories he had conquered (Delhi, Meerut defeated by Babur in 1526 in the Panipat battle.
and Punjab). He founded the Sayyid Dynasty in Thus the Lodi dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate
1414, which lasted till 1451. The last ruler of this were ended by Babur who went on to establish
dynasty, Ala-ud-din Alam Shah, abdicated the the Mughal Empire in India.

Islamic art and architecture: The mansions of high-ranking Muslim nobles, soldiers and officials
were built first in cities and the neighbourhoods. Around them, the mosques in the imperial
style were constructed by successive Muslim regimes in Delhi. Mosques and Madrasas looked
architecturally different. The graceful decorations of doorways and walls with lines from the
Koran made a distinct appearance in these buildings. The shape of all these buildings was Persian,
while the decoration was Indian. So, it is called Indo-Saracenic architecture. Qutb Minar, Alai-
Darwaza, Quwwat-ul Islam Masjid, Moth-ki-Masjid, the tombs of Iltutmish, Balban and the forts
of Daulatabad and Firozabad were all constructed in this style.

Daulatabad Fort Alai-Darwaza

Summary
™™Establishment of Muslim rule in India by Muhammad Ghori
™™Slave dynasty founded by Qutb – ud- din- Aibak and consolidated by his Son-in-law Iltutmish
™™Razia, the daughter of Iltutmish, a brave fighter and a great administrator
™™Balban’s espionage system and the abolition of The Forty, to reduce the power of Turkish nobles

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 ™™Ala – ud- din- Khalji as the founder of Khalji dynasty - his military conquests and administrative
reforms
™™Firoz Shah Tughluq as a compassionate ruler with his concentration on the well - being of the
people
™™The sacking of Delhi by Timur
™™Khizr Khan founding the Sayyid dynasty and Bahlol Lodi the governor of Sirhind establishing
the Lodi dynasty
™™The first battle of Panipat paving the way for the foundation of Mughal Empire by Babur in A.D.
(CE)1526

Glossary
எக்கணமும் நடைபெற இருக்கிற/
impending about to happen
அச்சுறுத்தும் நிலையில் இருக்கிற
ferocious cruel, violent மூர்க்கமான/ அச்சம் தருகிற வகையில்
someone who conspires secretly with other
conspirator சதிகாரர்கள்
people to do something unlawful or harmful
patron supporter, promoter புரவலர்
plunder to steal goods forcibly from a place especially
க�ொள்ளையடி
during a war
procurement the process of getting supplies க�ொள்முதல்
disastrous causing great damage பேரழிவு
fragment break into pieces துண்டு துண்டாக
counterfeit fake ப�ோலியான
waiving exempting விலக்கு அளி

Evaluation 2. Qutb-ud-in shifted his capital to Delhi

from_____________.

I Choose the correct answer a) Lahore b) Poona

c) Daulatabad d) Agra
1. ____________laid the foundation of 3. ______________ completed the
‘Mamluk’ dynasty. construction of the Qutb-Minar.
a) Mohammad Ghori a) Razia
b) Jalal-ud-din b) Qutb-ud-din -Aibak
c) Qutb-ud-din Aibak c) Iltutmish
d) Iltutmish d) Balban
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 4. _________laid the foundation of the city V. 
Match the statement with the
Tughluqabad near Delhi. reason.Tick the appropriate answer
a) Muhammad-bin -Tughluq 1) Assertion (A):Balban maintained cordial
b) Firoz shah Tughluq relationship with Mongols
c) Jalal –ud-din Reason (R): The Mongol ruler, a grandson
d) Ghiyas –ud-din of Chengiz Khan, assured that Mongols
would not advance beyond Sutlej.
II Fill in the Blanks
a) R is the correct explanation of A.
1. ___________ was the founder of Tughluq b) R is not the correct explanation of A.
dynasty. c) A and R are wrong.
2. Muhammad–bin-Tughluq shifted his d) A is wrong and R is the correct.
capital from Delhi to___________. 2) Find out the correct pair
3. ____________ patronized the famous a) Hoysala - Devagiri
Persian poet Amir Khusru. b) Yadavas - Dwarasamudra
4. Quwwat-ul-Islam Masjid in Delhi was c) Kakatias - Warrangal
built by______________ . d) Pallavas - Madurai

5. The threat of Mongols under Chengizkhan 3) Find out the wrong statement
to India was during the reign a) After Ghori’s death in 1206, his slave Qutb-
of_________________________. ud-din Aibak proclaimed him self the ruler
III Match the following of the Turkish territories in India.
b) Razia established the department of spies to
1. Tughril Khan - Governor of Kara gather intelligence about the conspirators
2. Ala-ud-din - Jalal-ud-din Yakut and the trouble makers against her rule.
3. Bahlol Lodi - Governor of Bengal c) Balban built forts to guard his empire
4. Razia - Governor of Sirhind against the Mongol attack.
d) Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur in
IV State true or false
1526.
1. Qutb-ud-din Aibak died of mysterious
VI Answer the following in one or
fever.
two sentences
2. Razia was an able and brave fighter.
1. Name the land granted to army officials in
3. The Turkish nobles chose Iltutmish, son of lieu of a regular wage.
Aibak, as Sultan after the death of Aibak. 2. Who founded the city of Agra?
4. FirozShah Tughluq refused to accept 3. Name the ruler who established Muslim
an invitation from a Bahmani Prince to rule in India in 12th century A.D (CE).
intervene in the affairs of the Deccan. 4. Write a note on chahalgani.
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 5. How did Ala-ud-din Khalji consolidate the X Student Activity
Delhi Sultanate?
1. Match the Father with Son
6. List out the contributions of Firoz Shah
Tughluq. 1. Qutb-ud-din Rukn-ud-din-Firuz
Aibak
VII Answer the following
2. Iltutmish Kaiqubad
1. Write about the invasion of Timur in 1398. 3. Balban Ala-ud-din
VIIIHOTs 4. Ghiyas-ud-din Sikandar Lodi
5. Bahlol Lodi Aram Shah
1. How would you evaluate Muhammad-bin-
Tughluq as Sultan of Delhi? 2. Prepare an album of pictures of Islamic art
IX. Map Work and architecture of the Delhi Sultanate .

On the river map of India draw the extent References

of Tughluq Dynasty and mark the following 1. Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath, New
places. Delhi:Penguin, 2014.
2. R.C Majumdar, H.C. Ray Chaudhuri and
1. Delhi
Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of
2. Devagiri India, New Delhi:Trinity, 2018.

3. Lahore 3. Burton Stein, A History of India, New Delhi:

Oxford University Press, 2004 (Reprint).
4. Madurai.
4. S.K. Singh, History of Medieval India, New
Delhi: Axis Books, 2013.

ICT CORNER

The Delhi Sultanate

PROCEDURE :

Step 1: Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.

Step 2: Keep Scrolling and go to ‘Timeline’

Step 3: Click any period and you can explore the historical events with pictorial descriptions
(ex. Delhi Sultanate)

The Delhi Sultanate URL:

https://delhi-timeline.in/ (or) scan the QR Code

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 GEOGRAPHY

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 Unit -1

Interior of the Earth

Learning Objectives

™™To know about the interior of the earth

™™To understand the movements of earth plates
™™To learn about earthquakes and volcanoes

Introduction 1. The Crust

The earth, our homeland, is a dynamic The crust is the outermost layer of the
planet. The earth’s surface has lofty mountains, earth. Its thickness varies from 5 to 30 km. It
high plateaus, large plains and deep valleys etc. is about 35 km on the continental masses and
The earth’s surface is constantly undergoing only 5 km on the ocean floors. Despite greater
changes inside and outside. Have you ever thickness, the continental crust is less dense
wondered what lies in the interior of the earth? than the oceanic crust because it is made of both
What is the earth made up of? Let us learn about light and dense rock types. The oceanic crust is

this in detail. composed mostly of dense rocks such as basalt.

Interior of the Earth Earth is called as blue Planet.

The structure of the earth may be 71% of the earth is covered by
compared to that of an apple.On the basis of water.
the study of earthquake waves the spherical
The crust comprises two of distinct parts.
earth is found to be three concentric layers.
The upper part consists of granite rocks and
They are:
forms the continents. It has the main mineral
1. The crust, constituents of silica and alumina. So it is
2. The mantle and referred to as Sial. It has an average density of
3. The core. 2.7g/cm3.
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 The lower part is a continuous zone of (ii) The inner core, composed of Nickel
denser basaltic rocks forming the ocean floors, and Ferrous (Nife), is solid in state. The central
comprising mainly of silica and magnesium. It is core has very high temperature and pressure. It
therefore called Sima. It has an average density extends from 5,150 km to 6,370 km. The average
of 3.0g/cm3. The sial and the sima together form density of core is 13.0 g/cm3
the earth’s crust. Since the sial is lighter than the
The crust forms only 1% of
sima, the continents can be said to be ‘floating’ the volume of the earth, 84%
on a sea of denser sima. consists of the mantle and 15%
makes the core. The radius of
the earth is 6,371km.

The Earth Movements

The lithosphere is broken into a number
of plates known as the Lithospheric plates.
Each plate, oceanic or continental moves
independently over the asthenosphere. The
movement of the Earth’s lithospheric plates
is termed as tectonic movements. The energy
Structure of the Earth required to move these plates is produced by the
2. The Mantle internal heat of the earth. These plates move in
The next layer beneath the crust is called different directions at different speed.
the mantle. It is separated from the crust by a
boundary called Mohorovicic discontinuity.
The mantle is about 2,900 km thick. It is divided
into two parts. (i) The upper mantle with a
density of 3.4 – 4.4g/cm3. extends down to 700
km. (ii) The lower mantle having a density of
4.4 – 5.5g/cm3 extends from 700 to 2,900 km.

Why the interior of the earth is so hot? Lithospheric Plates

At places, these plates move away from
3. The Core
each other creating wide rifts on the earth’s
The innermost layer of the earth is called
surface. At some places, these plates come
the core. It is also known as barysphere.
closer and collide. When an oceanic plate
It is separated from the mantle by a boundary
collides with a continental plate, the denser
called Weichart-Gutenberg discontinuity. The
oceanic plate is forced below the continental
core is also divided into two parts. plate. As a result of the pressure from above
(i) The outer core, which is rich in iron, is in the rocks heats up and melts. The molten rocks
liquid state. It extends between 2,900 – 5,150 km. rise again forming volcanic mountains along
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 the continental edge. Alternatively, a trench focus of the earthquake. The point of the earth’s
may be formed between two plates surface directly above the focus is called the
In some cases when two continental plates epicentre of the earthquake. From the focus,
converge, neither plate can be forced under the earthquake vibrations travel in different
the other. Instead, folds may be created. Great directions in the form of seismic waves.
mountain ranges like the Himalayas have been The earthquake waves are recorded by
formed in this way. an instrument known as seismograph. The
The movement of these plates causes magnitude of an earthquake is measured by the
changes on the surface of the earth. The earth Richter scale. The numbers on this scale range
movements are divided on the basis of the forces from 0 to 9.
which cause them. The forces which act in the Causes of Earthquake
interior of the earth are called as Endogenic
The chief cause of earthquake is the sudden
forces and the forces that work on the surface of
slipping of the portion of the earth’s crust along
the earth are called as Exogenic forces.
fractures or faults. The movement of the molten
Endogenic forces produce sudden
rocks underneath the surface produce strains
movements and Exogenic forces produce slow
which break the rocks apart. The sudden shifting
movements. Endogenic movements produce
of landmass causes upheavals in the crust of
earthquakes and volcanoes that cause mass
the earth sending vibrations or waves into the
destruction over the surface of the earth.
surrounding portions of the earth. Sometimes
The asthenosphere is the part of the surface of the earth itself cracks.
the mantle that flows and moves Effects of Earthquakes
the plates of the earth.
Earthquakes may cause changes in the
earth’s surface. Vibrations often set landslides
Earthquake
in mountainous regions. A greater danger in
A sudden movement of a portion of the an earthquake is the falling of buildings. Most
earth’s crust which produces a shaking or of the houses which collapsed were made of
trembling is known as an earthquake. The point mud and bricks and proved to be death traps.
where these vibrations originate is called the Underground water system is naturally disturbed
by such movements. Fire is another great danger.
Fault Scarp
Fault trace

There are three types of earthquake waves:

P waves or longitudinal waves
S waves or transverse waves
Epicentre
L waves or surface waves

Seismic Focus An earthquake which originates below

Waves
or near the sea causes great disturbance in the
water. The floods and waves cause great loss
Earthquake of life, sometimes more than the earthquake
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 itself. Tsunami, a Japanese term, is the name In India, the Himalayan region and the
given to the huge waves caused in the sea by an Ganga-Brahamaputra valley are prone to
earthquake. Tsunamis are quite common along earthquakes. A number of earthquakes have
the coasts of Japan and other regions in the been experienced in this region. Some of them
Pacific Ocean. were very severe and caused extensive damage,
e.g., the earthquake of Uttar Kashi in 1991 and
On 26th December 2004, Tsunami
Chamoli in 1999. The Deccan Plateau, which
in the Indian Ocean swept coastal
was supposed to be comparatively free from
area of Indonesia, India, Srilanka,
the dangers of the earthquakes, has experienced
Thailand etc., They caused
two severe earthquakes in the past, the Koyna
immense damage to life and property in the
(Maharashtra) earthquake in 1967 and the
coastal area
Latur earthquake in 1993.

Distribution of Earthquakes Volcanoes

The world’s distribution of earthquakes A volcano is a vent or an
coincide very closely with that of volcanoes. opening in the earth’s crust
Regions of greatest seismicity are circum-Pacific through which hot magma
areas, with the epicenters and the most frequent erupts from deep below
occurrences along the Pacific Ring of Fire. It is the surface. The opening
said that about 68 % of earthquakes occur in is usually circular in form.
this belt. Remaining 31 % of earthquakes take Volcanic eruptions may also take place through
place in the Mediterranean-Himalayan belt a long crack or fissure through which steam and
including Asia Minor, the Himalayas and parts other materials flow out.
of north-west China. The remaining percent of The molten rock material within the earth,
earthquakes occur in Northen Africa and Rift together with gases, is called magma. After it
valley areas of the Red sea and Dead sea. rises to the surface, it is called as lava.

Distribution of Earthquakes
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 Nature of volcanic eruptions
Sometimes, magma rises slowly to the
surface and spreads over a vast area. This is
known as fissure eruption. Some plateaus
and plains have been formed in this way, e.g.,
Deccan Plateau in India and the Colombian
Plateau in North America. If the magma rises
quickly to the surface, lava is thrown high into
the atmosphere. Besides lava, ash, steam, gases
and pieces of rocks are also thrown out. This
type of eruption is known as explosive eruption.
Volcano The terrible explosion on 27th August 1883 in
In course of time, lava and other materials the island of Krakatoa, Indonesia is an example
flow out of a volcano accumulate around the for explosive type of eruption.
opening and form a conical hill or a mountain The viscosity of lava is determined by the
vent is an openning or mouth of a volcano. The amount of silica and water in magma. Highly
top of this cone is usually marked by a funnel- viscosity lava is rich in silica and has little water.
shaped depression, which is called a crater. If the Low viscosity lava has little silica, but a lot of
crater of a volcano is of great size and is shaped water. It moves rapidly forming smooth flows.
like a basin, it is called a caldera. Calderas are
caused by violent explosions which blow away Barren island is situated in the
entire tops of great cones. Andaman Sea, and lies about 138
km northeast of the territory's
Causes of Volcanic Activity
capital. It is only in active volcano along
The temperature increases as the depth the chain from sumatra to myanmar. Last
increases at the rate of 1ºc for every 32 metres. eruption occurred in 2017.
There is also great pressure. At a depth of about
15 km the pressure is about 5 tonnes per cm2of Types of Volcanoes
rock. Under these circumstances, the interior of Volcanoes are classified according to their
the earth is in a semi-molten state called magma. periodicity of eruptions and the state of activity
The magma, under great pressure has the such as
capacity to dissolve great volume of gas; some
1. Active Valcano
gases are also combustible. This makes volcanic
2. Dormant Valcano
material burst forth through the weak spots in
3. Extinct Valcano
the earth’s crust.
1. Active Valcano
The scientific study of valcanoes are called Valcanoes that erupt frequently are called
volcanology.
active volcanoes. Most of the active volcanoes lie
People who study valcanoes are called
in the Pacific Ring of Fire belt which lies along
volcanologists.
the Pacific coast. There are about 600 active
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 volcanoes in the world, such as Mt. Stromboli in Distribution of Volcanoes in the world
Mediterranean Sea, St.Helens in USA, Pinatubo Volcanoes are located in a clearly-defined
in Philippines. Mauna Loa in Hawaii is the pattern around the world. They are closely
world’s biggest active volcano. related to regions that have been intensely
folded or faulted. There are about 600 active
Stramboli is known as the ‘light volcanoes and thousands of dormant and
house of Mediterranean sea’ extinct ones. They occur along the coastal
mountain ranges, as off-shore islands and
in the midst of oceans, but there are a few in
2. Dormant Valcano the interior of continents. The volcanic belts
These volcanoes have shown no sign of are also the principal earthquake belts of the
activity for many years but they may become world. There are three major zones of volcanic
active at any time. These are called Sleeping activities in the world. They are:
Volcanoes. Vesuvius mountain of Italy, 1. The Circum – Pacific belt
Mt Fujiyama of Japan, Mt. Krakatoa of Indonesia 2. The Mid continental belt
are famous examples of this types. 3. The Mid Atlantic belt
1. Circum Pacific Belt
3. Extinct volcano
This is the volcanic zone of the convergent
A Volcano has not erupted in past 1000 oceanic plate boundary. It includes the
years is often listed as Extinct volcanoes. volcanoes of the eastern and western coastal
The top of extinct volcanic mountains have areas of Pacific Ocean. This zone is popularly
been eroded. Mt Popa of Myanmar and Mt. termed as the Pacific Ring of Fire which has
Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya of Africa are been estimated to include two-thirds of the
examples of extinct volcanoes. world’s volcanoes.

Pacific Ring of Fire

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 2. Mid continental belt 3. Mid Atlantic Belt
This is the volcanic zone of convergent This belt represents the divergent
continental plate boundaries that includes
boundary of plates located along the mid-
the volcanoes of Alpine mountain chains, the
Atlantic ridges. Volcanoes of this area are
Mediterranean Sea and the fault zone of eastern
mainly of fissure eruption type. Iceland is the
Africa. The important volcanoes are Vesuvius,
Stromboli, Etna, Kilimanjaro and Kenya. most active volcanic area and is located on
Surprisingly, the Himalayas have no active the mid-Atlantic ridge. St. Helena and Azores
volcanoes at all. Island are other examples.

Summary
™™The Earth’s interior structure is compared with that of an apple
™™The crust is the outer-most layer of the earth.
™™The upper part of the earth crust is SIAL.
™™The lower part of the earth crust is SIMA.
™™The mantle is about 2900km thick.
™™The lithosphere is broken into a number of plates known as the lithospheric plates
™™The earthquake waves are recorded by an instrument known as seismograph.
™™Tsunami is caused by an underwater earthquake.
™™A Volcano is vent or opening in the earth crust through which magma comes out.
™™The Shape of a volcano depends on the type of lava and force of the eruption.
™™There are three major zone of volcanic activity in the world.

Glossary
Core The inner most layer of the earth கருவம்
Mantle The second layer beneath the crust கவசம்
Mohorovicic Boundary that separated the mantle from the crust ம�ோஹ�ோர�ோவிசிக்
discontinuity எல்லை
Land slide Downward movements of rock debris of the mountain நிலச்சரிவு
Seismograph Instrument to measures the magnitude of an earthquake சீஸ்மோகிராப்
Tsunami Sea waves caused by an underwater earthquake or a ஆழிப்பேரலை
volcanic eruption under sea.
Vent An opening a the earth surface from which volcanic எரிமலைவாய்
material is emitted
Magma The molten state of rocks பாறைக்குழம்பு
Lava The solidified form of magma after it reaches the surface எரிமலைக்குழம்பு
of the earth

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 4. An example for active volcano is
Evaluation ______________.
5. Seismology is the study of __________.
I. Choose the correct answer
III. Circle the odd one
1. Nife is made up of ___________ .
1. crust, magma, core, mantle
a) Nickel and ferrous
2. focus, epicenter, vent, seismic waves
b) Silica and aluminum
3. Uttar Kashi, Chamoli, Koyna, Krakatoa
c) Silica and magnesium
4. lava, caldera, silica, crater
d) Iron and magnesium
5. Stromboli, Helens, Hawaii, Fujiyama
2. Earthquake and volcanic eruption occur near
the edges of ______________. IV. Match the following

a) Mountain b) Plains 1. Earth quake - Japanese term

c) Plates d) Plateaus 2. Sima - Africa

3. The magnitude of an earthquake is measured 3. Pacific Ring of Fire- Sudden movement

by ______________. 4. Tsunami - Silica and magnesium
a) Seismograph b) Richter scale 5. Mt. Kenya - World volcanoes
c) Ammeter d) Rotameter V. Consider the following statement and ( )
4. The narrow pipe through which magma flow Tick the appropriate answer
out is called a ______________. 1. Assertion (A): There structure of the earth
a) Vent b) Crater may be compared to that of anApple.
c) Focus d) Caldera Reason (R): The interior of the earth

5. _____________ Volcano is known as light consists of crust, mantle and core.
house of Mediterranean Sea. a) A and R are correct and R explains A
a) Stromboli b) Krakota b) A and R are correct but R does not
c) Fujiyama d) Kilimanjaro explain A
6. __________ belt is known as the “Ring of c) A is incorrect but R is correct
Fire”. d) Both A and R are incorrect
a) Circum - Pacific b) Mid-Atlantic Assertion (A): The Pacific Ocean includes
2. 
c) Mid - Continental d) Antarctic two thirds of the world’s volcanoes.
II. Fill in the blanks R
 eason (R): The boundary along the Eastern
1. The core is separated from the mantle by a and Western coast areas of the Pacific Ocean
boundary called ______________. is known as the Pacific Ring of Fire.
2. The earthquake waves are recorded by an a) A and R are correct and R explains A
instrument known as __________. b) A and R are correct but R does not explain A
3. Magma rises to the surface and spreads over c) A is incorrect but R is correct
a vast area is known as __________.
d) Both A and R are incorrect
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 VI. Answer in a word IX. Distinguish between
1. Name the outer most layer of the earth. 1. SIAL and SIMA
2. What is SIAL? 2. Active volcano and dormant volcano
3. 
Name the movement of the Earth’s X. Answer the following in detail
lithospheric plates?
1. Write about the effects of an earthquake?
4. Give an example of extinct volcano.
2. Describe the classification of volcanoes
VII. Answer the following briefly
based on the eruptions.
1. What is mantle?
3. Name the major zones of volcanic activity
2. Write note on the core of the earth?
and explain any one.
3. Define Earthquake.
4. What is Seismograph? XI. HOTs
5. What is a volcano? 1. The earth’s interior is very hot. Why?
6. Name the three types of volcanoes based on 2. Are Volcones Destructive (or) Constructive?
periodicity of eruption.
3. How does volcaone make an Island?
VIII. Give reason
XII. Activity
1. No one has been able to take samples from
the interior of the earth 1. Prepare an album on earthquake and
2. The Continental crust is less dense than the volcanoes.
oceanic crust 2. Label the parts of volcano.

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 3. On an outline map of the world, mark the Pacific Ring of Fire

Reference Books
1. Majid Husain, Physical Geography, Anmol Publication Pvt Ltd
2. A Das Gupta, A.N. Kapoor, Principles of Physical Geography, S. Chand & Company Ltd., New
Delhi
3. Goh Cheng Leong, certificate Physical and Human Geography, Oxford University press.
4. Savindra Singh (2015) physical Geography, Pravalika publications Allahabad.

ICT CORNER
Interior of the Earth

select full screen mode and play the game

with descriptions

PROCEDURE
Step 1: Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step 2: Click on the Map to start
Step 3: select full screen mode and play the game with descriptions

Interior of the Earth URL:

http://world-geography-games.com/earth/index.html

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 Unit -2

Landforms

Learning Objectives

™™To understand the landforms produced by running water

™™To describe the landforms created by glacial action
™™To learn about the landforms which are produced by wind action
™™To gain knowledge about land forms formed by sea waves.

Introduction Landforms
In the earlier class, we have learnt that the
The landscape is being continuously
surface of the earth is not the same everywhere.
worn down by two processes – weathering
The earth has an infinite variety of landforms
and erosion. Weathering is the breaking and
named mountains, plateaus, plains, valley etc.,
falling apart into small pieces of the rocks on
Some parts of the lithosphere may be rugged
the earth’s surface. Erosion is the wearing
and some flat. These landforms are a result
down of the landscape by different agents like
of two processes. They are i. The Endogenic
water, wind, ice and sea waves. The eroded
Process ii. The Exogenic Process
material is carried away by water, wind, etc. and
(i) The Endogenic Process
eventually deposited. This process of erosion
The endogenic process (internal process)
and deposition create different landforms on
leads to the upliftment and sinking of the earth’s
the surface of the earth.
surface at several places.
(ii) The Exogenic Process River
The exogenic process (external process) The water flowing from its source to river
is the continuous wearing down and rebuilding mouth, along a definite course is called a River.
of the land surface. Rivers generally originate from a mountain or
Gradation is the process of levelling hill. The place of origin of the river is known as
of highlands through erosion and filling up of its Source. The place where it joins a lake or sea
lowlands through deposition. or an ocean is known as River mouth.
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 Land forms formed by River

The running water in the river erodes the The world’s highest waterfall is
mountainous track, which creates a steep-sided Angel Falls of Venezuela in South
valley like the letter ‘V’ known as ‘V’ shaped valley. America. The other waterfalls
are Niagara Falls located on the
border between Canada and USA in North
America and Victoria Falls on the borders of
Zambia and Zimbabwe in Africa.

Waterfall retreats upstream

Hard rock Overhang collapses

Steep, gorge-like valleys

Soft rock

Undercutting Plungpool develops

‘V’ shaped valley

Falling of river water over a vertical step

in the river bed is called waterfall. It is formed As the river enters the plain it twists
when the soft rocks are removed by erosion. and turns forming large bends known as
E.g. Coutrallam falls across the river Chittar Meanders. Eg. Meanders along the River
in Tamil Nadu. Vellar near Sethiyathope in Cuddalore District,
Tamil Nadu. Due to continuous erosion and
Plunge pool is a hollow feature at the base
of a waterfall which is formed by cavitation.
Alluvial fan is a deposition of sediment
occurs at which the river enters a plain or the
foot-hills.
Tributary: A stream or river that flows into and
joins a main river.
 istributary: A stream that branches off and
D
flows away from a main stream.
Meanders
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 deposition along the sides of the meander, the becomes so slow that it begins to deposit its
ends of the meander loops come closer. In due load. The collection of sediments from all
course of time the meander loop cuts off from the mouths form Delta. Deltas are excellent
the river and forms a ­cut-off lake, also called an productive lands. E.g. Cauvery delta, Ganges
Ox-bow lake. delta, Mississippi delta.

Sediment
deposit
Lake Distributaries
Meander
Erosion makes neck narrow
Direction
of flow

Sea
During flood rivers makes its course
straight
Delta
Find out the names of a few rivers of the
world that form a delta with the help of the
New Straight river course Atlas.

Glacier
Cut off / Abandoned meander or A large body of ice moving slowly down a
Ox-bow lake
slope or valley due to gravity is called a glacier.
Formation of ox-bow lake Glaciers are grouped into Mountain or Valley
Active Deposition Active Erosion Glaciers and Continental Glaciers.
Continental Glacier: The glacier covering
The term ‘Meander’ has been vast areas of a continent with thick ice sheets.
named on the basis of Meander E.g. Antarctica, Greenland
River of Asia Minor (Turkey), Mountain or Valley Glacier is a stream
which flows through numerous of ice, flowing along a valley. It usually follows
curves and turns. former river courses and are bounded by steep
sides. E.g. The Himalayas and the Alps.
At times the river overflows its banks. This
Glaciers, expose the solid rocks of earth
leads to the flooding of the neighbouring areas.
by removing the loose materials found on it.
As the river floods, it deposits layers of fine soil
and other material called sediments along its Headwall
Glacial
Randkluft
Ice
banks. This leads to the formation of a flat fertile Bergschrund Terminal
Headwall gap Moraine
floodplain. The raised banks are called levees.
Zone of
As the river approaches the sea, the speed Plucking

of the flowing water decreases and the river Tarn (lake) Zone of
will form here
begins to break up into a number of streams when glacier melts
Abrasion

called distributaries. The velocity of the river Formation of a Cirque

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 Cirque is a glacially eroded rock basin, with a
steep side wall and steep head wall, surrounding
an armchair-shaped depression. E.g. Corrie –
Scotland (United Kingdom), Kar – Germany.
As the ice melts, they get filled up the
cirque with water and become beautiful lakes in
the mountains called as Tarn Lake. When two
adjacent cirques erode towards each other, the
previously rounded landscape is transformed Mushroom Rock
into a narrow rocky, steep – sided ridges called Winds erode the lower section of the rock
Arete. more than the upper part. Therefore, such rocks
have narrower base and wider top. Wider top
rocks in the shape of a mushroom, commonly
called mushroom rocks. An isolated residual
hill, standing like a pillar with rounded tops are
called Inselbergs. E.g. Inselberg in the Kalahari
Desert of South Africa.

Arete
U’ Shaped Valley is found beneath the
glaciers which is deepened and widened by the
lateral and vertical erosion. The material carried
by the glacier such as rocks - big and small,
sand and silt get deposited. These deposits form
glacial moraines.
Inselberg
When the wind blows, it lifts and transports
sand from one place to another. When it stops
blowing the sand falls and gets deposited in
low hill – like structures. These are called sand
dunes. The crescent shaped sand dunes are
called Barchans.

Moraine
Wind
Have you ever visited a desert? Try to
collect some pictures of sand dunes. An active
agent of erosion and deposition in the deserts
is wind. Barchans
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 When the grains of sand are very fine
and light, the wind can carry it over very long
distances. When such sand is deposited in large
areas, it is called Loess. Large deposits of loess
are found in China.

Sea Cliff
strike at the rocks. So Cracks develop. Over time
they become larger and wider. Thus, hollow like
caves are formed on the rocks. They are called
Sea Caves.

Loess

Northern China loess deposits

are brought from the Gobi
Desert.
Sea cave
Sea waves
As the cavities of sea caves become bigger
A part of the land adjoining or near the sea and bigger only the roof of the caves remains,
is called the Sea coast. The boundary of a coast, thus forming Sea Arches. Further, erosion
where land meets water is called the Coast breaks the roof and only walls are left. These
line. The coastal areas are subject to change wall like features are called Sea Stacks.
due to wave erosion and wave deposition.

Sea arch and Sea stack

Coastal Landforms The sea waves deposit sediments of sand
The erosion and deposition of the sea and gravel along the shores forming Beaches.
waves give rise to coastal landforms. Sea Cliffs Sand bar is an elongated deposition of sand
are steep rock faces formed, when the sea waves or mud found in the sea, almost parallel to
dash against them. Sea waves continuously the coast.
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 in Tamil Nadu and Vembanad lake in Kerala
are the famous lagoons in India.

Beach and Sand Bar

Lagoon is a shallow stretch of water

partially or completely separated from the
sea. E.g. Chilika lake in Odisha, Pulicat lake Lagoon

The longest beach in the world is the Miami beach in South Florida
in U.S.A. The second longest beach in the world is the Marina
beach in Chennai. Miami Beach

Summary
™™The landscape is being continuously worn down by weathering and erosion.
™™River, glacier, wind and sea waves are the major agents of exogenic forces.
™™From its source to its mouth, the river is constantly reshaping the land and giving rise to different
landforms.
™™The river begins to break up into a number of streams called distributaries.
™™Deltas are excellent productive lands.
™™Glacier is large body of ice moving slowly down a slope due to gravity.
™™Moraines are glacial deposits.
™™Wind is the active agent of erosion and deposition in deserts.
™™The sea waves deposit sediments of sand and gravel along the shores forming beaches.

Glossary
Gradation The process of leveling of highlands through erosion and சமநிலைப் படுத்துதல்
filling up of lowland through deposition.
Weathering Breaking and crumbling up of rocks on the earth’s surface. வானிலைச் சிதைவு
River mouth The place where the river joins a lake or an ocean. ஆற்று முகத்துவாரம்
Tributary A stream or river that flow into and joins a main river. துணை ஆறு
Meander Twists and turns forming large bends in the river. ஆற்று வளைவு
Delta Large Fan shaped sediments formed by river deposition டெல்டா
Cirque The arm chair shaped depression with steep sleep sided சர்க்
wall formed by glacial erosion.
Barchans The crescent shaped sand dunes. பிறைவடிவ
மணற்குன்று
Lagoon A shallow stretch of water partially separated from the sea. காயல்

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 III. Match the following
Evaluation 1. Breaking and crumbling - Glacier
of rocks
I.  
Choose the correct 2. Abandoned meander - Barchans
answer loops
3. Large body of moving - Lagoon
1. ____________ is a ice
deposition of river 4. Crescent shaped sand - Weathering
sediments along the dunes
5. Vembanad lake - Oxbow lake
foot-hills.
a) Plunge pool b) Alluvial fan IV. C
 onsider the following statement and
c) Flood plain d) Delta tick (P) the appropriate answer

2. Courtallam falls is located across 1. Assertion (A): The deltas are formed near
the____________ river. the mouth of the river.
a) Cauvery b) Pennar  eason (R) : The velocity of the river
R
becomes slow when it approaches the sea.
c) Chittar d) Vaigai
a) Both A and R are correct
3. The landform created by glacial deposition is b) A is correct and R is wrong
a) Cirque b) Arete c) A is wrong and R is correct
c) Moraine d) Tarn lake d) Both A and R are wrong
4. Large deposits of loess are found in 2. Assertion (A): Sea arches in turn become
Sea Stacks.
a) USA b) India
 eason (R) : Sea Stacks are the results of
R
c) China d) Brazil
wave deposition.
5. Land forms which are not associate with
a) Both A and R are correct
wave erosion ____________ b) A is correct and R is wrong
a) Cliffs b) Sea archs c) A is wrong and R is correct
c) Stacks d) Beaches d) Both A and R are wrong

II. Fill in the blanks V. Answer the following

1. Define erosion.
1. The process of breaking and crumbling of
2. What is a plunge pool?
rocks is ____________.
3. How are Ox – bow lakes formed?
2. The place where the river joins a lake or a 4. Name the major landforms formed by
sea is known as ____________. glacial erosion.
3. Inselbergs are found in the ____________ 5. Give a note on Mushroom rocks.
desert in South Africa. 6. What is a lagoon? Give an example.
4. A cirque is known as ____________ in VI. Distinguish the following
Germany. 1. Tributary and Distributary
5. The longest beach in the world is 2. ‘V’ shaped valley and ‘U’ shaped valley
____________. 3. Continental glacier and Mountain glacier
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 VII Give Reason 2. Identify any one of the following features
1. The ends of the meander loops come closer near your home town and write a note on
and closer. them.
2. Flood plains are very fertile. 1. Hill 2. Waterfall
3. Sea caves are turn into stacks. 3. River (or) stream 4. Beach.
VIII Answer in a paragraph Reference Books
1. Savindra Singh (2015), Physical Geography,
1. Explain different landforms produced by
Pravalika Publications,Allahabad.
river erosion.
2. Rajeev Gupta (2012), Physical Geography,
2. Describe the landforms associated with
Sonali Publications, New Delhi.
wind.
3. A. Das Gupta, A.N. Kapoor, Physical
3. How are aretes formed?
Geography, S. Chand and Company Ltd,
Activity New Delhi.
1. Fill in the corresponding columns with 4. Nater Singh Raina (2012), Contemporary
reference to the landform features given
Physical Geography, Concept Publishing
below
Company Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
[Barchan, ‘V’ Shaped valley, Cliff, Arete,
Inselberg, Moraine, Alluvial fan, Lagoon]

Landforms
S.No Natural Agents
Erosion Deposition
1 River
2 Glacier
3 Wind
4 Sea wave

ICT CORNER Landforms

Through this activity you will

know about different types of
land in the world

PROCEDURE:
Step – 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step - 2 Go to menu and select any types of land (Ex. Glacier)
Step - 3 Roll over the red dot on the map to the right to choose a glacier
Landforms URL:
http://www.harcourtschool.com/activity/types_of_land_2/index.html

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 Unit -3

Population and
Settlement

Learning Objectives

™™To know about human races and their classification

™™To learn about the different religions
™™To know about the major languages
™™To know about the favourable conditions for settlements
™™To understand the rural and urban settlements
™™To learn the classification of settlements

Introduction The major world human races are

Population Geography is a study of • Caucasoid
demographic phenomena which includes
• Negroid
natality, morality, growth rates etc., through
• Mongoloid
both space and time. Increase or decrease in
• Australoid
population indicates population distribution
and growth. The study of movements and
Caucasoid
mobility of population is called migration. The Caucasoid is known as European
The Races race. This group is the one with fair skin and
Race has been defined as a biological dark brown eyes, wavy hair and narrow nose.
grouping within the human species. The race is The Caucasoid are also found in Eurasia.
a group of people with more or less permanent
distinguishing characteristics that are inherited.
The most widely found human racial types are
based on visual traits such as head shape, facial
features nose shape, eye shape and colour, skin
colour, stature, blood groups etc.,
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 Human geography is the study
Classification of Religion
of Man and his surroundings to a) Universalizing Religions
the natural environment Christianity, Islam and Buddhism.
b) Ethnic Religions
Negroid Judaism, Hinduism and Shintoism.
Negroid have the dark eyes, black skin, c) Tribal or Traditional Religions
black wooly hair, wide nose, long head, and Animism, Shamanism and Shaman.
thick lips. They are living in different parts of Religion Place of worship
Africa. Buddhism Vihara
Christianity Church
Mongoloids
Hinduism Temple
The mongoloid race is commonly known as Islam Mosque
the Asian-American race. The mongoloid have Jainism Basadi
the light yellow to brown skin, straight hair, flat Judaism Synagogue
Zorostrianism Agiyari
face, broad head and medium nose. Such people
are found in Asia and Arctic region Language
Australoids Language is a great force of socialization.
Australoids have wide nose, curly hair dark Language, either in the written or oral form,

skin, and short in height. They are living in is the most common type of communication.
Language promotes the transmission of ideas
Australia and Asia.
and the functioning of political, economic,
Races of India social and religious systems.
India is said to be one of the cradle lands Major Languages in the world
of human civilization. The ancient Indus valley
• Tamil
civilization in India is believed to have been
• Hindi
of Dravidian origin in northern India. The
• Chinese
Dravidian people were pushed south when
• English
the Indo-Aryan came in later. South India was
• Spanish
dominated by the three Dravidian kingdoms
• Portuguese
of the Chera, the Cholas, and the Pandyas.
• Russian
The Dravidian languages are Tamil, Telugu,
• Arabic
kannada, Malayalam and Tulu almost all the
• German
Dravidians live in southern part of India.
Languages of India
Religion India has many languages and culture. Each
Religion means a particular system of faith state has its own language. 22 major languages
and worship, which brings human being with were recognised by Indian Constitution. Kashmiri,
human society. Religion, is a symbol of group Urdu, Punjabi, Hindi, Rajasthani, Gujarati,
identity and a cultural rallying point. Bengali and Assamese are spoken in North India.
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 The main languages of the Dravidian family are Old House Types
Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam etc., These In the early periods of human settlement,
languages are mainly spoken in southern India. houses were built using local materials. The
form of the house was closely related to the
Date Event environment. In the agricultural regions,
11th July World population day houses were built with mud walls and the roof
International mother was made of stalks of paddy (or) other crops
21st February
­language day of grass (or) thatch. Local wood was used to
Third Sunday in provide frame for the roof. Such old houses had
World Religious day
January every year wide verandahs and an open air circulation. The
The World cultural ­diversity size of the house depended on the economic
21st May status of its inhabitants.
day

Today usage of language has changed. It

is often used as communicational skill. With
the different means of communication and fast
moving world advancement in technology helps
in understanding the different languages very
easily. These technologies have really brought the
world closer.
Settlement
Settlement is a place where people live and
interact through activities such as agriculture, Patterns of Settlements
trading and entertainment. A rural settlement Settlements are classified into Compact
is a community, involved predominantly in settlements and Dispersed settlement
primary activities such as agriculture, lumbering,
Compact settlements
fishing and mining. An urban settlement
Compact settlement is also known as
engages in predominantly in secondary and
nucleated settlement. In this type large number
tertiary activities, such as industries, trade and
of houses are built very close to each other such
banking. A rural settlement tends to have a small
settlement develop along the river valleys and
population and low population density. Urban
fertile plains. In India compact settlements are
settlement often has a large population size and
high population density.
Site and situation refers to the location
of the actual settlement. The initial choice of a
site for a settlement depends on how it is useful
for meeting our daily needs, like water supply,
availability of farmland, building material and
fuel etc.,
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 found in the northern plains and the coastal building materials like wood, stone and clay
plains of peninsular India. near settlements is another advantage, for
settlements to be built.
Dispersed Settlements
Dispersed settlements are generally found
in the areas of extreme climate, hilly tracts,
thick forests, grasslands, areas of extensive
cultivation. In these settlements, houses are
spaced far apart and after interspersed with
fields. In India this type of human settlement
is found in the northern kosi tract, the Ganga
delta ,the Thar Desert of Rajasthan and the foot
hills of Himalayas and the Niligris.
Factors Influencing Rural Settlement
• Nature of topography
• Local weather Condition
• Soil and water resources
• Social organisation
• Economic condition
Pattern of Rural Settlement
The pattern of settlement has been defined
as the relationship between a house or building
A hierarchy of settlements to another. A rural settlement pattern is a
function of relief, climate, water supply and
Settlements
socio-economic factor. It is broadly classified
under the following patterns, such as Linear,
Rectangular, Circular, Star like pattern etc.,
Rural Urban
In a Linear settlement, houses are arranged
along the either side of a roadways, railways
Isolated Hamlet Village Small Town City Conurbation line, river (or) canal,the edge of a valley, etc.,
market

Rural settlement
Rural settlements are predominantly
located near water bodies such as rivers, lakes,
and springs where water can be easily available.
People choose to settle near fertile lands suitable
for agriculture, along with the provision of
other basic needs. Hence, they prefer to live
near low lying river valleys and coastal plains
suited for cultivation. The availability of
Linear settlement
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 e.g. settlements found in the Himalayas, the Dry Point Settlement
Alps, the Rockies.
A dry Point settlement is located in low-
The rectangular settlements are almost lying areas in the regions of excessive dampness.
straight, meeting each other at right angles. Dry point settlements are not affected by flood
Such a settlement is found in plain areas (or) or any other source of water. Such settlements
inter montane plain. E.g., settlements found are found in the coastal plains of Kerala and
in Sutlej. Houses built around a central area deltas along the east coast of India.
are known as Circular pattern of settlements.
Urban Settlements
Such settlement develop around lakes and
tanks. The Star like pattern of settlement The settlements in which most of the people
develops on the sites and places where one engaged in secondary and tertiary activities
several roads converge and houses spread are known as urban settlements. Town, cities,
out along the sides of roads in all directions. and the areas of large cities are referred to as
e.g. The Namakkal urban settlements urban areas.
Classification of Urban Settlements
The definition of urban area varies from
one country to another. Some of the common
basis of classification are
• Size of population
Star like pattern Circular pattern • Occupational structure
• Administration
Pilgrim settlement may come up Town
around a place of worship(or)
Town is a general name
any spot with a religious
for an urban place, usually a settlement meeting
significance. E.g. settlements in
a prescribed minimum population threshold.
Palani Hills, Tamil Nadu.
The settlement with a population more than
Wet Point Settlement 5000 people is called a town. Basis on the
function cities can be classified into towns, such
A wet point settlement is located near
as administrative, cantonment, academic etc.,
water sources in arid regions.
City
The term City is generally applied to large
urban places with a central business district. In
India an urban place with more than one lakh
population is considered as a city .
Mega city
A mega city is a very large city typically with
a population of more than 10 million people.

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 A mega city can be a single metropolitan area. Satellite Town
E.g. Canton, Tokyo, Delhi, Mumbai are some of A satellite town is a town designed to
the examples of megacities. house the over population of a major city, but
is located well beyond the limits of that city.
World Health Organization (WHO)
Satellite towns are generally located outside the
suggests that among other things a healthy
city must have rural urban fringe. In India most satellite towns
• A Clean” and “Safe” environment are purely residential in character.
•  Meets the basic needs of “All” its
inhabitants
•  Involves the “Community” in local
government
•  Provides easily accessible “Health
service.

Megalopolis
Smart City
The word megalopolis is given to a large
In an urban region, a city which is very much
settlement which is formed by the combination
advanced in terms of infrastructure, real estate,
of two or more large cities whose total population communication and market availability is called
exceeds ten million. The region made up of a Smart City. The first ten smart cities of India are
cities between Boston and Washington D.C is Bhubaneshwar, Pune, Jaipur, Surat, Ludhiana,
a well-known megalopolis. In India, Kolkata is Kochi, Ahmedabad, Jabalpur, Vishakappattinam,
the largest urban area which is a megalopolis. Solapur and Davanagere. Tamil Nadu has
Gandhinagar, Surat, Vadodara, Rajkot in Gujarat 12 major cities to be transformed as smart
are the important megalopolis cities in India. cities. They are Chennai, Madurai, Tirunelveli,
Conurbation Tiruchirappalli ,Thanjavur, Tiruppur, Salem,
A Conurbation is a region comprising of a Vellore, Coimbatore, Thoothukudi, Dindigul
number of cities, large town, and other urban and Erode.

areas that through population growth and

physical expansion have merged to form one
continuous urban (or) industrially developed
area. Mumbai in Maharashtra, Gurgaon,
Faridabad in Haryana, Noida in Uttar Pradesh
are the conurbation cities of India.

Rural Urban
Rural areas have p
­ redominantly primary activities Urban areas have domination of secondary and
(agriculture) tertiary activities (Industries)
Sparsely populated Densely populated
Villages and hamlet Cities and towns
Simple and relaxed life Fast and complicated life

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 Summary
™™Races has been defined as a biological grouping within the human species, distinguished or
classified according to genetically transmitted differences.
™™Caucasoid Negroid Mangoloid Australoid are the major races.
™™Language is a cultural form of enduring value and a culture can survive with the presence of
language only.
™™Settlement may be classified on basis of occupation as rural (village) and Urban (town).
™™Compact settlements develop along river valleys and fertile plains.
™™Dispersed settlement are generally found in the areas of extreme climates, hill tracks, thick
forest, grassland and in poor agricultural land.
™™Smart city is a city which is very much advanced in terms of infrastructure.

Exercises
II. Fill in the blanks
I. Choose the correct answer 1. The Bushmen is found mainly in
1. Caucasoid race is also known as __________ ___________ desert of South Africa
race 2. Lingustic stock is a group of ___________
a) European family sharing features and its origin
b) Negroid 3. In __________ settlements, where most of
c) Mangoloid the people are engaged in secondary and
d) Australoid tertiary activities
4. __________ towns are generally located
2. __________ Race is Known
outside the rural Urban fringe.
as Asian - American Race
5. __________Settlement Come up around a
a) Caucasoid b) Negroid
place of Worship
c) Mongoloid d) Australoid
3. World population day __________ III. A. Match the following
a) September 1 b) June 11 1. Caucasoid – Asian
c) July 11 d) December 2 2. Negroid – Australia
4. 
Rural settlements are located near 3. Mongoloid – European
___________ 4. Australoid – African
a) Water bodies b) Hilly areas
   B. Match the following
c) coastal areas d) desert areas
1. Sutlej-Ganga
5. A
 rrange the following in terms of size plain – Dispersed settlement
1) City 2) Megalopolis 2. Nilgris – Star like pattern
3) Metropolis 4) Conurbation 3. South India – Rectangular pattern
a) 4,1,3,2 b) 1,3,4,2 4. Seacoast – Compact settlement
c) 2,1,3,4 d) 3,1,2,4 5. Haryana – Circular settlement
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 IV. 
Consider the following statement VI. Answer the following
and (√) Tick the appropriate answer 1. What are the classification of Races?
Assertion (A): There are numerous languages
1.  2. What is language?
spoken in the world 3. Define settlement
4. On what basis Urban settlements are
R
 eason (R): The linguistic diversity in the
classified?
world is vast.
5. Write a note on smart city
a) A and R are correct and R explains A.
VII. Give reason
b) A and R are correct but R does not explain A.
1. Mumbai is a mega city
c) A is incorrect but R is correct.
2. Himalayas have dispersed settlement.
d) Both A and R are incorrect.
2. Assertion A: Palani Hills in Tamil Nadu is VIII. Distinguish between
an example for pilgrim settlement 1. Language and Religion
2. Negroid and Mangoloid
 eason (R): Iron and steel industry is located
R
3. City and town
there
4. Urban settlement and rural settlement
a) R is the correct explanation of A
IX. Answer the following in a paragraph
b) R is not the correct explanation of A
1. Write about the four major classification
c) A is wrong and R is correct A
of races.
d) A is correct R is wrong
2. What are the factors influencing rural
V. Circle the odd one out settlement?
1. Fishing, lumbering, agriculture, banking 3. What are types of rural settlement? Explain
2. Himalayas, Alps, Rocky, Ganga any three.

3. Chennai, Madurai, Tirunelveli, X. Activity

Kanchipuram Analyze

1 Where do you live? Rural / Urban

2 Name the pattern of ­settlement

3 Sources of water available in your area

4 What is the ­important activity of your locality?

Name the types of transport available in your

5
locality?

Reference Books
1. Dr. S.D Maurya (2016) cultural Geography, sharda pustak Bhawan publication, Allahabad.
2. R.Y. Singh (2007) Geography of settlements, Rawat publications, New Delhi
3. Majid Husain (2002) Human Geography, Rawat publications Jaipur and New Delhi.
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 CIVICS

7th_SS_Civics_Unit_1.indd 171 12/2/2022 3:01:43 PM

 Unit -1

Equality

Learning Objectives

™™To understand the meaning of Equality

™™To know the importance of Equality
™™To learn the different types of Equality
™™To know the various Articles of our constitution that have guranteed Equality

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 Introduction There should not be any discrimination of caste,
Nature has made man inequal in colour, creed, colour and race. All should have equal
height, talent, physical strength etc., and the opportunity to develop their personality and to
natural inequalities can never be rectified. Even complete goals.

the twins looking like the similar are not equal in

their abilities. Man made inequalities on the basis
of caste, religion, language, economy etc can be
rectified. It is universally accepted that people
are differed in their capacity, ability, attitude
etc but at the same time, it is also accepted that
they should be given equal opportunities for the
development of their skills and talents.
Civil Equality
What is Equality?
Civil equality is enjoyment of civil
Equality is ensuring individuals or groups
rights by all citizen. There should not be any
that are not treated differently or less favourably
discrimination of superior or inferior, the rich
on the basic of specific protected characteristic,
or the poor, caste or creed. Equal rights should
including areas of race, gender, disability,
be available to all the persons and nobody
religion or belief, sexual orientation and age.
should be denied enjoyment of any rights.
According to Prof Laski “Equality does not Rule of law is in force in England and in the
mean identity of treatment, the sameness of eyes of law all are equal and equal treatment
reward. It means first of all absence of social is given to all by the rule of law. In India the
privilege, on the second it means that adequate same rule of law is followed.
opportunities are laid upon to all”.
Rule of law was advocated by A.V.Dicey, the
Importance of Equality British legal luminary.
Equality is a powerful moral and political
ideal that has inspired and guided human Political Equality
society for many centuries. The concept of All the democratic countries including India
equality invokes the idea that all human have guaranteed the political rights to all
beings have equal worth regardless of their citizens. It includes
caste, colour, gender, race or nationality. The ™™Right to vote
democratic ideals such as liberty, equality etc ™™Right to hold public Office
are meaningful and effective only when they are
™™Right to criticise the government
implemented with justice.
Citizens should have equal opportunity to
Kinds of Equality actively participate in the political life. These
Social equality rights can be enjoyed through the Universal
Social equality means that all citizen Adult Franchise. In India the voting right
are entitled to enjoy equal status in society. is given to all the citizens who has attained
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 access to opportunities and resources. They
have right to participate in the economic sphere
and make important decisions. Women with
their talent and hard work have proved that
their ability is not less than men in any aspect.
Nowadays, women are successfully working in
many fields like Border Security force, Indian
Air Force, etc. For the uplift of women 50%
reservation has been given for women in local
bodies.
UNICEF says Gender Equality “means
that women and men, and girls and boys, enjoy
the same rights, resources, opportunities and
18 years of age without any discriminations. prolictions. It does not require that girls and
India is the first country to give right to vote to boys, or women and men, be same, or that they
women from the very first general election held be treated exactly alike.”
in the year 1952. In Switzerland the right to vote
As of 2017, gender equality is the fifth of
is given to women in 1971. Any person who
seventeen sustainable development goals of the
has completed the age of 25 years can contest
United Nations.
in the election in India. Right to criticise the
government is also very important right and the Efforts were made by many social activists
from the 19th century for the development
people can express their resentment through
of women. The noted champions of this cause
demonstrations. The value of the vote of the were Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwar chandra
Prime Minister and value of vote of common Vidyasagar Dayanand Saraswati, Mahadev
man in general election is same which denotes Govind Ranade, Tarabai Shinde, Begum
Rokeya Sakhawat Hussain, Savithribha Phule.
political equality. They worked hard to get equal status to the
Gender Equality women.

All human beings, both men and women, Human dignity

are free to develop their personal abilities and
Dignity means self – respect. Human
make choices without any limitations. woman
dignity is the most important human right
were not given equal rights and they were
from which all other fundamental rights derive.
considered as weak as compared to man and
Dignity is the quality of being honourable,
they were placed in a secondary position to
noble and excellent. Every human being should
men. They should be treated equally. It does
be regarded as a very valuable member of the
not mean that women and men have to become
community.
the same, but their rights, responsibilities
and opportunities will not depend on whether Equality of Opportunity and Education
they are born male or female.Gender Equality is All the individuals should have similar
the equal right of both men and women to have chances to receive education. They should
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 have similar opportunities to develop their Equality before law and equal protection
personality.We need equality to get equal of law have been further strengthened in the
treatment in society. If we treat equality we can Indian constitution under Article 21.
earn respect and dignity.
We can promote equality by
Equality in Indian constitution
™™Treating all fairly
Almost the constitution of all the countries
™™Creating an inclusive culture
in the world have guaranteed equality. Likewise,
the constitution of India has also guaranteed ™™Ensuring equal access to opportunities
equality to all citizens by providing Articles ™™Enabling to develop full potential
from 14-18.
™™Making laws and policies
Article 14 – guarantees to all the people ™™Education.
equality before law.
Article 15 – deals with the prohibition of Conclusion
discrimination. India is the largest democratic country in
Article 16 – provides equality of opportunity
the world. Equality and justice are the pillars of
in matters relating to Public
employment. democracy. Justice can be achieved when people
Article 17 – abolishes the practice of are treated equality. Equality is so important
untouchability . because it preserves the dignity of an individual.
Article 18 – abolishes the titles conferred to Equality is an important principle for a society
citizen. to function.

Summary
™™Liberty and Equality are the two fundamental concepts of democracy.
™™All people should be equal before law and everybody should be given equal chance and
opportunity to participate in political life.
™™Civil equality implies equality of all before law.
™™Gender equality means both the men and women should be treated equally.
™™The various laws programmes of the government aim at gender equality.

Glossary
Equality absence of any privilege to anybody சமத்துவம்
Rule of law rule based on law சட்டத்தின் ஆட்சி
Monarchy government by a single person முடியாட்சி
Privileges special concessions சலுகைகள்
Discrimination difference பாகுபாடு

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 3. Right to contest in the election is a _______
Evaluation Right.
4. Equality means, absent of ________
I. Choose the correct privileges.
answer III. Give short answer
1. Which one of the 1. What is Equality?
following does not come 2. Why is gender Equality needed?
under Equality? 3. What is civil Equality?
a) Non discrimination on the basis of
birth, caste, religion, race, colour,
IV. Answer in detail
gender. 1 Write about the importance of Equality.
b) Right to contest in the election. 2. What is political Equality?
c) All are treated equal in the eyes of law. 3. How does the Constitution of India protect
the Right to Equality?
d) Showing inequality between rich and poor.
2. Which one of the following is comes under V. HOTs
political Equality? 1. How can we eliminate inequality at school
a) Right to petition the government and level?
criticize public policy.
VI. Life Skills
b) Removal of inequality based on race,
colour, sex and caste. Enumeration of Different types Type of
of equality equality
c) All are equal before the law.
1. There should not be any
d) Prevention of concentration of wealth in
discrimination among the
the hands of law. citizens on the basis of
3. In India, right to vote is given to all the status, caste, colour, creed
citizens at the age of ____________ and rank, etc.
a) 21 b) 18 c) 25 d) 31 2. Equality of all before the law.
4. Inequality created by man on the basis of 3. Right to vote, right to
caste, money, religion etc is called as____ hold public office and
a) Natural inequality right to criticize the
government.
b) Manmade inequality
c) Economic inequality 4. My ability is not less than
men in any aspect.
d) Gender inequality
5. In Switzerland, the right to vote is given to Reference books
women in the year 1. Eddy Asirvatham, Misra, K.K, Political Theory,
a) 1981 b) 1971 c) 1991 d) 1961 S.Chand & Company, New Delhi, 2004.
2. Agarwal, R.C, Political Theory, S.Chand &
II. Fill in the blanks
Company, New Delhi, 2009.
1. Civil equality implies equality of all before 3. Kapur, A.C. Principles of Political Science,
_________. S.Chand & Company, New Delhi, 2000.
2. The Indian constitution deals about the 4. Johari, J.C, Contemporary Political Theory,
Right to equality from Article ___ to ___. Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 2000.
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 Unit -2

Political Parties

Learning Objectives

™™To define what political party is and to understand the importance of

the political party
™™To know the role and function of a political party
™™To understand the party system in India and the role of opposition
party

Student Siva : Good morning Mam. May I come in?

Teacher Ms.Aadhi: Good morning Siva. Always you will be on time. Why are you so late today?
Siva: Sorry mam. I was delayed due to a procession.
Ms. Aadhi: What is it about? Who arranged this procession?
Siva : My uncle said “That is the work of the political party”.
Ms. Aadhi: Oh. I see!
Siva : What is political party mam? Why are they doing so?
Ms. Aadhi: Wait. Today I am going to teach about political parties. Let us know all
about that.
In earlier times, emperors and kings ruled India. The king was the supreme head of the Legislative,
Executive and Judiciary branches. Governance was in the hands of one person. The welfare of the
people depended on the ruler. People had no rights to do against the ruler. Later foreign powers made
India as their colonies. The colonies became states after Independence was declared.
In 1950, India became a democratic country. A vibrant democracy needs a strong political party
system. Party System is a modern phenomenon. In a democracy, people are able to voice their opinions
on any subject.
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 What are Political Parties? A party is recognized if

Political parties are the voluntary ™™it has been engaged in political activity for
associations of individuals with broad five years.
ideological identity who agree on some policies,
™™its candidates secure at least six percent of
formulate an agenda and programme for the
total votes in the last general election.
society. Political parties seek to implement their
policies by winning people’s support through Characteristics of Political Parties
election. Parties vary in size and in the ways they Political parties
organize themselves as well as in their policies.
™™consist a group of persons of common
Any political party has three basic goals and shared values.
components
™™have its own ideology and programme.
™™the leader
™™capture power only by constitutional
™™the active members
means.
™™the followers
™™endeavour to promote the national interest
Importance of political parties
and national welfare.
Political parties are the backbone of
democracy. Parties are not part of the formal Party ‘manifesto’
arrangement of a government but they are During the campaign before election, the
essential elements to form the government. candidates announce the programmes and
They formulate public opinion. They serve as policies that their party will undertake if
intermediaries between the citizen and the voted to power.
policy makers.
Provide
loyal opposition ,
accountability & stability
Nominate
Select and nominate
individuals to elected office
Organize

Organize political campaign,

rallies and announcement of
Functions Manifesto to win public office
of the
Political Parties
Inspire
Put forward different policies
and programmes for the
Co -ordinate welfare of the people

Connect the society and

the state. co-ordinate
Govern
among members elected
Form and run the
to office
government and
develop public policy

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 Types of Party System Party system in India
There are three major types of party system. Countries that follow a federal system
Single Party System: a system in which a have two kinds of parties. India’s party system
single political party has the right to form originated in the late 19th century. In fact India
the government. Single party is existed in the has the largest number of political parties in the
communist countries such as China. North world. In India we find the existence of political
Korea and Cuba. parties at three levels. They are National
Bi – Party System: In Bi –Party system the parties, Regional parties, and Registered but
power is usually shared between two parties. Of unrecognised parties (independent candidates).
the two parties one becomes the ruling party Every party in the country has to register with
and the other becomes opposition. eg Bi-Party Election Commission.
system can be seen in U.K. (the Labour Party Election Commission – Statutory body
and the Conservative Party) and in U.S.A (the
The Election Commission of India is an
Republican Party and the Democratic Party)
autonomous, constitutional
Multi – Party System: When the competition authority responsible for
for power is among three or more parties, the administering elections. Its
system is known as multi party system. This head quarter is located in
type of party system is in existence in India, New Delhi.
France, Sweden and Norway etc.

M A POLITICAL
OW TO FOR PART
H Y?

Must have atleast Must write a

Must get registered
100 members. Each member Party Constitution
with
needs to hold a
Election Commission
voting card.
of India

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 Criteria for Recognition
The Election Commission of India has some criteria for the recognition of political parties in India.

National Parties Regional / State Independent

Parties candidate

Parties that secure

atleast 6% of the valid Parties that secures A candidate who
votes in Lok sabha atleast 6% of the valid wishes to contest
election or assembly votes in the state in either of the
elections in four states. legislative assembly Parliamentary,
election. State Assembly
but does not have
an affliation with
the other parties,
They must win one Lok may contest the
They must win 4 seats
Sabha seat for every 25 election as an
in Lok sabha from any
seats or atleast 2 seats Independent
State/States.
in Legislative assembly. candidate.

They have to win 2% of They need to win a

seats in Lok sabha from minimum of 3% of the
atleast 3 different states in total number of seats in
the latest general election. Legislative Assembly.

Recognized parties Majority Party

Parties that fulfill these criteria are called
The Political Party whose number of
recognized parties. They are given a unique
candidates elected is more than the others is
symbol by the Election Commission.
called the majority party. The Majority Party
A registered but unrecognized political forms and runs the government. They select and
party cannot contest election on its own symbol. appoint their ministers to run the government.
This party has to choose one symbol form free They play a decisive role in making laws for the
symbol 'poll panel' announced by the Election country.
Commission.

Free symbols ‘Poll panel’

As per the Election Symbols order 1968,
symbols are either reserved or free.
• A reserved symbol is meant for a
recognized political party.
• A free symbol is reserved for
unrecognized party.
100
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 Minority Party required to form the government. In such
a case, some parties join together to form
Those with lesser number of elected
the government. Such government is called
candidates are called the minority party.
Coalition Government.
Opposition Party
Electoral Symbols and its importance
The party which gets second largest number
of seats next to the majority party in the election An electoral symbol is a standardised
is called the Opposition party. An effective symbol allocated to a political party. They
opposition is very essential for the successful play an important role in elections. They can
operation of the democracy. They are as important be easily identified, understood, remembered
as that of ruling party. They check the autocratic and recognized by the voters. The Election
tendencies of the ruling party. They critically commission has stopped allotting animals
examine the policies and bills introduced by the as symbols. The only exceptions are the lion
government. They raise their voice on the failures and the elephant. The symbol of nationally
and wrong policies. They highlight important recognized parties is standard throughout
issues which are not acted upon the Government. India. That symbol will not be allotted to any
The leader of the opposition party enjoys the other party or individual.
rank of Cabinet Minister.
State parties are allotted to certain symbols
Coalition Government
that no other party can use the symbol in that
In a Multiparty system a single party particular state but which different parties in
sometimes may not secure the majority different states can use the same symbol. (e.g
Shiv Sena in Maharashtra and Jharkhand Mukti
Morsha in Jharkhand use bow and arrow as
their symbol).

Both National and Regional parties trigger

the growth of the nation and work for the
welfare of the people.

National Party Regional /State Party

National parties are political parties which Regional parties are political parties which participate
participate in different elections all over India. in different elections but only within one state.
It should be strong enough in at least four It should be strong enough in at least one or two
states. states.
It has an exclusive symbol throughout the A symbol is reserved for it in the state in which it is
country. recognized. But the same symbol can be allotted to
different parties in different states.
It resolves State, National and International It promotes regional and state interest.
issues.

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 Summary
™™Modern age is an age of mass society and of large population and party system is a modern
phenomenon.
™™A group of people with broad common interest who organize to win elections, control
government and thereby influence government policies.
™™There are three major types of party system (i.e.) single party system, Bi - party system, and
Multi - party system.
™™In India we have Multi – party system.
™™Individual citizen who are not members of a party may also be elected. They are known as
Independents.
™™Election Commission is responsible for free and fair elections in India.

Glossary
Democracy Government by the people மக்களாட்சி
Election manifesto a public declaration of policies and aims by political தேர்தல் அறிக்கை
parties
Opposition party a party opposing to the other parties எதிர்க்கட்சி
Federal system system of government in which several states form a கூட்டாட்சி அமைப்பு
unity but remain independent in internal affairs
Election a body for implementation of election procedures தேர்தல் ஆணையம்
commission
Electoral symbols symbols allocated to a political party தேர்தல் சின்னங்கள்
Cabinet Minister member of a parliament or legislative assembly cabinet கேபினட் அமைச்சர்

Evaluation 2. Which system of government does India

have?
a) Single–party system
I. Choose the correct b) Bi-party system
answer c) Multi-party system
1. What is meant by d) None of these
Bi-party system? 3. Recognition of a political party is accorded
a) Two parties run the government. by .
b) Two members run a party. a) The Election commission
c) 
Two major political parties contest b) The president
election. c) The supreme court
d) None of these. d) A committee
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 4. Political parties are generally formed on c) Election commission allots a separate
the basic of . symbol for recognized parties.
a) Religious principles d) All the above.
b) Common interest
2. Assertion: Majority party plays a decisive
c) Economic principles
role in making laws for the country.
d) Caste
Reason: The number of candidates elected
5. Single-party system is found in .
is more than the others in the election.
a) India b) U.S.A
a) R is the correct explanation of A.
c) France d) China
b) R is not the correct explanation of A.
II. Fill in the blanks
c) R is wrong A is correct.
1. form the back bone of
d) A and R are wrong.
democracy.
2. Every party in our country has to register V. Answer in one or two sentences
with .
1. Which are the basic components of a
3. Political parties serve as intermediaries political party?
between the and .
2. Name the three major types of party
4. A registered but political party
system.
cannot contest election on its own symbol.
3. Name the countries which follow Bi – party
5. The leader of the opposition party enjoys
system.
the rank of .
4. Write a note on Coalition Government.
III. Match the following
1. Democracy criticize the VI. Answer the following
government policies 1. Write any four functions of political party?
2. E
 lection forms the government 2. When is a political party recognized as a
commission National Party?
3. Majority party rule of the people
4. Opposition party free and fair election VII. HOTs
1. Is political party necessary for a democratic
IV. Consider the following statements.
country?
Tick ( ) the appropriate answer
2. Give any three names of National party,
1. Which of the following statement is/are
Regional party, and Registered but
correct?
unrecognized party.
a) Every party in the country has to register
with the election commission. VIII. Activity
b) The commission treats all the parties 1. Write an election manifesto (if you were a
equally. party leader).
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 ICT CORNER

Political Parties

This activity enables the students to know

about the Election Commission of India

PROCEDURE :

Step 1: Open the Browser and Install the URL link given below
Step 2: Select “Election India” (Eg: Parties) to get a brief information about “National
Parties”
Step 3: Click the Menu button and select any title (E.g Leaders) to view about the leaders
profile
Step 4: Touch the menu button and select “Dash board” to know about the status Of
upcoming elections and National parties

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

URL:
https://play.google.com/store/search?q=election (or) scan the QR Code

*Pictures are indicative only

*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

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 ECONOMICS

7th_SS_Economics_Unit_1.indd 185 06/01/2022 03:15:26

 Unit -1

Production

Learning Objectives

™™ To know the meaning of production

™™ To understand the types of production
™™ To know the factors of production
™™ To understand the characteristics of factors of production

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 One day Yazhini and Josphine were sitting in a park near their house and eating sugarcane.
At that time yazhini’s uncle Raja came there and started talking with them.
Uncle : “Dear children, do you know what are the products produced from the sugarcane?.
Both of them thought for a while and said, ‘uncle , they make sugar’.
Uncle : You are right. Do you know how they produce sugar for our consumption?.
Yazhini : No uncle. But if you tell us we will know about it uncle.
Uncle : Ok. I shall tell you and you in turn must tell your friends about it.
Yazhini
& Josphine : Ok uncle, He began saying.
Sugarcane is cultivated in agricultural fields. This is the primary production. To get sugar, we
take sugarcane to the sugar factories, by using the machine we produce sugar. This is the secondary
production. So like sugar industries many other industries are known as secondary sectors and
generally described as manufacturing sectors.
The tertiary sectors provide all those services, which enable the finished goods to reach in the
hands of consumer. These industries include traders, banking, insurance, etc.
Production is the process of changing the raw materials into finished product. Here the factors
of production is the input like, sugarcane, machinery, labours, etc. and sugar is the output. Now,
let us learn about production and the various factors included in production like land, labour,
capital and entrepreneur and its characteristics in detail.
Yazhini and Josphine : Ok uncle.

There are two main activities in an Meaning of Production

economy such as production and consumption.
Production is a process of combining
Similarly there are two kinds in economy,
producers and consumers. Well-being is made various material inputs and immaterial inputs
possible by efficient production and by the in order to make something for consumption
interaction between producers and consumers. (the output). It is the act of creating an
In the interaction, consumers can be identified output, a good or service which has value and
in two roles both of which generate well- contributes to the utility of individuals.
being. Consumers can be both customers of
Production in economics refers to the
the producers and suppliers to the producers.
creation of those goods and services which
The customer’s well-being arises from the
have exchange value. It means the creation
commodities when they buy and consume. The
supplier’s well being is related to the income of utilities. Utility means want satisfying
they receive when they sell the commodities power of a product. According to the nature
and services. In an economy all are consumers of utilities they are classified into form utility,
but all are not producers or sellers. time utility and place utility.
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 Types of Utility
Form utility
If the physical form of a commodity is changed, its utility may
increase.
Cotton Cloth
Eg. The demand and uses of cotton increases, if it is converted
into clothes.
Place utility
If a commodity is transported from one place to another, its utility may
increase. Transportation

Eg. If rice is transported from Tamilnadu to Kerala, its utility will be more.
Time utility
If the commodity is stored for future usage, its utility may increase.
Eg. If agricultural commodities which are used by the consumers throughout Warehouse
the year like Paddy, Wheat, etc. are stored for future use its utility increases.

Agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining and

Indian Economy is a Mixed
oil extraction are examples to primary sector.
Economy. Private and Public
Sectors co-exist. 2. Secondary Production
The process of manufacturing products
Types of Production by using primary products as raw materials is
There are three types of production. They are known as secondary level production. Since
1. Primary production industries are given prime importance, it is
2. Secondary Production also referred as industrial sector production.
3. Tertiary Production
1. Primary Production Primary sector and Secondary sector
Production
Primary production refers to the state
Cotton (Primary sector) – Cotton Industry
of activity in which natural resources are
(Secondary Sector) = Cloth Production
directly used. Since agricultural is given prime
Iron ore (Primary sector) – Iron Industry
importance, it is also referred as agricultural
(Secondary sector) = Material Production
sector production.

Agriculture Forestry Mining

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 Cotton Industry Engineering & Building
Manufacturing of cars, clothing, chemicals,
engineering and building etc.. are examples to The most to the Gross Domestic
secondary sector. Product of our country is
contributed by the tertiary sector.
3. Tertiary Production
Tertiary production is known as the Factors of Production
services which are not visible rendered by
Factors of production are known as
the teachers, doctors etc., are to the economy.
inputs of production which are transformed
Banking, insurance, education, health and
into output or products. There are two main
defence etc.. are examples to service sector.
divisions of factors of production. They are
(i) Primary factors of production and (ii)
Derived factors of production or Modern
factors of production or secondary factors of
production.
Defence Primary factors of production are Land
and Labour. Derived factors of production
are capital and organisation.
Capital is known as investment and
the organisation is known as organising
Land, Labour and Capital for producing
Banking Education products. Organisation is also known as
Entrepreneurship.

Factors of Production

Primary Factors of Production Secondary Factors of Production

Land Labour Capital Organisation

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 Land 4. Land is a Primary Factor of Production

Land as a factor of production refers to In any kind of production process, we

all those natural resources or gifts of nature have to start with land. For example, it helps
which is provided freely to man. It includes to provide raw materials for industries and to
within itself several things such as land surface, produce crops.
air, water, minerals, forests, rivers, lakes, seas,
5. Land is Immovable
mountains, climate, and weather. Thus, land
includes all things that are not made by man. It cannot be transported from one place
to another. For instance, no portion of India’s
surface can be transported to some other
country.
6. Land has some Original Indestructible
Powers
There are some original and indestructible
Land powers of land, which a man cannot destroy. Its
fertility may be varied but it cannot be destroyed
Land can take on various forms, on the basis
completely.
of resources available from a particular
7. Land Differs in Fertility
piece of Land. For example agricultural
land when it is cultivated. Commercial Fertility of land differs on different pieces
land when it is sold. of land. One piece of land may produce more
and the other may be less.
Characteristics of Land As a gift of nature, the initial supply price of
1. Land is a Free Gift of Nature land is zero. However, when used in production,
Man has to make efforts in order to acquire it becomes scarce. Therefore, it fetches a price
other factors of production. But to acquire land accordingly.
no human efforts are needed. Land is not the Labour
outcome of human labour. Rather, it existed
Labour is the human input into the
even long before the evolution of man.
production process. Alfred Marshall defines
2. Land is fixed in supply labour as, ‘the use of body or mind, partly or
The total quantity of land does not undergo
any change. It is limited and cannot be increased Adamsmith is known as
or decreased with human efforts. No alteration Father of Economics and his
can be made in the surface area of land. Economics is based on wealth.
He wrote two classic works,"The Theory of
3. Land is imperishable
Moral sentiments(1759)",and " An Inquiry
All man-made things are perishable and into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of
these may even go out of existence. But land is Nations (1776)".
imperishable. Thus it cannot go out of existence.
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 Machinery Work Physical Work Mind Work
wholly, with a view to secure an income apart power. He cannot fight with his employer for
from the pleasure derived from the work’ a rise in wages or improvement in work-place
conditions. However, when workers combine
Characteristics of Labour
to form trade unions, the bargaining power
•  Labour is more perishable than other factors
of labour increases.
of production. It means labour cannot be
stored. The labour of an unemployed worker Division of Labour
is lost forever for that day when he does not The concept ‘Division of Labour’ was
work. Labour can neither be postponed nor introduced by Adam Smith in his book ‘An
accumulated for the next day. It will perish. Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth
Once it is lost, it is lost forever.
of Nations'.
•  
Labour is an active factor of production.
Division of labour means dividing the
Neither land nor capital can yield much
without labour. process of production into distinct and several
component processes and assigning each
•  
Labour is not homogeneous. Skill and
dexterity vary from person to person. component in the hands of a labour or a set of
labourers, who are specialists in that particular
•  
Labour cannot be separated from the
labourer. process.

•  Labour is mobile. Man moves from one Example : A Tailor stitches a shirt in full. In
place to another from a low paid occupation the case of Garments exporters, cutting of
to a high paid occupation. cloth, stitching of hands, body, collars, holes
•  
Individual labour has limited bargaining for buttons, stitching of buttons etc., are done

Car Manufacturing Unit Bike Manufacturing Unit

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 independently by different workers. Therefore, Students are asked to visit the nearest
they are combining the parts into a whole shirt. private tailoring shop and Garments
Export Industry.

Teacher and students are asked to discuss

about the process of making dresses in
the tailoring shop and Garments Export
Industry.

•  Reduce the growth of handicrafts and the

Garments Export Unit worker loses the satisfaction of having made
Merits of division of labour a commodity in full.

•  It improves efficiency of labour when labour Capital

repeats doing the same tasks.
Capital is man made physical goods used
•  It leads to the use of modern machinery to produce other goods and services. In the
in production, resulting in inventions. Ex. ordinary language, capital means money. In
More’s Telegraphic Codes. economics, capital refers to that part of man-
made wealth which is used for the further
•  
Time and raw materials are used very
production of wealth. All wealth is not capital
efficiently.
but all capital is wealth. According to Marshall,
Demerits of division of labour 'Capital consists of those kinds of wealth other
•  Repetition of the same task makes labourer than free gifts of nature, which yield income'.
to feel that the work is monotonous and stale. Forms of capital
It kills the humanity in him.
1. Physical Capital or Material Resources

•  Narrow specialization reduces the possibility Ex. Machinery, tools, buildings, etc.

of labourer to find alternative avenues of 2. Money capital or Monetary resources

employment. This results in unemployment. Ex. Bank deposits, shares and securities, etc.

Office Machinery Factory

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 3. Human capital or Human Resources responsible for producing the socially desirable
Ex. Investments in education, training and output but also to increase the social welfare.
health
Characteristics of Capital
• Capital is a passive factor of production
• Capital is man-made
• 
Capital is not an indispensable factor of
production
• Capital has the highest mobility
• Capital is more flexibility
• Capital is productive
Characteristics of Entrepreneur
•  Identifying profitable investible opportunities
• Capital Lasts Long
•  Deciding the location of the production unit
• Capital involves present sacrifice to get future
benefits •  Making innovations
Entrepreneur or Organisation •  Deciding the reward payment
An entrepreneur is a person who combines •  Taking risks and facing uncertainties
the different factors of production (land, labour
and capital), in the right proportion and initiates Students are asked to visit some
the process of production and also bears the risk entrepreneurs in their nearest home
involved in it. town and collect the information of his
businesses.
The entrepreneur is also called ‘Organizer’.
In, modern times, an entrepreneur is called ‘the Teacher and students discuss about the
changing agent of the society’. He is not only entrepreneurs.

Summary
™™ Production is a process of combining various material inputs and immaterial inputs in order to
make something for consumption
™™ Utility means want satisfying power of a product.
™™ Utilities are classified according to the nature as form utility, time utility and place utility.
™™ There are three types of production viz, Primary production, Secondary Production, Tertiary
or Service Production
™™ Factors of Production Land, Labour, Capital, Organization
™™ The concept ‘Division of Labour’ was introduced by the Father of Economics Adam Smith in
his book ‘ An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
™™ An Entrepreneur is a person who combines the different factors of production. (Land, Labour
and Capital)

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 Glossary
Production Manufacture உற்பத்தி
Utility Usefulness பயன்பாடு
Organization Firm நிறுவனம்
Entrepreneur Businessman த�ொழில் முனைவ�ோர்
Factors Component காரணிகள்
Division Dividing பகுப்பு
Resources Assets வளங்கள்

4. is the human input into the

production process.
Evaluation
5. is the man made physical goods
used to produce other goods and services.
I. Choose the correct answer
III. Match the following
1. Production refers to
1. Primary production - Adamsmith
a) destruction of utility 2. Time utility - fishing, mining
b) creation of utilities 3. Wealth of nation - entrepreneur
c) exchange value 4. Human capital - stored for future
d) none of these 5. Innovator - education, health

2. Utilities are in the nature of IV. Give short answer

a) form utility b) time utility 1. What is production?
2. What is utility?
c) place utility d) all of these
3. Name the types of utility.
3. Primary factors are 4. What are the factors of production?
a) land, capital b) capital, labour 5. Define Labour.
c) land, labour d) none of these 6. Define Division of labour.
7. Write the forms of capital.
4. The entrepreneur is also called
8. Write the three characteristics of
a) exchanger b) Agent entrepreneur.
c) organizer d) communicator V. Give brief answer
II. Fill in the blanks 1. Explain the types of production.
2. What is land ? What are the characteristics
1. means want satisfying power of
of land?
a product.
3. Explain the merits and demerits of division
2. Derived factors are and . of labour.
3. is a fixed in supply. 4. Describe the characteristics of capital.
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 VI. Activity and Project
1. Students are asked to prepare a chart containing dummy images of primary, secondary and tertiary
sectors images.
2. Students are asked to visit local farmers and to discuss about the land and its characteristics.
Collect some photographs of land and make an album.

VII. Life skills

1. Students to know about the characteristics of entrepreneur, Set up your classroom like a industry.
Some Students are asked to act like a businessman, Do the industries activities. Teacher and
students together discuss about the entrepreneur and their important of development of society.

Reference Books
1. H.L.Ahuja-Principles of Micro Economics
2. K.P.M.Sundharam-Business Economics
3. K.K.Dewett-Modern Economic Theory

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 SOCIAL SCIENCE – VII - Term I
List of Authors and Reviewers

HISTORY GEOGRAPHY CIVICS

Chair Person Domain Expert Domain Expert and Academic Co-ordinator
Dr. K.A. MANIKUMAR Dr. R. JAGANKUMAR Reviewer Dr. K. RAMARAJ
Professor & Head (Retd.) Asst. Professor & Head, Dr. M. KALIYAPERUMAL Vice principal,
Dept. of History, Dept of Geography, Prof & Head of the Dept of, DIET, T. Kallupatti
Manonmaniam Sundaranar Bharathidasan University, Madurai.
Political Science (Retd),
University, Tirunelveli Dist. Trichy.
Presidency College, Chennai. Subject Co-ordinator
Copy Editor Reviewers Authors
DENIS RAYAR
K. VENKATESH Dr. A. SENTHILVELAN Dr. S. GUNASEKAR B.T. Asst.,
Asst. Professor, PG. Asst., Marwar Govt (Boys) HSS,
Lesson Writers Dept of Geography, G.H.S.S, Pullukatuvalasai, Acharapakkam,
H. USHA Kunthavai Nachiyaar Govt. Arts Tenkasi, Tirunevelli. Kanchipuram.
B.T.Asst., College for Women,
S. GOMATHI MANICKAM
Sri. R.K.M. Sarada Vidyalaya, Thanajavur.
B.T. Asst, GHSS, ICT Coordinators
G.H.S.S, Usman Road, T.Nagar,
Dr. R. VINODH KUMAR Old perungalathur, Chennai.
Chennai.
Asst. Professor,
P.CHINNADURAI
S.G.Asst, PUPS-T. Sanarpalayam,
H. ARMSTRONG,
B.T. Asst,
Dept of Education,
Periyar University, Salem.
ECONOMICS Mulanur, Tiruppur.

St.Joseph’s College HSS, Domain Expert D.NAGARAJ

Trichy.
Authors B.T. Asst,
Dr. A. PARAMASIVAN G.H.S.S, Rappusal,
DENIS RAYAR N. HEMAVATHY Associate Professor (Retd) Pudukottai.
B.T. Asst., B.T. Asst., MDT, Hindu College
Marwar Govt (Boys) HSS, Govt, ADW G.H.S.S, Tirunelveli. EMIS Technology Team
Acharapakkam, Kannigapuram, Chennai-12. R.M. Satheesh
Kanchipuram. Reviewer State Coordinator Technical,
Content Readers Dr. M. KAMALA TN EMIS, Samagra Shiksha.
Dr. CHITHRA REGIS
P.G Asst.,
Asst. Professor,
Dr. S. RAVICHANDRAN Arignar Anna Govt HSS, K.P. Sathya Narayana
Dept of Economics,
Associate Professor (Retd.), Kumbakonam, Thanjavur Dist. IT Consultant,
Loyola College, Chennai.
Raju’s College, Rajapalayam. TN EMIS, Samagra Shikaha
M. ANANDAKUMAR
Dr. K. SURESH P.G. Asst.,
Author R. Arun Maruthi Selvan
B.T. Asst., Govt HSS, T. Palur, Ariyalur Dist. L. GOWSALYA DEVI Technical Project Consultant,
Kumara Rajah Muthiah HSS, PG. Asst. G.H.S.S, TN EMIS, Samagra Shiksha
Adyar Chennai. CHITRA UMAPATHY Thoppur, Dharmapuri.
B.T. Asst, Art and Design Team
S. GOMATHI MANICKAM
B.T. Asst., G.H.S.S,
SBIOA Model Matric HSS, Illustration & Image
Mogappair, Chennai-37. Credits
Old Perungalathur, Chennai.
K.T. GANDHIRAJAN
S. RAJESWARI
B.T. Asst, G.H.S.S, Nellikkuppam, Tamil Virtual Academy
Kanchipuram. R. MUTHUKUMAR
B. RAVIKUMAR
A. SAGAYA SINI
B.T. Asst, G.H.S.S, Layout
Nemmeli, Kanchipuram. V.S. JOHNSMITH
ASHOK KUMAR
PETCHIMUTHU KAILASAM

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QC
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This book has been printed on 80 GSM Elegant Maplitho paper. HAKRISHNAN
Printed by offset at: Co-ordination
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