Indian Cuisine A Socio-Historical Revolution

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Antani and Mahapatra  Journal of Ethnic Foods

Journal of Ethnic Foods (2022) 9:15


https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-022-00129-4

ORIGINAL ARTICLE Open Access

Evolution of Indian cuisine: a socio‑historical


review
Vishu Antani1,2 and Santosh Mahapatra3*

Abstract
This paper aims to present a socio-historical review of Indian cuisine and its evolution. Based on a thorough analysis
of a wide range of documents, the investigation focuses on four eras, each having a significant and lasting effect on
Indian cuisine. Parallels have been drawn to modern Indian cuisine wherever possible. This study follows the advances
in Indian cuisine through the prehistoric era, into the Vedic era, where religious scriptures, especially the Hindu
scriptures, affected what was cooked during the time, followed by the invasion of the subcontinent by the Mughals.
Finally, the effects of European colonization on Indian cuisine are critically analysed and an attempt is made to exam-
ine threads, if any, connecting culinary preferences of people across these phases. The results of the analysis indicate
the intriguing impact of intricate connections among several sociocultural factors on the evolution of Indian cuisine.
At the end of the paper, a few areas are identified for future exploration.
Keywords: Indian cuisine, Socio-historical review, Prehistoric, Vedic, Mughal, European influence

Introduction ingredients at their disposal. Modern Indian cuisine is the


This paper tries to trace the history of Indian cuisine, a result of the flavourful adventure India has been through,
topic that remains surprisingly underexplored in the gas- and in this adventure, one can socio-historically trace
tronomy literature. Unique in its standing and mysteri- the interaction between personal and social choices, the
ous in many ways, as claimed by the famous novelist E. divine and the mundane obligations [8], and the karma
M. Forster [20], India remains a curious case of interest. and its repercussions. The beginnings of India’s food
Among other things, its food culture has a vibrant his- history, especially during Vedic times, were driven by
tory filled with tasty twists and turns, which is in agree- the attributive property of Guṇa, a Hindu philosophical
ment with the claim that Indian culture can be explored concept referring to quality or peculiarity. Sattva, rajas,
through its foods. In fact, across many cultures, one can and tamas, the three Guṇas, were believed to have mani-
historically trace sociocultural reasons behind culinary festations in the form of ‘vegetarian, spicy and carnivo-
choices [1]. Tracing the history of food in India is pivotal rous’ [6, 43]. Even the philosophy of ahimsa shaped the
to understanding Indian cuisine. For a very long time, food choices of people in ancient Hindu civilizations
each of India’s conglomeration of kingdoms had a royal [42]. This philosophical tradition underwent a series of
court tended by chefs and innovations in food took place changes, challenged by the geopolitical and sociocul-
in these kitchens; new dishes were created, and old dishes tural changes that came to India with the Mughal inva-
were recreated. In the kitchens of commoners, cooks sion and European colonization. In this paper, we have
or housewives would try to recreate those dishes using presented a brief historical review of Indian cuisine that
covers a period starting with the prehistoric era and end-
ing with European colonization and have demonstrated
*Correspondence: [email protected]
3
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, BITS Pilani Hyderabad how the evolution of food in India is deeply enmeshed in
Campus, Hyderabad, India various factors like culture, religion, ethnicity, financial
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

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regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this
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Antani and Mahapatra Journal of Ethnic Foods (2022) 9:15 Page 2 of 15

background, social class, and availability of and access to lentil, and green peas were introduced from Western
raw materials. Asia to the Indus Valley in around 4000 B.C. Barley and
wheat were also found along with the pulses at archae-
Methodology ological sites. Their use carried over into the Vedic era,
We collected data for the study through thorough doc- when barley was one of the primary grains. Rice was con-
ument analysis. We surveyed ancient religious scrip- sumed much later.
tures from archives, newspapers, memoirs, travelogues, Several stone tools of varying sizes have been discov-
research articles, poems, history books and books written ered at excavation sites. Large saddle querns have been
on food cultures, and made comprehensive notes. All the found, probably used for grinding grains to make flour.
notes were verified through information collected from Two types of stones may have been used with the querns:
more than one source. Then, we searched for patterns in a small one for rolling, like a rolling pin, and a larger,
the data and organized the details under the four most heavier one to pound on materials. Curry stones would
frequently found patterns in food culture: Prehistoric, have been used to grind spices. However, it remains
Vedic, Mughal, and European colonization. For each unclear whether the spices were grown within the region
era, we arranged the information in a systematic manner or obtained through trade or barter.
which mainly focused on discussions on the evolution of
food through a close interplay between sociocultural fac- Vedic era
tors and the availability of raw materials required for the Many important texts on medicine, yoga, literature,
preparation of food. religion, etc., from the Vedic era, such as Patanjali’s
Yoga Sutras, Caraka’s Caraka-Saṃhitā, and the Upani-
Results and discussion shads, have discussed foods and their impact on the
Prehistoric era human body. The Vedas have emphasized the connec-
Prehistoric food habits in India still remain partly tion between spirituality and the choice of food without
shrouded in uncertainties [33]. Like literature, cuisines relinquishing the need for taste and health [27]. Recent
from a different era have proved difficult to understand. research throws light on linguistic similarities of food
Written recipes may be one of the sources of determining items consumed across cultures making it slightly easier
the type of food eaten by the people then, but language to connect the finer dots of Indian cuisine from the Vedic
still remains a barrier [11, 16, 32], which is especially true era [1]. The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization was
in the case of prehistoric India. What we know about followed by the Vedic period. During this period, the
people’s food habits is an episodic story of survival and north-western region of the Indian subcontinent was
a transition to becoming an agrarian community [33]. occupied by Indo-Aryans. Most of the Aryans then were
The information is obtained through anthropological evi- pastoralists. Milk provided for their food and other prod-
dence and cave paintings found in various parts of Indian ucts like butter and curd.
states such as Rajasthan, Gujrat and Punjab [1]. The Aryans considered food to be a gift from God
Bones of cattle, goats, sheep, buffalo, and pigs have and a source of strength. In the four Vedas, Rigveda,
been found at Harappan excavation sites. While cattle, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda, there are vari-
goats, and sheep may have been domesticated, it is also ous mentions of the grains used during those times [38].
possible that they were hunted or raised for their flesh. Initially, barley was a staple food of most Aryans. Cultiva-
Cattle farming was mainly restricted to the Zebu cattle, tion of other crops such as wheat, sugarcane, and millets
native to the Indus Valley region (see Fig. 1) [21]. Bones followed. Lentils, mainly red, green, and black, were also
of wild animals like boar, deer, and gharial have also been grown. Later, the Aryans added rice and other cereals to
found. Along with these, the remains of fish and fowl their diet [13].
were also discovered. Grilling was the preferred way to Sweetcakes called apupa have been mentioned multi-
cook meat. The animal would be roasted whole on an ple times in the Vedas. Apupa or Malpua (see Fig. 2), as
open fire or cut into bite-size chunks [33, 35, 36]. These it is called today, was made with barley flour. The batter
chunks were pierced onto a skewer and roasted, like would be flattened into cakes and fried in ghee. Before
modern-day tikkas. The animal was lodged onto a stick, serving, the fried cake was dipped in honey. Many vari-
which could be rotated, and placed over the fire. Pottery ations have developed over time, and malpua is now
from prehistoric times has revealed the presence of bowls paired with various condiments. Today, the batter is made
with wide mouths, which indicates the use of boiling as with refined wheat flour or semolina flour and milk. Like
another method of preparation [24]. the Vedic version, the batter is spread into flat cakes and
Pulses and grains were consumed by the people of fried in ghee. Instead of honey, the cakes are soaked in
the Indus Valley [23]. Various pulses like chickpeas, red sugar syrup flavoured with saffron or jaggery (cane sugar)
Antani and Mahapatra Journal of Ethnic Foods (2022) 9:15 Page 3 of 15

Fig. 1 A map of the Indus Valley Civilization dating back to 2600–1900 BCE. It was a Bronze Age civilization and one of the most widespread
civilizations in Asia, spanning modern-day north and north-western India, most of Pakistan and Afghanistan. Source: Wikimedia Commons https://​
commo​ns.​wikim​edia.​org/​wiki/​File:​Indus_​Valley_​Civil​izati​on,_​Mature_​Phase_​(2600-​1900_​BCE).​png

syrup. They are topped with chopped almonds and pista- flesh was introduced by the Aryans, but its consump-
chios and paired with rabri, a sweet made by boiling milk tion did not seem to settle well with the natives. How-
at low heat with sugar and spices. ever, there have been accounts of slaughter of cows and
Fried barley called dhana was not just eaten as food bulls for their meat [24]. Meats were mostly roasted in
but was also offered to the gods. Pulverized barley seeds, clay ovens or on spits over charcoal. The consumption
called saktu, have been mentioned in the Vedas. Sattu, a of meat as a survival strategy can be contrasted with
flour made from ground pulses, is used in many kitchens the current debates about meat eating and its conse-
today, and it may have roots in saktu. A porridge called quences [46].
odana was made by boiling barley in milk. Yet another Sesame seeds were important as both food and in
preparation called karambha had yogurt mixed with bar- rituals. As food, they would be cooked with vegetables,
ley, and it is still popular in parts of Gujarat. added to bread, or crushed to extract oil. Turmeric,
Animal meat was presumably used by Hindus in what pepper, and mustard seeds were used as flavourings.
is now Punjab. Cows, goats, buffalo, and bulls were Various fruits and vegetables are mentioned in the
killed for their meat, and slaughterhouses have been Vedas including the bael fruit (Aegle marmelos), man-
mentioned in the texts. The practice of eating horse goes, dates, lotus stalks and roots, gourds, jujubes, and
Antani and Mahapatra Journal of Ethnic Foods (2022) 9:15 Page 4 of 15

meat and other kinds of tamasic habits. The possibility


of upper caste politics to portray certain kinds of food
habits as superior to others could be indeed the case. It
is possible that the caste system was strengthened with
the help of systemic food demonisation. Unfortunately,
the caste system continues to shape food habits even in
present times [39].
The descriptions about the culinary culture around
500 BC are not separately dealt with in any treatises as
such. Rather, one can find these details in the memoirs of
foreign writers and philosophers who visited India dur-
ing those times. Megasthenes, an ambassador of Alexan-
der and Chinese visitors such as Fa-Hsien and I-Ching,
Fig. 2 Malpua and Rabri: Malpua is an Indian sweet fried pancake, and Xuan Zang, a learned monk from China, have viv-
made from a batter of wheat or barley flour. It is fried in ghee and
idly described sociocultural practices including food and
then placed in sugar syrup. Souce: Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​
ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​malpua-​tradi​tional-​indian-​sweet-​panca​ drinks [1].
ke-​coated-​10356​20161
Mughal era
Muslim rulers who were based in Sind (currently in Paki-
stan) started invading India after 700 AD with a desire to
water chestnuts. These are not very different from the
have access to the material riches the country possessed.
ingredients used in Indian kitchens today.
In the consecutive millennia, continual attempts were
Alcoholic beverages existed in Vedic times, as sug-
made by several warlords such as Mahmud of Ghazni,
gested by the mention of sura in the Rigveda but disap-
Muhammad of Ghor, Bakhtiyar Khalji, and so on. How-
proved for consumption. The drink has been mentioned
ever, no Muslim empire could flourish and sustain till
only in a few places, and at times, in conjunction with
Mughals came to India in the sixteenth century [22].
soma. Soma was considered the drink of Gods and an
With Mughals came a flood of culinary inspirations and
elixir. The plant from which the drink was made has
innovations that remain highly influential in the culinary
remained a mystery, but historians have speculated can-
practices of India [29]. Indian food culture, much like
didate plants [34]. It could be a type of millet, called ragi.
architecture, art, music, and language, would be unthink-
Ragi is still used to make marua, an intoxicating drink
able without considering the Mughal influence [10]. The
in the Eastern Himalayas. Cannabis could also be the
predecessors of the Mughals, the Afghans, had brought
plant referred to in the texts which was used for prepar-
with them a lot of culinary wealth. Afghan flatbreads,
ing the soma drink [4]. Yet another suggestion is the fly
called naan, are now common in most Indian households
agaric mushroom, because of its intoxicating effect when
and restaurants. These breads may bear some influence of
consumed [51]. Soma was prepared and offered to gods
Egyptian and Mesopotamian breads [12, 15, 30]. Koftas in
by Brahmans [17]. It is unclear as to whether or when
Afghanistan are meatballs of minced beef flavoured with
fermentation took place [19]. There is debate surround-
onions and other spices. Indian koftas are very similar to
ing the effects of soma [7]. While one branch of research
their Afghan counterparts, but beef is often replaced with
views the description of the drink in the Vedas as intoxi-
other meat. In the southern and eastern regions of India,
cating, other researchers argue that it was simply exhila-
koftas are made from fish and shrimps. The meatballs are
rating, not intoxicating [44].
then served in gravy made of broth, milk, and cashew
An important aspect of the social system in India that
paste. A vegetarian version of the dish replaces the meat
determined food culture and consumption among Indo-
with grated vegetables or paneer. Jalebi (see the details in
Aryans was the caste system [40] which can be traced
Fig. 3) is an Afghan dessert that has placed itself so well
back to around 1000 BC. The structural embodiments
in Indian cuisine, that most people often forget its origin.
of the caste system, a legitimised practice of inequity
Jalebi is made by frying a batter of refined flour in ghee
believed to be inherited through one’s parentage and
or oil and then soaking it in sugar syrup, which is often
occupation, engendered a sense of purity in the culinary
infused with saffron giving jalebi its colour and fragrance.
and consumption habits of people. Brahmins, the upper
It is served simply with rose petals or alongside rabri.
caste priests, often adhered to vegetarian food habits
Phirni is one of the recent additions of an Afghan dish
led by the philosophy of sattva. In contrast, Shudras, the
into Indian cuisine and is made by boiling soaked rice in
lowest group in the caste ladder, engaged in eating animal
milk along with nuts and khoa.
Antani and Mahapatra Journal of Ethnic Foods (2022) 9:15 Page 5 of 15

Fig. 3 Jalebi is a dessert made by deep frying flour batter in Fig. 4 Sambusas or Samosas are snacks made by frying pastry
concentric shapes and later dipping in sugar syrup infused with filled with a savoury filling such as potato, peas, onions, chicken, or
saffron. It is enjoyed across the Indian subcontinent and is known by lentils. They are one of the most popular tea time snacks in India.
different names in different places. Souce: Shutterstock https://​www.​ Souce: Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​
shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​jelebi-​cafe-​45877​8184 samosa-​sambu​sa-​trian​gle-​fried-​baked-​dish-​11458​03784

Mughlai cuisine, with its rich and spicy curries, and fas- spices used. Spices were traded between Mughals and
cination with meat has been influential in shaping mod- other rulers in India. Cumin and coriander were and
ern Indian cuisine. It is important to note that most of still are common across India and were probably grown
the ingredients present in the dishes which masquerade locally. Saffron, a very expensive spice, known for its
themselves as Mughlai dishes, such as chillies, tomatoes, sweet floral scent was imported from Kashmir. Other
and potatoes, were unknown to kitchens in India until spices that added heat like cardamom, pepper, nutmeg,
the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century [28]. This and ginger were brought from Southern India near the
is the effect of modernization and innovation in the culi- Malabar Coast. Turmeric was also brought from there.
nary world. Memoirs of rulers, like the Baburnama and Interestingly, these regions still maintain a very high
the Akbarnama, hold a lot of information about food and quality in producing the spices.
eating habits [48]. Manuscripts of what seem to be recipe One of the earliest accounts of Mughal cuisine is
books written in Persian have also been found. recorded in the Ni’matnama (the Book of Delights). It
Since the Mughals practised Islam, pork was forbidden was a cookbook compiled by Ghiyath Shah, the Sultan
in royal courts and to other Muslims. Similarly, Hindus of Malwa, in the fifteenth century. The manuscript is
frowned upon the consumption of beef and refrained believed to have found its way into the Mughal kitchens
from eating it. The meat of a buffalo seemed the appro- in 1562, when Akbar conquered the Malwa Sultanate.
priate replacement for beef. Mutton and goat meat were The book has detailed recipes, accompanied by miniature
widely consumed, mutton being more common than the illustrations where the king is the central figure of the
latter. Various fowls such as chicken, quail, and ducks drawings and notes following dishes, classifying them as
were also consumed [50]. Even today, mutton and fowl being worthy to be served to a king, a poor man’s food,
meat are the most common meats eaten in India along or a king’s favourite. In the Ni’matnama, there are reci-
with seafood like fish and shrimp though politics has not pes for a variety of sambusas. Sambusas are made with
left food alone. In Mughal times, Akbar, the most pow- a pastry of refined flour, then filled with a savoury, spicy
erful and influential among Mughal emperors, avoided filling, and finally fried. The filling of sambusas was made
repeating the mistake of using cows as food which his from venison [49]. In samosas (see Fig. 4), a modern-day
father Humayun did. Humayun’s men ate beef and that favourite, the filling is made up mainly of potatoes, peas,
incited Rajputs, the Hindu royal class. Akbar went to the and onions. Samosas continue to be a crowd-favourite
extent of becoming a virtual vegetarian [40] to please tea snack in modern India.
Hindus and maintain his supremacy. However, the Karhi is a preparation of chickpea flour with yogurt and
emperors that succeeded Akbar could not play the poli- sour milk which has been mentioned in the Ni’matnama
tics of food as wisely as Akbar did. and is still made in a lot of Indian houses. It is served with
Mughlai food has a distinct bouquet associated with fried vegetable fritters, called pakoras. The Guajarati var-
it. This aromatic aspect of food is brought about by the iation of karhi is sweetened by adding sugar or jaggery.
Antani and Mahapatra Journal of Ethnic Foods (2022) 9:15 Page 6 of 15

A number of dishes mentioned in the Ni’matnama Indian kitchens. The use of nutmeg is still prominent in
point to Central Asian influence in the food. Sambusa Indian cuisine, but ambergris is obsolete.
is an example of that. Other such dishes include sikh, Rice became more popular than wheat during Mughal
kabab, yakhni, shurba, and kufta. Sikh is a cylinder of times. Khichri is one of the many preparations of rice
spiced minced meat on a skewer which is roasted on a mentioned the Ni’matnama [49]. It is a salty porridge
tandoor. Yakhni is broth made with spiced meat, while made from rice and lentils, usually without spices. The
shurba is soup. preparation and ingredients used in khichri vary with
Several dishes mentioned in the Ni’matnama, sambusa, region, and a lot of varieties of khichri can be found in
sikh, kabab, yakhni, shurba, and kufta (refer to Fig. 5a), homes all over India. Since it is nutritious and easy to
point to Central Asian influence. Sikh (refer to Fig. 5b) digest, it is often fed to the ill. The Ni’matnama was not
is a cylinder of spiced minced meat on a skewer which the first historical account of khichri. Selecus, when he
is roasted on a tandoor (refer to Fig. 5d). Yakhni is broth was the infantry general to Alexander the Great, revealed
made with spiced meat, while shurba (refer to Fig. 5c) is that rice with pulses was extensively prepared in India,
soup. Apart from the common spices, a variety of exotic around 300 B.C.E. Further, it is also mentioned by Ibn
aromatics were used, such as musk (nutmeg), camphor, Battuta as kishri from his stay in India in approximately
rosewater, and ambergris. The use of exotic produce was 1350. In his description, kishri was a rice dish with mung
not limited to aromatics [49]. Recipes included in the beans (green gram). Afanasy Nikitin, a Russian merchant
book called for the use of a variety of unique meats, like and one of the earliest Europeans to travel to India, has
partridges, rabbits, goats, mountain sheep, pigeons, and described khichri in his narrative—Khozheniye za tri
quails. Some of these meats are not common in modern moray (The Journey Beyond Three Seas). Khichri (refer

Fig. 5 a Malai Kofta is a dish made by adding fried balls of potatoes or meat in a rich spiced tomato gravy, topped with fresh cream. Souce:
Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​malai-​kofta-​mughl​ai-​speci​ality-​dish-​served-​12484​93381 b Sikh kebab is an Asian
preparation where ground lamb or beef meat is wrapped around skewers and roasted on an open flame. Souce: Shutterstock https://​www.​
shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​seekh-​kabab4-​15460​2104 c Shurpa or Shorba is a soup made with meat, vegetables, and spices in broth. Souce:
Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​shurpa-​shorpa-​soup-​rich-​lamb-​veget​ables-​18757​68625 d Tandoor is a traditional
Indian oven, used to cook naan and tikkas. Souce: Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​tando​or-​oven-​tikka-​masala-​chick​
en-​naan-​18546​98554
Antani and Mahapatra Journal of Ethnic Foods (2022) 9:15 Page 7 of 15

Fig. 6 a Khichdi is a savoury rice porridge with the addition of lentils, vegetables, and spices. Source: Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​
image-​photo/​famous-​indian-​food-​khich​di-​ready-​serve-​16296​80485 b Paneer do pyaza is a made of Indian cottage cheese and rich onion-based
gravy. Source: Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​paneer-​do-​pyaza-​popul​ar-​punja​bi-​veget​arian-​12631​54453 c Mutton do
pyaza is made of lamb meat and seasoned with lots of onions. https://​www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​mutton-​do-​pyaza-​two-​onions-​12262​
82581

to Fig. 6a) was popular during the Mughal period, espe- flatbread) and roti (round flatbread made from whole-
cially under Jahangir [47]. Ain-i-Akbari, by Abu’l-Fazl ibn meal flour), but no mention of paratha, a flatbread made
Mubarak, mentions seven variations for khichri. There is of layers of cooked dough (hence, paratha was a later
also mention of the dish along with biryani in the letters addition to Indian breads). Meat dishes were of two cat-
of Aurangzeb to his son, Bahadur Shah I. egories: qaliyas and do pyazas. Do pyazas (refer to Fig. 6b
Nushka-i-Shahjahani or Nushka u Namak is another and 6c) got their name from the preparation, where piyaz
cookbook that has recorded the recipes prepared in the (onion) is added twice (do) in the process. Kebabs, por-
kitchens of the emperor Shah Jahan—from breads and ridges, and omelettes are also mentioned. The end of the
stews to sweetmeats. The ten chapters on food describe collection features preserves like jams and pickles, fried
the varieties of breads, pottages, meat dishes, and other breads, sweets, and puddings. Finally, a few basic tech-
rice preparations like pulao and zerbiryans. Among the niques for making yogurt and cheese curds are included.
breads, there are recipes for naan (leavened oven-baked Paneer (or Panir) is an example of a cheese that is
Antani and Mahapatra Journal of Ethnic Foods (2022) 9:15 Page 8 of 15

extensively used in Indian cooking, especially in vegetar- cold dessert made with milk, rose syrup, vermicelli and
ian dishes as a protein source. The cheese curd for Paneer basil seeds, refer to Fig. 8c), panbhatta (a dessert made
is made by curdling milk with a fruit- or vegetable-based from fried soaked rice in sherbet), sambusa, puri (fried
acid (like lime juice). bread), gulgula and khajur (sweet dumplings), malida
Khulasat-i Makulat u Mashrubat or Alwan-i Ni’mat or (sweet powdery mixture made of dough), shirni (sweet-
Khwan-i Alwan-i Ni’mat is a cookbook from the times of meats), murabba (jams), and achar (pickles). In addi-
Aurangzeb’s reign. It has forty chapters, each describing tion, there are chapters on basic activities, like shelling
a category of a course, including nan-ha (breads), qaliya coriander. A lot of the dishes are drawn from the earlier
and do pyaza (meat curries), sag (greens, refer to Fig. 7a), cookbooks, notably the breads, meat curries, rice dishes,
bharta (mashes, see Fig. 7b), dal (pulses and lentils), zer- khichri, and jams and pickles. From the unique prepa-
biryan (layered rice dish), khandawi (savoury cakes made rations mentioned in this book, sag, khandawi, salan,
from pulses or gram flour, refer to Fig. 7d), salan-ha-i shirbirinj, and phirni are common preparations in Indian
hindi (sauced-based dishes of India), khichri, shola (dish kitchens today. Dal has become a staple, especially in
with rice, meat, pulses and vegetables), kulthi (sweet vegetarian households as a protein source. Salan, specifi-
sticky rice), thuli (sweet thick preparation with milk and cally mirchi ka salan (a curry of chillies in peanut gravy,
flour), tahiri (rice and meat dish), halim (meaty stew refer to Fig. 7c), is served with biryani. Faluda has also
made with wheat and barley, refer to Fig. 8a), kashk (gruel been popularized and is made on special occasions. It is
with wheat and meat), ash (pottages), bara (fried cakes), usually topped with ice cream, and a particular variation
jughrat wa sikharn (yogurt based dishes), shirbirinj (rice calls for the addition of jelly cubes in the sherbet.
pudding of Iranian origin, refer to Fig. 8b), firni, faluda (a

Fig. 7 a Sarson ka sag with makki ki roti is a special preparation in the north of India, eaten during winters. The curry is made of mustard greens
with sauteed onion and garlic. Makki ki roti is basically a flatbread made with ground corn. Source: Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​
image-​photo/​makki-​ki-​roti-​sarson-​ka-​sag-​77482​6045 b Baingan ka bharta is mashed roasted eggplant that is then sauteed with onions, chilli and
spices. Source: Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​baing​an-​bharta-​roast​ed-​mashed-​eggpl​ant-​black-​18377​82358 c Mirchi ka
salan was a popular dish in the Mughal kitchens, eaten with rice preparations. Even today, mirchi ka salan is served with biryani across the country.
Source: Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​hyder​abadi-​mirchi-​ka-​salan-​green-​chilly-​14940​80111 d Khandavi is a snack from
Maharashtra and Gujarat made by rolling sheets of steamed batter of gram flour and yogurt into bite-sized pieces. Source: Shutterstock https://​
www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​khand​vi-​gujar​ati-​patuli-​dahiv​adi-​sural​ichi-​vadi-​14606​91638
Antani and Mahapatra Journal of Ethnic Foods (2022) 9:15 Page 9 of 15

Fig. 8 a Halim is a slow-cooked stew made up of grains, meat and lentils. It is eaten to break fasts during the month of Ramadan owing to its high
nutritional value. Source: Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​haleem-​spices-​herbs-​14882​78681 b Sher Birinj is a dessert
originating in central Asia. It is a rice pudding flavoured with rose water, almonds, cinnamon and cardamom. Source: Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​
ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​puddi​ng-​shir-​berenj-​afghan-​delic​ious-​desse​rt-​19567​84180 c Falooda is an Indian dessert made with rose syrup, milk,
vermicelli noodles and sweet basil seeds, topped with ice cream. It is commonly sold on the streets by vendors in India. Source: Shutterstock https://​
www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​pink-​sweet-​straw​berry-​faloo​da-​17797​08683
Antani and Mahapatra Journal of Ethnic Foods (2022) 9:15 Page 10 of 15

Today, cities like Delhi, Lucknow, Kolkata, and In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached the Malabar Coast of
Hyderabad boast the best Biryanis. There are a lot of sim- Calicut, a bustling port where the trade of spices, cloth,
ilarities in its preparations across the country—the use and a variety of extravagant goods took place between
of nutmeg, cinnamon, cardamom, and cloves for aroma, Hindu, Arab, and Chinese merchants [12]. As the Por-
adding saffron to colour the rice, and the flavour devel- tuguese Empire expanded, trade of plants, animals, and
oped by cooking meat and vegetables with rice. Despite ideas became common at ports. This was called the
similarities, the differences are evident. The Hyderabadi Columbian Exchange and was paramount in shaping
Biryani is a spicy preparation, made with Basmati rice, the cuisine of various regions [5]. In 1510, after seizing
which adds to the aroma, and the flavours of saffron and Goa, they made it their capital of Estado de India (State
coconut dominate. It is served with brinjal (eggplant) of India). Soon after, spices were grown all along the
gravy. The Kolkata Biryani also uses Basmati rice and saf- Malabar Coast for trade. A lot of customs and traditions
fron, but it is the use of meat and ghee (clarified butter) of Hinduism and Islam were questioned and eradicated
that defines the taste. Potatoes and boiled eggs are also [31]. Those that could not be eliminated were banned.
added. The Lucknowi Biryani does not use Basmati rice They questioned the refusal of eating pork and beef and
and uses a paste made from curd and cashew nut along introduced a variety of dishes cooked with those meats.
with the aromatics like star anise and nutmeg. The fla- They also did away with the Hindu tradition of cooking
vour of saffron is not as pronounced, and the Lucknowi rice without salt. Growing tulsi (holy basil) was banned.
Biryani is served with meat gravy. Cheese was introduced to India by the Portuguese.
Mughals ruled the majority of Northern and North- Bandel cheese is a smoked semi-soft cheese made from
western India, but their dominion was not as powerful cow’s milk. It has a dry, crumbly texture and is one of
in Southern India. However, this did not affect their cui- the very few Western-style cheeses indigenous to India.
sine from spreading into the south. Nobles from courts Another creation of the Portuguese in India is the cheese
of Nawabs and other rulers of Southern India travelled curd called chhana [26]. However, it has been argued that
to cities under the Mughal rule as diplomats and brought the practice of curdling milk had been practised earlier.
back with them accounts of food eaten and, sometimes, There is little doubt that a Portuguese cheese similar to
the recipes. The Mughal dishes made in Southern India chhana was the inspiration for a variety of Bengali sweets
often had a different set of ingredients or different meth- like rasgulla and Sandesh (refer to Fig. 9a and b) [41,
ods of preparation. 42]. Rasgulla is a ball-shaped dumpling made of semo-
Modern Indian cuisine has incorporated many dishes lina dough and chhana, which is boiled in light sugar
from Mughal kitchens. With the Mughal invasion, there syrup till the syrup steeps into the dumpling. They are
was an increase in the consumption of rice, which has led then stored in sugar syrup, often flavoured with saffron
to a decrease in dependency on wheat. As a result, rice strands or rosewater [45]. Rasgulla is known as Rasagola
has become the staple crop in India and Indian cuisine in Odisha, another state in the eastern part of India, and
lacks identity without it. Mughals also introduced a wide recent research also indicates that Rasagola was prepared
variety of desserts and sweetmeats. India boasts a wide in Jagannath Temple in Odisha in the thirteenth century
range of milk-based sweets and desserts, and most of AD. Sandesh, a sweet dish, has been mentioned in medi-
these dishes originated in the Mughal times. Hence, the eval Bengali literature, including Krittibas’ Ramayana,
Mughal era was arguably the time that shaped Indian cui- but the original dish was most likely very different from
sine as it is today. the current version. The modern-day Sandesh is presum-
ably made with chhana cheese, but there are other prepa-
rations of sandesh without chhana, with just milk and
European colonization sugar. Normally, sandesh is made by tossing chhana in
When Mughals were reigning most of India, the Por- sugar over low heat. In some cases, use of khejur gur [3]
tuguese slowly started building their colonial empire. as a sweeter has been mentioned.
Unlike Mughals who intended to own the land and live The greatest gift to Indian cuisine by the Portuguese
here, the Portuguese wanted to send profits to their was perhaps the Columbian Trade which introduced
homeland. Spices were one of the main reasons that the crops like potatoes, okra, chillies, pineapples, papaya,
Europeans sought a sea route to the Indian subcontinent. cashew, peanuts, maize, guava, custard apples, and sapo-
It was a powerful product in the trade market, and estab- dilla. Tomatoes were not native to India and are believed
lishing trade with India was deemed necessary. How- to have been brought in through trade with other Asian
ever, the opulence and wealth of kings and the royal class empires, who in turn acquired them through trade with
changed their intentions and colonisation became a pri- Spain. Most gravies in Indian curries today are tomato-
ority over trade [9]. based. Potatoes have been integrated into modern Indian
Antani and Mahapatra Journal of Ethnic Foods (2022) 9:15 Page 11 of 15

Fig. 9 a Rasgulla is a Bengali/Odia sweet made of dumplings of chhena and semolina flour and cooked in sugar syrup. Source: Shutterstock https://​
www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​bowl-​full-​rasgu​lla-​pista​chios-​food-​table-​13382​43359 b Sandesh is a Bengali sweet made by moulding chhena
and sugar in different shapes. It can be flavoured with saffron and cardamom and topped with chopped almonds. Source: Shutterstock https://​
www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​assor​tment-​sande​sh-​tradi​tional-​benga​li-​sweets-​prepa​red-​27967​5779

cuisine as if it were a native plant [5]. India was the third transformed to vindaloo (refer to Fig. 10a), which is a
largest producer of potato in 2007 at 26,280,000 tonnes sweet and sour, but very spicy pork curry. Unlike the
and the third largest consumer at 17,380,730 tonnes in Portuguese preparation, vindaloo was made dry, so
2005, according to FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture that it could be carried on long journeys. Caldo Verde,
Organization of the United Nations [18]. Maize has also a Portuguese soup of potato and kale, is made in Goa
been adopted in Indian cuisine. Corn roasted on the cob with the same name, but is spicier, with the addition
is a popular street food seasoned with lime, salt, and red of ginger and black pepper. Also, kale is replaced by
chilli powder. Certain west-Indian dishes call for kernels spinach in the soup. Xacuti Chicken (refer to Fig. 10b)
of corn in the recipes and cornflour is used to make a is a Goan curry made with a paste of crushed peanuts,
flatbread called makki ki roti (refer to Fig. 7a) in Punjab. grated coconut, and a complex spice mix. A similar
There is a strong Portuguese influence in Goan Portuguese dish is Chacuti de Galinha. The Portuguese
cuisine, and many preparations are adaptations of also introduced a few types of breads, for example, the
Portuguese dishes. The dish carne de vina d’alhos pau (oven-baked bread rolls). Many street foods across

Fig. 10 a Chicken Vindaloo is a spicy, aromatic Goan curry adapted from the Portuguese Carne de vinha d’alhos. Source: Shutterstock https://​www.​
shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​chick​en-​vinda​loo-​spina​ch-​black-​bowl-​on-​19336​58453 b Chicken Xacuti is another Goan curry made with chicken,
poppy seeds, toasted coconut shredding, black pepper, chilli, and other spices. Source: Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​
chick​en-​xacuti-​class​ic-​dish-​goa-​region-​16395​69403
Antani and Mahapatra Journal of Ethnic Foods (2022) 9:15 Page 12 of 15

the country use pau today, like the vada pau (fried balls
of mashed potato and spices served with different rel-
ishes in a bread roll, see Fig. 11a) and bhaji pau (tomato
and potato-based tangy spicy curry served with bread
roll roasted in butter, see Fig. 11b). Bibinca is a Portu-
guese baked dessert, where seven layers of cake made
with flour, sugar, ghee, egg yolk, and coconut milk are
stacked over each other to make a pudding. It is Goan
tradition to make Bibinca at Christmas [42].
Coloquios dos simples e drogas da India by Garcia de
Orta, who served as the physician to the Portuguese
viceroy to India, describes a lot of ingredients used
in India. There are notes on pepper, banana, galangal,
turmeric, betel, bhaang (preparation of cannabis, see
Fig. 12), camphor, and asafoetida. He describes the
excess use of asafoetida in India, especially in Hindu
kitchens, and notes the extremely pungent smell of
the dried latex of a Ferula herb [2]. The preparation of
bananas involved roasting them and then serving them
with wine and cinnamon. In another dish, bananas
were cut in half, fried in sugar, and served with cinna- Fig. 12 Bhaang being prepared by Hindu priests for consumption
mon sprinkled on top. The widespread use of bhaang during the festival of Holi. It is prepared by crushing cannabis leaves
was also noted adequately. with sweetened milk. Source: Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​
com/​image-​photo/​hindu-​pries​ts-​prepa​re-​bhang-​milk-​on-​65374​7197
Following the Dutch entry into the trade market
of the East Indies, the French established trade with
rum-soaked Christmas fruitcake are some of the French
India [50] and made Pondicherry their capital. Their
dishes incorporated in the cuisine of Pondicherry. Meen
legacy is visible in the local cuisine there. Ragout (a
puyabaisse is a local preparation of the French dish Fish
stew flavoured heavily with garlic and aromatics) and
Bouillabaisse.

Fig. 11 a Vada Pau is a famous Maharashtrian snack. It is a fried ball of spiced mash of boiled potatoes served in a bread roll with green
chilli chutney, garlic chutney and fried green chilli. It is often eaten alongside chai (tea). Source: Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​
image-​photo/​masala-​cutti​ng-​chai-​bombay-​vada-​paav-​19096​42918 b Bhaji Pau is another Maharashtrian street food made up of a spiced tomato
and potato curry, served with bread rolls toasted on a pan with butter. Source: Shutterstock https://​www.​shutt​ersto​ck.​com/​image-​photo/​
pav-​bhaji-​fast-​food-​dish-​india-​39651​3787
Antani and Mahapatra Journal of Ethnic Foods (2022) 9:15 Page 13 of 15

Like the previous colonisers, the British also started problems like the caste system, practices of untouchabil-
with trade intentions. They first docked at the port of ity, oppression of certain sections of the population, lack
Surat and this became their first trading establishment in of access to health care, and so on opened the doors for
India. This trade mainly involved the export of silk, sugar, conversion to Christianity. Along with educational and
salt, opium, and tea and the import of English products health care facilities, the converted Christians also started
like ham, cheese, beer, and wine to supply the English imitating English food habits. On the other hand, there
population in India. After the decisive Battle of Plassey evolved a community of Anglo-Indians who adopted
in 1757, the British managed to drive the French away most of the English practices and cultures. They have
from Bengal and laid a strong foundation for their future been attributed a distinct cuisine that involved prepar-
supremacy [14]. The British also overthrew the Dutch ing English ingredients in Indian ways [9]. Roasted beef,
from Bengal in the mid-eighteenth century, and the meat and potato curry, pepper water or rasam (spicy beef
thriving Dutch trade under Mughal patronisation came broth), jalfrezi (meat or fish stir-fried in a dry sauce along
to an end [37]. with vegetables), and dry fry (beef cooked with onions,
The most notable effect of the British on Indian cuisine tomatoes, and spices in very little oil) are some common
is found in the field of brewing. Taverns opened by the dishes of the Anglo-Indian cuisine. Rasam and jalfrezi are
British served wine, beer, rum, and other British spirits. popular in India even today. They also cooked Portuguese
Punch was a popular drink served at such places. It was inspired Goan dishes like the vindaloo, balchow (meat or
made by mixing five ingredients – arrack, rosewater, cit- seafood cooked in spicy tomato chilli sauce), and foogath
ron juice, sugar, and spices, resulting in the name paanch (vegetables sautéed with onion, garlic and mustard seeds)
(means five in Hindi). and celebrated Christmas with roast turkey or duck and
Beer, especially ale, was a popular beverage among the plum pudding. In certain ways, Anglo-Indian cuisine was
British in India. Later, the antimalarial properties of qui- an introduction to pan-Indian cuisine.
nine were discovered and it was added to soda water, giv-
ing birth to tonic. It was paired with gin and served as gin Conclusion
and tonic at clubs. There are speculations that gimlet (gin The paper attempted to present a historical review of the
with lime juice) was first made in India. The first brewery diversity of food cooked in India. The paper is a small
in India was established in the Solan District of Himachal attempt at bringing together several scattered histori-
Pradesh in 1830 and twelve breweries were established in cal pieces of information related to how food evolved in
India in the following fifty years. India. While the pressure of not adequately providing
The British were fond of tea and most of it was ‘gastrosemantics’ [25], i.e. how a culture orchestrates the
exported to England from the plantations in China. The centralisation of food through a well-organized attempt
British discovered tea growing as a wild plant in North- to bring together the philosophy, consumption, beauty
eastern parts of India where the locals used it in pickling and transmission of food cultures, cannot be under-
and infused it in dishes. Tea plantations were then set up mined, the satisfaction of making a shot at it is never-
by the British in Assam, which spread to Darjeeling in the theless immense. Not many mainstream journal articles
Himalayas, Nilgiri Hills in Southern India, and even to Sri are available on Indian Cuisine, and this study is by no
Lanka. However, the drink was not common among the means an exhaustive study of the History of Indian Cui-
Indian population. It was only after the forced departure sine. It is a fine line between risking oversimplification
of the British that officials realized the surplus in fields and focusing only on a certain era or a region, but that
that were previously farmed to export to Britain [19]. The has been overcome here by focusing on a few decisive
Indians took their tea with milk and spices, which is now aspects of every era while keeping a note of develop-
consumed today under the name chai. A similar story fol- ments elsewhere in the subcontinent. A few historical
lows the cultivation of coffee in Southern India, but its and philosophical aspects of the cultures associated with
growth was not as pronounced as that of tea, because the history are highlighted to explain some of the culi-
coffee was mainly planted to meet the needs of locals. nary preferences and food habits. Future researchers can
The British also grew crops like oranges, carrots, cauli- investigate some of the areas this paper has opened. As
flower, spinach, and cabbage, which have found their way languages of the past begin being understood, it will be
into Indian kitchens. Omelettes became famous as break- worth closely looking at manuscripts from the Vedic eras
fasts served in clubs, where they would be made with for culinary culture. From the understanding that reli-
minced onions and chillies. gious practices often had a culinary aspect, studying the
As time passed and the British ruled over the country, religion would inevitably teach us about the food and the
Christian missionaries found a true mission in convert- ingredients available to the population. It would also be
ing the Hindu population to Christianity. Several internal helpful to break the subcontinent down to meaningful
Antani and Mahapatra Journal of Ethnic Foods (2022) 9:15 Page 14 of 15

regions and confine the study of the development of cui- 12. Crowley R. Conquerors: how Portugal seized the Indian ocean and forged
the first global empire. Faber & Faber; 2015.
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India has recently gained some research interest, it will editor. History of India. The Grolier Society, London, 1906
be worth exploring how historically food politics has 14. Edwardes M. The battle of plassey and the conquest of Bengal. Pickle
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