Cell Division

Cell division is a process in which a parent cell divides to form two or more
daughter cells. It is usually a part of the cell cycle that helps to repair or replace
dead or damaged cells in all living organisms. In higher animals, it also helps
organisms to grow and survive. Astonishingly, nearly two trillion cells divide the
human body daily!
However, cell division is different in single-celled prokaryotes and multicellular
eukaryotes.

Cell Divisions in Eukaryotes

Types

Two types of cell divisions occur in eukaryotes: mitosis and meiosis.

1. Mitosis

Here, the daughter cells receive the exact copies of the parent cell chromosomes in
the diploid form. It is a part of the cell cycle. A eukaryotic cell cycle consists of
two main phases: 1) interphase and 2) mitotic (M) phase and an alternative G0-
phase.
Interphase is the preparatory stage when a cell gets ready to divide and start the
cell cycle. It is the largest part of the cell cycle involving three sub-phases: G1, S,
and G2.
Interphase is followed by the mitotic (M) phase involving mitosis and cytokinesis.
Mitosis includes the step or phases prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase, also known as karyokinesis. The nuclear division is followed by the
cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) forming two daughter cells.
2. Meiosis

It is the other way eukaryotic cells divide. It is a form of cell division that forms
sex cells or gametes that fuse to form the zygote, giving rise to a new individual.
Meiosis has two cycles of cell division, Meiosis I, and Meiosis II. The result is four
daughter cells with a haploid (n) number of chromosomes.
 Cell Division in Prokaryotes
Unlike eukaryotes, single-celled bacteria and archaea undergo binary fission, a
type of cell division similar to mitosis. It requires replication of parent cell DNA,
segregation, and ultimately splitting of the parent cell through the assembly of the
septal (Z-ring) around the middle of the cell. It helps to pinch the cell into half,
forming two daughter cells.
Some microorganisms like cyanobacteria reproduce by budding, a form of
reproduction where the parent cell forms first forms a small extension, which
increases in size until it becomes a separate organism.

Why is Cell Division Important?

Cell division is essential because mitosis and meiosis serve critical functions in
higher organisms.

Reproduction

The primary purpose of cell division in living organisms is reproduction. Life on

Earth would cease to exist without a way to reproduce. Trillions of cell divisions
occur subsequently in a controlled manner to produce a complex, multicellular
human being. Similarly, single-celled organisms like bacteria and amoebas use cell
division to make copies of their own.

Growth

For any multicellular organism to grow, its cells need to divide. Living things
divide not by increasing the cell size but by increasing the number or volume of the
cell. For this reason, adults have more cells compared to their young ones.
However, cell division continues till an organism dies. Then, it may not contribute
to the cell number increase, but repair damaged or worn-out cells. If such cells are
not removed or replaced, they may cause severe life-threatening diseases like
cancer.
Repair

Have you ever thought about the reason behind healing our wounds after an injury?
It is because damaged cells are replaced with newer ones through cell division. As
discussed, cell division through mitosis also helps to repair old and damaged cells
in our body by replacing them with newer versions.

Genetic Variation

Cell division by meiosis brings in genetic diversity in all sexually reproducing

organisms. Since meiosis allows the mixing up of chromosome parts
(recombination) through crossing over, it helps to produce genetic variation in the
offspring. Thus, individuals made from egg and sperm cells from the same parents
look vastly different from each other.

Genetic variants are sometimes also found to help in evolution. Such organisms are
more environmentally fittest to survive than organisms that divide by mitosis.

Mitosis
What is Mitosis
Mitosis is a method of cell division where the mother cell divides to produce two
genetically identical daughter cells. It is similar in both plants and animals. In
lower animals such as amoeba, mitosis is a means of asexual reproduction without
the involvement of sex cells or gametes.
The term ‘mitosis’ was coined by Walther Flemming in 1882 and derived from the
Greek word ‘mitosis’ meaning ‘warp thread’.

Example: Healing of wounds, where damaged cells are replaced and repaired by
forming new cells.
 Where does Mitosis Occur
Mitosis happens in all cell types such as skin, bone, blood, and structural cells,
among others, except the germ cells.

How Long does it Take to Complete?

For most cells, mitosis takes around one and a half to two hours on an average to
complete.

Stages of Mitosis
Mitosis Phases Diagram

Interphase
Interphase Mitosis

It is the preparatory growth phase of mitosis when the DNA (the genetic material)
gets copied. It is the most active phase of the cell cycle involving a series of
metabolic changes. Interphase has three stages:
G1-phase: The first growth phase of the cell cycle, it is the resting stage during
which some cell organelles increase in size, and the cells rapidly synthesize the
different types of RNA and proteins. Centrioles begin to duplicate during the late
G1 phase.
S-phase: The DNA synthesis phase during which the genetic material present in
the nucleus gets copied to produce two identical sets of chromosomes. The
centrioles complete their duplication during this phase.
G2-phase: Second gap or resting phase during which the synthesis of RNA and
proteins from the G1 phase continues. During this period, cells store energy
as ATP to be utilized during mitosis. At the end of this stage, cells enter the stage
of mitotic division.
 Mitotic Division (M Phase)

1. Prophase

Prophase Mitosis

It is the first and the longest of all phases of mitosis. Prophase shows the following
distinct changes within the cell:

 The beginning is marked by the appearance of thin thread-like condensing X-

shaped chromosomes.
 Each chromosome is made of two coiled filaments called sister chromatids.
 As the stage progresses, the sister chromatids become increasingly shorter and
thicker that join together at a site called the centromere.
 The two pairs of centrioles, formed during interphase, move away from each other
to the opposite poles of the cell.
 Spindle fibers formed of microtubules and proteins begin to appear and gradually
extend across the cell between the centrioles as they move towards opposite poles.
 On reaching the end of this phase, the nuclear envelope starts to breaks apart thus
releasing the chromosome
 The nucleolus gradually disintegrates. The chromosomes begin to migrate towards
the center of the cell, marking the end of prophase.
2. Metaphase

Metaphase Mitosis

 It is the second phase of mitosis and is marked with the complete disappearance of
the nuclear envelope that had started during prophase.
 The chromosomes, which are at their shortest and thickest stage with two sister
chromatids, get attached to the spindle fibers present at the opposite poles.
 They then align end to end along the middle of the cell.
 The spindle fibers then attach to each of the sister chromatids.
3. Anaphase

Anaphase Mitosis
 It starts by splitting each paired chromosome into two sister chromatids, now
known as daughter chromosomes.
 The daughter chromosomes are pulled towards the opposite end of the cell due to
the contraction of the spindle fibers.
 At the end of this phase, each pole contains a complete set of chromosomes.
4. Telophase

Telophase Mitosis

 It is the last recognized phase of mitosis marked by the end of the daughter
chromosome’s migration to the opposite poles.
 Nuclear envelope redevelops around each group of chromosomes to form daughter
nuclei.
 Mitotic apparatus disappears with a reduction in the viscosity of cytoplasm,
followed by the synthesis of RNA.
 The nucleolus reappears with the chromosomes becoming slender and extended.
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis Mitosis

This is the process where the cytoplasm gets divided to produce two independent
daughter cells, each containing a complete set of chromosomes. Cytokinesis begins
at the anaphase stage and continues through telophase and into the interphase. In
the end, mitosis results in two genetically identical daughter cells, each having
diploid (2n) number of chromosomes.

The Difference in Cytokinesis between Plant and Animal Cells: In animals,

cytokinesis occurs through a constriction of the cell membrane in-plane of the
metaphase plate, while in plants the division happens through the formation of the
cell plate.

What is the Purpose of Mitosis?

It is primarily important for its involvement in two cellular processes – cell
division and reproduction. Some major roles played by mitosis are:

 Helping in growth and reproduction of new individual cells or organisms

 Repairing and regenerating body parts: dead and damaged cells such as skin, gut
epithelial cells, and RBCs are replaced with the new ones.
 Maintaining the purity of the population having the same genetic makeup as the
parent cell.
 Maintaining the same chromosome-count in cells generation after generation.
 Increasing the number of cells in higher organisms where each group of cells is
specialized performs a distinct function in an organized way.
 Preserving a proper balance between DNA and RNA and thus maintaining the
desired ratio between the cell’s nuclear and cytoplasmic content

Meiosis
What is Meiosis?
Meiosis is a cell division process where a single (parent) cell divides twice to
produce four independent (daughter) cells, each having half the chromosomes as
the original cell.
The term ‘meiosis’ came from the Greek word ‘meiosis’, meaning ‘lessening’.

Where does Meiosis Occur?

Meiosis takes place only in the reproductive cell types (sperm and egg cells) of
sexually reproducing organisms, including humans. For a cell to undergo meiosis,
it must have a diploid (2n) chromosome number.

Phases of Meiosis
Meiosis Stages Diagram

Meiosis involves two successive stages or phases of cell division, meiosis I and
meiosis II. Each stage includes a period of nuclear division or karyokinesis and a
 cytoplasmic division or cytokinesis. Although not a part of meiosis, the cells
before entering meiosis I undergo a compulsory growth period called interphase.

Interphase

Interphase Meiosis

During this phase, the nuclear envelope remains intact. The chromosomes exist in
the form of long, slender, and coiled chromatin fibers.

G1 phase: The first gap phase or the preparatory phase of cell division. During this
phase, the cell increase in size by absorbing water from the cytoplasm and
synthesize different types of RNA and proteins.
S phase: The period of DNA synthesis during which the genetic material present
within the nucleus gets copied. Each chromosome duplicates to become two
identical sister chromatids attached at a specific point, called the centromere. The
centrioles get duplicated as well.
G2 phase: The second gap phase that happens after the DNA synthesis, but before
prophase. During this phase, the cell continues to increase in size with the
synthesis of RNA and proteins.

Steps of Meiosis I

1) Prophase I

Prophase 1 Meiosis

It is the longest phase of meiotic division involving a series of events and is

divided into the following steps:

 The duplicated chromosomes condense, resembling an X-shaped structure with

two sister chromatids that become distinctly visible within the nucleus.
 The homologous chromosome pair (one inherited from each parent) comes closer
and associate along the entire chromosome length, forming a tetrad. Each tetrad is
composed of four chromatids.
 The homologous chromosomes exchange parts of DNA with each other; this
process is known as crossing over. The points of physical contact from which the
genetic materials are exchanged are known as chiasmata.
 Spindle fibres originate from the centrioles on either side of the cell, getting
attached to each chromosome’s centromere.
 The last step of prophase involves the breakdown of the nuclear envelope. The
chromosomes then start moving towards the middle of the cell.

2) Metaphase I

Metaphase 1 Meiosis

 Homologous chromosomes align along the centre of the cell.

 The centrioles reach the opposite poles of the cell with the spindle fibres extending
from them.
 The centromeres orient themselves towards the opposite poles of the cell.
3) Anaphase I

Anaphase 1 Meiosis

 The chromosomes with two sister chromatids are separated, and they begin to
migrate to the opposite poles. This separation is achieved because of the
contraction of the spindle fibres attached to each chromosome’s centromere.
 The homologous chromosomes start to migrate to the opposite poles.
4) Telophase I

Telophase 1 Meiosis

 The chromosomes stop migrating with each pole containing a haploid number of
chromosomes.
 The nuclear envelope is formed around the chromosome, and the spindle fibres
disappear.
 The chromosomes uncoil and become less dense with the nucleolus appearing
within the nucleus.
5) Cytokinesis I

Cytokinesis 1 Meiosis

 It involves the division of the cytoplasm to produce two individual daughter cells.
In animals, cytokinesis occurs by constriction of the cell membrane, while in
plants, it happens through the formation of a cell plate. In most cells, cytokinesis
occurs at the same time as telophase.
Result of Meiosis I

At the end of cytokinesis I, two different daughter cells are formed, each with half
the number of chromosomes as the parent cell (having 23 chromosomes having 23
pairs of chromatids). Meiosis is thus also called the reduction division.
Steps of Meiosis II

The daughter cells produced in meiosis I enters the second round of division called
meiosis II.

1) Prophase II

Prophase 2 Meiosis

 The nuclear membrane initiates to break down, and the spindle fibers appear again.
 Each centriole divides, forming two pairs of centrioles.
 Chromosomes do not replicate any further in this phase of meiosis and begin
migration towards the center of the cell.
2) Metaphase II

Metaphase 2 Meiosis

 Chromosomes arrange on the equator of the cell with the help of the spindle fibers.
 The centrioles are now at opposite poles in each of the daughter cells.
 Centromere divides, producing two sister chromatids, now known as daughter
chromosomes, with the spindle fibers attached to each chromosome.
3) Anaphase II

Anaphase 2 Meiosis
 The daughter chromosomes are pulled towards the opposite poles of the cells with
the help of the spindle fibers. At the end of anaphase II, each end of the cell
contains a complete set of chromosomes.
4) Telophase II

Telophase 2 Meiosis

 The nuclear membrane forms around each chromosome with the disappearance of
the spindle fibers.
 Nucleolus reappears as the cell prepares for the second round of cytoplasmic
division.
5) Cytokinesis II

Cytokinesis 2 Meiosis

 This step is identical to cytokinesis I, involving the second cytoplasm division,

resulting in the formation of two individual daughter cells.
What is the End Result of Meiosis

Thus at the end of meiosis II, four non-identical, haploid daughter cells are formed,
each having half chromosome number as the original parent cell.

Main Differences Between Meiosis I and

Meiosis II
In meiosis I, a pair of homologous chromosomes separate to produce two diploid
daughter cells, each having half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. In
contrast, during meiosis II, sister chromatids separate to produce four haploid
daughter cells. Also, unlike meiosis I, no genetic recombination by crossing over
occurs in meiosis II.

Purpose of Meiosis
 Maintaining chromosome number in organisms: In humans, each cell typically
contains 46 chromosomes organized into 23 pairs. To maintain the chromosome
number generation after generation, the gametes formed from the meiotic division
 should contain half the number of chromosomes (23 chromosomes) as the parent
cell. When the sex cells fuse to form a zygote, the usual chromosome number of 46
chromosomes is restored in the new individual. If the chromosomal reduction
process is not maintained, it could cause genetic abnormality in the child.
 Creates genetic diversity: The exchange of genetic information between the pair of
homologous chromosomes allows genetic variation among the population. These
variations form the basis of the evolutionary process.
 Repairs genetic defects: The process of mixing chromosomes in meiosis,
commonly known as recombination, helps repair genetic abnormalities in
individuals produced through meiosis. When one of the parents has a genetic
defect, recombination through meiosis can replace that abnormality in the next
generation, allowing the formation of a healthy individual.