UNIT 6

TYPES OF DEPENDENT (SUBORDINATE) CLAUSES

A dependent clause includes a subject and verb. A clause can be embedded in a larger structure,
either as a clause element or as part of a phrase which realises a clause element.

INDEPENDENT (MAIN) CLAUSE

SUBJECT PREDICATE

VP Cs DEPENDENT (SUBORDINATE) CLAUSE (A)

subordinator SUBJET PREDICATE

VP O

Harry is happy because he won the match

The embedded clause is called subordinate (dependent clause) clause and the superordinate
clause, in which it is embedded, is termed the main (independent) clause. In the following
examples, the clause elements of the main clause are shown in [ ]:

1 [They] [ believe] [ that the war won’t last more than two months.]
S VP Od
2 [Mrs. Rose’s children] [visited] [her] [twice] [since they arrived in town.]
S VP Od A A
3 [John] [told] [me] [what to do with the machine] [if it stops working.]
S VP Oi Od A

Here, each of the main clauses 1, 2, and 3 contain embedded dependent clauses. Sentence 1 has
the structure SVO with the last element of the clause being realised by a dependent clause, in
sentence 2, SVOAA, the dependent clause functions as an adverbial, and in sentence 3, SVOOA,
there are two dependent clauses, one of which functioning as direct object and the other as an
adverbial. Embedded clauses may be finite or non-finite, depending upon the structure of their
verb phrase (see 4.1.2). Main clauses which are not part of any larger syntactic structure are
referred to as independent clauses.

Finite dependent clauses are regularly marked by a clause link, either a subordinator or a wh-
word.
When I was watching the news at 7, I heard a strange noise.

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The grammatical roles of finite dependent clauses are many and varied. It is not always clear to
what extent clauses should be regarded as independent or as part of other structures. There are
degrees of integration, ranging from clear subordination to loosely attached structures.

Non- finite dependent clauses are more compact and less explicit than finite clauses; they are
not marked for tense and modality, and they frequently lack an explicit subject or subordinator.
x Watching the 7 o’clock news, I heard a strange noise.
To interpret a non-finite clause, it is necessary to use clues from the main clause and often also
from the wider context. There are three main types of non-finite clause, each containing a
different type of verb phrase (infinitive clauses, ing- clauses, and ed- clauses). The three types
differ considerably with respect to the grammatical roles they can play. Infinitive and ing- clauses
are the most versatile grammatically. Non-finite clauses are often loosely integrated into the
main clause and may even lack a verb altogether.

6.1 SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES

Dependent clauses can perform various syntactic functions within the sentence. They act either
in the capacity of some kind of noun or as some kind of modifier. They can be subjects, direct or
indirect objects, complements, or adverbials. In addition, they may function as part of a clause
element - complement of preposition, complement of adjective and postmodifier in a noun
phrase.

Subject: That we badly need new equipment is obvious.

Direct Object: I know that she is bright.
Indirect Object: They gave whoever it was a drink.
Subj. Complement: The point is that they’re leaving right away.
Object Complement: I can’t imagine John to be overweight.
Prepositional Complement: Tom’s plans depend on what is decided at the meeting.
Adjective Complement: The athlete is very happy that he has made a record.
Adverbial: When we meet, I’ll explain everything.
Postmodifier in a NP: I’d like a friend who remains a friend.

On the basis of their potential semantic functions, we distinguish four basic categories of
dependent (subordinate) clauses:
 nominal clauses
 relative clauses
 adverbial clauses
 comparative clauses

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EXERCISES 54-57
54. Underline the subordinate clauses in each sentence and indicate whether they are Nominal
clauses (act as a subject, object, or complement ), Relative (modify a noun),or Adverbial clauses
( modify the ver in the main clause).

1. I will remember my grandparents as long as I live. __ AC__

2. I don’t think that Tom will win the match. _______
3. What she said was very funny. _______
4. The girl whom we met this morning is Ann’s sister. _______
5. Her suggestion is that we should leave before 8 a.m. _______
6. When I was a child, I loved cartoons. _______
7. She sent the pictures, which her husband had taken of
the children, to the editor. _______
8. Whether we like it or not, we have to obey her rules. _______
9. It is obvious that they will have the best results. _______
10. Can you recall what the reporter’s name was? _______
11. I’m sure that I said something very interesting. _______
13. When the exam was finished, the students left the room. _______
14. I am always surprised at how fast my brother can run. _______
15. The taxi driver waited so that he could drive us back to
the hotel. _______

55. Fill in the sentences by the missing Nominal, Relative, or Adverbial subordinate clauses.

1. Since we didn’t understand the question, we were unable to answer.

2. The man ______________________________________ is a police officer.
3. He had produced several documentaries___________________________________.
4. ______________________________________ doesn’t interest me.
5. ___________________________________ it reminds her of the accident she had.
6. I won’t remember what you’ve told me __________________________________.
7. Leo’s dream _____________________________________ is challenging.
8. They always know ___________________________________ .
9. I didn’t set my alarm on Sunday night ____________________________________.
10. My cousin wants to enter politics _______________________________________.
11. Mr. Peterson, _____________________________________, is a very nice person.
12. He borrowed my lecture notes ________________________________________.
13. To become a good teacher is _________________________________________.
14. I have never thought about __________________________________________.
15. _________________________________ you should be more careful.
16. The book ____________________________________ is in the library.
17. _____________________________________ we must show him what we have done.
18. This is the hotel _____________________________________________.
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 19. Can you tell me ________________________________________________?
20. I’m not interested in _____________________________________________.

56. In each sentence below supply the missing independent and dependent clauses
(AC,NC,or RC) or other elements as indicated in brackets.
Example:
(Ger.P.) Keeping in shape was important to the world champion.
The waitress asked (NC) whether they wanted some more wine.
Trying to achieve even better results, (ind.C) Mandy exercised two times a day.
(AC) As soon as she arrives , I’ll send you a message.
Tom told me the story (RC) which he had heard from his friend.

1. Later I discovered __(NC) ________________________________________________.

2. She spoke with her friend Jackie McDell, __(RC)______________________________.
3. __(Part.P) _________________________________, the girls didn’t hear what Ann said.
4. I admire my mum __(AC)__________________________ and always lets me do
__(NC) __________________________________.
5. __(NC) ____________________________________________ is not quite clear to me.
6. After a long journey across the country, __(Ind.C) _____________________________.
7. The play was so bad _(AC) _______________________________________________.
8. I'll remember you __ (Part.P) _____________________________________________.
9. _(AC) __________________________, he asked us __ (Inf.P) ___________________.
10. I wasn’t sure __(NC) ___________________________________________________.
11. Mr Briggs has taken us to the house __(RC)_________________________________.
12. My parents don’t like my __(Ger.P) __________________________.
13. __(AC) _______________________________________, he decided to go inside and
have a look __(NC) ____________________________________________________.
14. We have a lot of things __(RC) __________________________________________.

57. Instructions as for 56

1. I don't know __(NC) ____________________________, __(AC) ________________
___________________________________________.
2. She began to tell her boss _(NC) __________________________________________.
3. I'm very happy _(NC) ___________________________________________________.
4. Walking north he again passes a steel grey limousine __(RC) ____________________.
5. __(AC) ______________________________________, I could see what was going on.
6. I’m lucky enough, __(Ind.C)______________________________________________
__(AC) ______________________________________________________________.
7. The film avoids __(Ger.P) ________________________________________________.
8. The teacher told us __(Inf.P) ______________________________________________.
9. Mr Dark had been sitting on an email __(RC) _________________________________.
10. __(NC) _______________________________________________ is a mystery to me.

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11. He gave the letter __(RC) _____________________________________ to the police.
12. It was a very unusual situation __(Inf.P) ____________________________________.
13. __(AC) ______________________________ that he would come, __(Ind.C) _______
_______________________________ ___(RC) __________________________.
14. Ben often wondered __(NC) ______________________________________________
__(AC)_______________________________________________ .
15. __(AC)__________________________________, I could have spend a week in the
mountains __(RC) _________________________________.

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6.2 NOMINAL CLAUSES
For a process of embedding a clause in another in order to complete the meaning relationship of
an associated verb or adjective in the main clause, grammarians use the term
‘complementation’. A nominal clause is closely integrated with the main clause in which it is
embedded. It cannot normally be left out without injuring the structure of the main clause. Its
freedom of movement is limited. Because nominal clauses are normally selected or controlled by
a preceding verb, adjective, noun, or preposition, they are frequently referred to as complement
clauses (because of their complement role), yet we will use the term nominal clause (according
to CGEL).

Nominal clauses are a type of dependent clause used to complete the meaning relationship of an
associated verb or adjective in the main clause. Nominal clause (noun clause) refers to a clause
that can occur in positions where noun phrases occur and like noun phrases, function as subject
(also extraposed), object, complement, appositive, and prepositional complement in the main
clause (see 6.1.1.). The occurrence of nominal clauses is more limited than that of noun phrases
because semantically the clauses are normally abstract; they refer to such abstractions as events,
facts, and ideas. The only exception is the nominal relative clause, which may refer to persons
and things and may in fact be alternatively analysed as a noun phrase.
There are four major structural types of nominal clause:
• that- clauses
• wh- clauses
• to- infinitive clauses
• ing- clauses

They are distinguished on the basis of their internal structure. That- clauses are always finite, wh-
clauses are usually finite clauses. Thus, they include tense or modality distinction and must have
a subject. They are introduced by the (omissible) subordinator that or by a wh-word. On the
other hand, to- infinitive clauses and ing- clauses are always non-finite clauses, and thus do not
include tense distinction or modals. Non-finite clauses often omit the subject, especially when
the subject of the nominal clause refers to the same entity as the subject of the main clause.
I started thinking about Christmas. (I started, I thought about)
In addition, there are non-finite nominal clauses which occur with an infinitive form without to.
These bare infinitive clauses form a special subclass of infinitive clauses:
The only thing he wanted was (to) go home.
Infinitive clauses can also occur in combination with wh- clauses:
She didn’t know what to do after she finishes her task.

6.2.1 THAT- CLAUSES

Nominal that-clauses may occur in pre-predicate and post-predicate position. That-clauses do
not follow prepositions. They may function as:
▪ Subject (pre-predicate)

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 That he moved into such a luxurious apartment surprised his parents.
It annoys them that Martin doesn’t have a permanent job. – extraposed Subject
(That Martin doesn’t have a permanent job annoys them.)
▪ Direct object
I heard that he failed the exam.
▪ Complement
The news was that the police had arrested a suspect.
▪ Appositive
Your idea that we should buy her an expensive present is rather strange.
▪ Adjectival complement
I’m sure that Linda will bring the dog with herself.

In pre-predicate subject that-clauses it is common that the word it (anticipatory/introductory IT)

functions as the subject, and the noun clause is extraposed. Extraposed that-clauses and that-
clauses in subject position involve a main clause that often reports an attitude which is not
overtly attributed to any person. This is usually the attitude of the speaker or writer of the text,
even though the author does not assume explicit responsibility for the attitude:
That she doesn’t understand English is obvious.
It is obvious that she doesn’t understand English.
It is vitally important that both groups are used to support one another.

That-clauses occurring in post-predicate position are commonly used to report the speech,
thoughts, attitudes, or emotions of humans. In these constructions, the subject of the main
clause refers to the human participant, the lexical verb or adjectival complement presents the
type of reporting, and the that-clause presents the reported speech, thought, or attitude, and
functions as object of the sentence:
He said (that) he didn’t like the way Jill behaved.
I think (that) Steven has forgotten to lock the door.
The verbs that take a that-clause in post-predicate position fall into three major semantic groups:
mental verbs of cognition (e.g. think, know, hope, wish), speech act verbs (e.g. say, tell), and other
communication verbs that do not involve speech (e.g. show, prove).
When that-clauses follow certain verbs and expressions such as: advise, ask, demand, insist,
recommend, request, suggest, it is essential, it is important, it is imperative, it is necessary, it is
vital, etc., the that-clauses occur with either the modal should, or an uninflected subjunctive
verb form:
The doctor recommended that he should stay in bed.
He demanded that we be there on time.
I insisted that he pay me the money.
It is important that the candidates be given the results as soon as possible.

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When the that-clause is direct object, complement, or extraposed, the conjunction that is
frequently omitted except in formal use, leaving zero that –clause. That cannot be omitted in a
subject clause (pre-predicate that-clause).
I told him (that) he was wrong.
It’s a pity (that) you don’t speak Spanish.

Nominal that-clauses functioning as appositive re-name the word that immediately precedes it.
As appositive nominal clauses always follow NPs, they resemble relative clauses in being capable
of introduction by that. It Nominal appositive clauses differ from relative clauses in that the head
of the noun phrase of an appositive clause must be an abstract noun such as fact, idea, reply,
answer, appeal, promise. etc.
The fact that she didn’t keep her promise made me angry.
Structurally, the that-clause in these constructions acts as appositive (complement) to the noun
fact. However, the meaning in such cases is usually equivalent to the analogous sentence with
pre-predicative that-clause. That she didn’t keep her promise made me angry. In the examples:
(1) His suggestion that Ralph didn’t work conscientiously was resented. (NC)
(2) His suggestion that surprised everyone was resented. (RC)
In sentence (1) the that-clause that Ralph didn’t work conscientiously is a nominal clause and not
a relative clause. We can show this by contrasting:
- In the relative clause (2) that surprised everyone, that is a relative pronoun, and could be
replaced by which. It acts as the subject of the clause (the suggestion surprised everyone)
- in that Ralph didn’t work conscientiously that is a conjunction

6.2.2 WH- CLAUSES

Wh- nominal clauses can be either interrogative clauses or nominal relative clauses. They are
introduced by wh-words (when, where, why, who, whom, what, which, whose) and the same set
of these words is used with both, except for whether, which is unambiguously interrogative. Wh-
clauses, characteristically more versatile than that-clauses, occur in the whole range of functions
available to the nominal that-clause and in addition may function as prepositional complement:
▪ Subject (pre-predicate)
What he told them about his previous life remains a secret.
▪ Direct object
I don’t understand why he failed the exam.
▪ Subject complement
The problem is who will look after the dog while I’m in hospital.
▪ Appositive
Your question, why Nelly didn’t announce her wedding, hasn’t been answered yet.
▪ Adjectival complement
It was incredible how much had happened.
▪ Prepositional complement
They didn’t agree on whose turn it was.

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The following are the two most important grammatical patterns available for wh- nominal
clauses in post-predicate position:
1. verb + wh-clause
I don’t remember where I put my glasses.
2. verb + NP + wh-clause
The teacher asked Paul why he had missed so many classes.

6.2.2.1 WH-INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES

These subordinate clauses resemble wh-questions semantically in that they leave a gap of
unknown information, represented by the wh-element. The clearest type of wh-interrogative
clause presents an indirect question.
QUESTION NOMINAL CLAUSE
Where does she live? I don’t know where she lives.
Who lives there? I wonder who lives there.
Who is she? I’d like to know who she is.
What did she say? What she said surprised me.

Similarly, to independent wh-questions, the wh-word is placed first. If the wh-clause contains a
prepositional complement, we have the choice between two constructions, one being formal. In
formal style, the preposition precedes the wh-clause, while in informal style the subordinate
clause comes first, and the preposition is deferred to the end of the sentence.

He doesn’t remember on which shelf he put it. (formal)

He doesn’t remember which shelf he put it on. (informal)

Infinitive wh-clauses can be formed with all wh-words, though instances with why are rare.
The meaning expressed by the infinitive is should, can, could.

She didn’t know how to get rid of her intrusive guest. (how she should get rid of...)
Mr. Leon advised me where to go and look for it. (where I should go...)

6.2.2.2 YES/NO INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES

The wh-word whether and its close equivalent if are used specifically to introduce dependent
yes/no interrogative clauses expressing indirect questions. They occur in the same range of
functions available to wh-interrogative clauses, and may include infinitive clauses.
He wondered whether the teacher had noticed the error.
I asked my neighbour if she could lend me her notes.
In the above examples, it would be possible to substitute if for whether or vice versa without
changing the meaning of the sentence. There is also a variant of the whether/if clause which

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corresponds to an alternative direct question. This type of clause is formed with correlatives
whether. . . or, if . . . or.
When they reached Fair Bank, Alan asked her whether they should go through the square
or along King Street.
The subordinator whether is repeated only if the second unit is a full clause:
When they reached Fair Bank, Alan asked her whether they should go through the square
or whether they should go along King Street.

Alternative question constructions are also found with elliptical negative clause or not:
I don’t care whether you come with us or not.
In alternative question constructions with elliptical negative clause, the or not can also directly
follow whether. In general, alternative interrogative clauses are strongly associated with
whether. In the following example, if could not be substituted for whether.
I don’t care whether or not they join us.

Whether/if clauses are frequently used with a negative in the main clause- almost invariably so in
the case of negative-oriented verbs such as care, matter and mind:
I don’t care if you’re late or not.
Doesn’t matter whether it rains or not.
She doesn’t mind if the rumour spreads around.
One of the most common verbs taking whether/if clauses is know, which also occurs
predominantly in the negative:
Robert doesn’t know whether they’ll arrive tomorrow morning or in the afternoon.
Alternative whether/if clauses can be non-finite (only to/infinitives).
I don’t know whether to go there by car.
Whether is obligatory if:
- the subordinate clause is at the beginning of the sentence
Whether she’ll do it doesn’t concern me.
- after be
The problem is whether we’ll get the money.
- before an infinitive
Robert haven’t decided whether to by a BMW or a Mercedes.

6.2.2.3 NOMINAL-RELATIVE CLAUSES

Nominal relative clauses resemble wh -interrogative clauses in that they are also introduced by a
wh- element. The wh- element may be a pronoun, determiner, or adverb. In some respect they
are more like noun phrases, since they can refer to concrete entities as well as abstract entities.
They can be analysed as noun phrases modified by relative clauses, except that the wh- element
is merged with its antecedent:
Whoever said that does not understand the question. [ The person who said that]
He gave his children what they wanted. [ ...the things that they wanted]
Tesco is where I do my shopping. [...the place where I do my shopping]
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Nominal relative clauses have the same range of functions as noun phrases:
▪ Subject (pre-predicate)
What he whispered was not understood by anyone.
▪ Direct object
I ‘d like to see whatever is on tonight.
▪ Indirect object
David offered whoever appeared a glass of wine.
▪ Subject complement
Christmas time is when the family gets together.
▪ Object complement
You can call him what(ever) you like.
▪ Appositive
I’ll tell you everything; what I’ve heard and what I’ve read about it.
▪ Prepositional complement
He is interested in whatever you offer.

Wh- elements may express either specific meaning (the –ever suffix is not allowed) or nonspecific
meaning (generally indicated by the presence of the –ever suffix).
Specific: I picked up what was the closest to me. [the one which was the closest]
Nonspecific: I’ll collect whatever I find in the room. [anything that is in the room]

A subordinate clause may be ambiguous between a nominal relative and an interrogative

interpretation: They asked me what I knew.
relative interpretation: They asked me things that I knew.
interrogative interpretation: They asked me: “What do you know?”

6.2.2.4 EXCLAMATIVE CLAUSES

In subordinate exclamative clauses, similarly as in independent exclamative clauses, the
exclamative element is formed with what as pre-determiner in a noun phrase and how as
intensifier of an adjective, adverb, or clause. The exclamative element is positioned initially.
Subordinate exclamative clauses generally function as:
▪ extraposed subject
It’s amazing how easily she can do it.
▪ direct object
She isn’t able to find words to express what a great time they had.
▪ prepositional complement
I’ve heard about how excellent her performance was.

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6.2.3 TO-INFINITIVE CLAUSES
Infinitive nominal clauses serve a wide range of functions. They are commonly used to report
intentions, desires, efforts, perceptual states, and various other general actions. Similar to that-
clauses, infinitive clauses can occur in either post-predicate or subject position, and in a variety
of other structures. They may function as:
▪ Subject (pre-predicate)
To pay them in advance was a stupid idea.
▪ Extraposed subject
It had taken the author a long time to finish his book.
(To finish his book had taken the author a long time.)
▪ Direct object
They are trying to hold it together.
▪ Subject complement
The reason for his presence is to get some support for his plan.
▪ Appositive
His idea, to go there without invitation, seems to be rather odd.
▪ Adjectival complement
Helen was glad to have him around.

The presence of a subject in a to-infinitive clause normally requires the presence of a preceding
for. When the subject is a pronoun that distinguishes subjective and objective cases, it is in the
objective case:
that we should meet on Thursday.
The latest proposal is
for us to meet on Thursday. (the meeting is proposed only for us)

The director rejected the proposal that the trip should be postponed or for the trip to be
postponed.

When the clause is a direct object, however, for is generally absent before the subject:
He wants x us to meet on Thursday.
When the infinitive clause is in post-predicate position, there are five major grammatical
patterns possible:
1. verb + to-clause
My sister hopes to move to a bigger city.
2. verb + NP + to-clause
I told grandma to make a cake.
3. verb + for NP + to-clause
I don’t like waiting for someone to call me.
4. verb + bare infinitive clause
The police didn’t let examine the body before the sheriff came.
5. verb + NP + bare infinitive clause
The coach had the players train for more than 2 hours.
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A nominal bare infinitive clause may function as object complement with a relatively few verbs
such as dare, help, let, feel, have, etc. (see pattern 4. and 5. above).
The to of the infinitive is optional when the clause is subject complement.
What she likes is (to) have a nap in the afternoon.
Switch off the gas was all I was asked to do.
A lot of verbs that fit in the patterns above also have corresponding passive forms:
Mr. Parker is considered to be an expert in computer technology.

6.2.4 ING CLAUSES

Like nominal that-clauses and infinitive clauses, nominal ing-clauses serve a wide range of
functions. They are most commonly used with aspectual verbs (begin, start, stop), but they are
also used to report acts, cognitive states, perceptions, facts, emotions and various other actions.
Although they are most common in post-predicate position, ing-clauses can also occur in subject
and subject position. Nominal ing-clauses may function as:

▪ Subject (pre-predicate)
Thinking about the illness of his mother made George feel very sad and discouraged.
▪ Subject complement
The party’s greatest goal was fighting against crime.
▪ Extraposed subject
It’s very difficult getting supplies into the occupied territory.
▪ Direct object
I started planning my summer holidays.
▪ Object of preposition
No one wanted even to think of moving to another place.

▪ Appositive
Professor Bernard’s research, examining breast cancer, is expensive and time
consuming.
▪ Adjectival complement
Susan has been busy taking two exams this week.

There are two major grammatical patterns available for nominal ing-clauses in post predicative
position:
1. verb + ing-clause
I began reading some articles.
2. verb + NP + ing-clause
Don’t be surprised to find me exercising in the health club.
If the ing-clause has a subject, this may be in the genitive case or in the objective case, or
common case:
I couldn’t rely on his/ John’s going there early enough to announce the latest news.
I couldn’t rely on him/ John going there early enough to announce the latest news.
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EXERCISES 58-69
58. Underline the NOUN CLAUSES in the following paragraph and state their functions.
Why some very good students often fail exams was recently studied by a professor of
psychology at New York University. Professor Iris Fodor conducted research on the anxiety
of some students before taking exams. Professor Fodor stated that many students fail exams
because they become extremely nervous and cannot think logically. Furthermore, although
they have studied, they are afraid of whatever is on the exam. Extremely nervous students
forget everything they have studied, and some even become sick before a test. Dr. Fodor says
how a student feels before a test is very important. She worked with fifty students and taught
them how they could reduce their test anxiety and perform well on their exams. She
reported that the students in the program felt better able to cope with their anxieties. What
she told them to do before a test was the following:
1. Breathe deeply and slowly to relax.
2. Speak to yourself about positive and happy subjects and get rid of any negative thinking.
3. Be realistic. Don’t think your life will end if you fail.
4. Don’t be too hard on yourself. If you know you have studied, do your best.
By following these simple suggestions, Professor Fodor is certain that many unusually
nervous students can perform better in test situations.
(Taken from C.W.Pollock:Communicate What You Mean, 1982)

59. Join the sentences using noun clauses. Start the sentences as indicated.
Example: He will succeed. I’m convinced.
I’m convinced __that he will succeed.__

1. He lost the match again. I was disappointed.

I ___________________________________________________________________
The fact______________________________________________________________
2. They travel to Rome every month. I can’t believe it.
I___________________________________________________________________
3. She hadn’t arrived on Sunday. Her parents didn’t know it/why.
Her__________________________________________________________________
4. Their argument upset him. It was obvious.
It ___________________________________________________________________
5. The climbers reached the summit. We didn’t know when.
We _________________________________________________________________
6. The library opening hours should be extended. Most students support this idea.
Most ________________________________________________________________
7. The speaker said something. It was not easy to follow.
It ___________________________________________________________________
What _______________________________________________________________

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 8. Does she like sweets? I don’t know.
I ___________________________________________________________________
9. You have to practice more. This is my opinion.
My__________________________________________________________________
10. How will I pay my bills? I never think about it.
___________________________________________________________________
11. Mark is always leaving a mess in his room. His mother is angry about that.
Mark’s ______________________________________________________________
12. They still hold on to the belief. Alice is the best of all.
They_________________________________________________________________
13. David said something. It is unbelievable.
What_________________________________________________________________
14. She didn’t want us to pay for her services. I’m grateful for that.
I’m __________________________________________________________________
15. She may have quit her job. I’m not sure.
I’m _________________________________________________________________

60. Answer the following questions using noun clauses as the subject of the sentence.
1. What did he want?
__What he wanted was really surprising.
2. When are they going to get married?
__________________________________ doesn’t concern me.
3. Where is your boyfriend now?
__________________________________ depends on his duties.
4. Why were they so rude to us?
__________________________________ remains a mystery to me.
5. How long does it take to get there?
_________________________________ is what interests me.
6. What is the time of departure?
_________________________________ depends on the weather conditions.
7. Will they stay with us or at the Hilton?
_________________________________ hasn’t been decided yet.
8. What will you do after you graduate?
_________________________________ is a difficult question.
9. Is she going to celebrate her birthday with Tom?
_________________________________ is her private matter.
10. When did the performance start?
_________________________________ was not written anywhere.
11. Has John already finished his studies?
_________________________________ doesn’t bother me.
12. How many times will they try it?
_________________________________ is up to them.
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61. Rewrite the following sentences using noun clauses instead of the noun phrases in
bold.
Example: His house is beautiful. Where he lives is beautiful.

1. Her talk was very interesting.______________________________________________

2. Ann’s reason for being angry surprised me. __________________________________
3. I don’t understand her answer. _____________________________________________
4. The number of days he will stay is not important.______________________________
5. I’m really not interested in his story. ________________________________________
6. His poor health worries me. _______________________________________________
7. The date of his birth is still a secret. _________________________________________
8. We were shocked by his behaviour. _________________________________________
9. The place of their stay hasn’t been announced yet. ______________________________
10. The man he will meet with makes us nervous. ________________________________

62. Answer the following questions using noun clauses as the object of each sentence.
Example: What is he writing? I don’t know what he is writing.

1. What is she cooking?

I don’t know _______________________________.
2. Where has Norbert gone?
Kate doesn’t want to tell me ___________________.
3. When did they come back?
I haven’t asked them ____________________.
4. How many times did he fail?
We didn’t ask him ______________________.
5. Why didn’t they help us?
They didn’t want to tell me _____________________.
6. Do you know whether we should pay here?
I must ask someone ____________________________.
7. What is your plan for tomorrow?
Mandy wanted to know _________________________.
8. How old is his wife?
I have no idea ________________________.
9. Will you be at home this evening?
I couldn’t tell her __________________________.
10. Whose car did he borrow?
He didn’t want to tell me ________________________.
11. Is he going to pay extra money for the service?
It was up to him __________________________________________.
12. Why was Mike in the hospital all day?
She didn’t explain _________________________________________.

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63. Complete the following sentences with a finite Noun Clause that functions as
appositive, adjective complement, or extraposed subject. State the function of the
clause you’ve filled in.

1. I’m not worried about the exam; on the contrary, I’m convinced _________________
________________________________________.
2. We considered her plan ____________________________________________ ridiculous.
3. It was generally agreed _____________________________________________________.
4. She didn’t want to admit the fact______________________________________________.
5. Whether it is true __________________________________________________________
___________ hasn’t been revealed yet.
6. I was very happy _________________________________________________________.
7. It is clear ________________________________________________________________.
8. We are all sure ___________________________________________________________.
9. Her dream _________________________________________ is really challenging.
10. I was under the impression _________________________________________________.

64. Complete each of the sentences with an Object Noun Clause. Use the simple form of
the verb in the subordinate clause in order to stress the importance of the statement.

1. The chairman advised ___that I (should) put forward the plan to take over the company_.
2. The doctor demands that____________________________________________________.
3. I have suggested that_______________________________________________________.
4. She recommended that _____________________________________________________.
5. It is important that _________________________________________________________.
6. Jim requests that __________________________________________________________.
7. Diana’s mother insisted that _________________________________________________.
8. It is essential that__________________________________________________________.
9. Her parents’ desire was that _________________________________________________.
10. It is necessary that _______________________________________________________.

65. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals, and so that the
meaning stays the same. Use nominal that-clauses.

1. Laura thought it would be nice of me to visit my uncle. ADVISED

Laura advised that I visit my uncle.
2. The teacher wanted her students to attend classes regularly. REQUESTED
_____________________________________________________
3. The nurse said that I should be tested for hepatitis. RECOMMENDED
_____________________________________________________
4. Jack says that the police should take action. DEMANDS
______________________________________________________

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 5. Mr. Brown wants to give his telephone number to Helen. INSISTED
______________________________________________________
6. Sue has been working a lot, so I think she should take a holiday. SUGGEST
_____________________________________________________

66. Rewrite the sentences, substituting a finite clause for the non-finite noun clauses
in bold.

1. I am surprised at his taking dancing lessons with his friends.

_______that he is taking_________
2. The Turner and Eagan families made a decision to move to the south of the country.
_____________________________
3. The man standing behind me couldn’t understand the reason for his waiting so long.
____________________________
4. The parents insisted on their children’s coming home before 10 p.m.
____________________________
5. I don’t understand her acting in such a silly way every time.
____________________________
6. Henry regrets having made a promise to take care of their dog.
____________________________
7. Before buying this jacket, ask the assistant about its being made of real leather.
____________________________
8. Most of us would support the proposal for the semester to start a week later.
____________________________
9. The boy’s strange behaviour was put down to the fact of his being brought up by only
one parent.
_____________________________
10. My having refused her help caused my being in a difficult situation now.
_____________________________ ___________________________
1. Our boss suggested our staying at work late despite our having finished all the
planned work on time.
___________________________ ___________________________
12. The committee rejected the plan for the parking place to be built near the river.
___________________________
13. Tom’s knowing a lot about the management makes his position more important.
____________________________
14. Sandra refused to believe my having told her the secret.
____________________________
15. When I buy something valuable I want to make sure of its having been produced in a
developed country.
____________________________

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67. Rewrite the sentences, substituting a non-finite or verbless clause for the finite
Noun clauses in bold. (Use –ing and infinitive forms.)

1. I’m sorry that I lost your book.

_______to have lost your book_____
2. They don’t want to admit that he managed to do it without their help.
______________________________________________
3. That someone is good at sports doesn’t mean that he/she is a good dancer.
______________________________________________
4. I remember that Sheila told me the story about her parents’ divorce.
______________________________________________
5. Whether it was built five or ten years ago, the house is in a very good condition.
_______________________________________________
6. The school officials made an agreement that any kind of discrimination in their schools
should be discussed.
______________________________________________
7. Until the political changes in the last decade of the 20th century, everyone had believed
that Europe remains unchanged.
______________________________________________
8. Now I regret that I didn’t give him my address or telephone number.
______________________________________________
9. The president of the company opposed the proposal that the budged should be cut.
______________________________________________
10. The doctor recommended that I stay in bed at least for three days.
_____________________________________________
11. Her ambition that she will become a famous pop singer will remain just a dream.
_____________________________________________
2. They insisted that I repeat my story despite the fact that they had heard it several
times.
____________________________________________
13. The homeless man denied that he had taken part in the robbery.
____________________________________________
14. When I saw the calendar with the pictures of the country, I immediately realized why it
is so much favoured.
____________________________________________
15. The fact that she can speak Hungarian helped her to get a good job at the Hungarian
Embassy in London.
____________________________________________

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68. Complete the sentences with a finite or non-finite noun clause, and state the function of
the clause you have added.

1. He wanted to know if/whether ___I had already finished the report.

2. Arguing about what ______________________________ will not end in mutual consent.
3. That ________________________________________was clear from the very beginning.
4. We were all sure that ______________________________________________________.
5. It is a common view that ___________________________________________________.
6. Never try to put off doing what______________________________________________.
7. Thinking about w___________________________________________ made her nervous.
8. He didn’t want to believe what ______________________________________________.
9. The rumour that __________________________________________ surprised everyone.
10. Her idea of a happy life is that _____________________________________________.
11. What __________________________________________________ doesn’t concern me.
12. When she saw Alice, she couldn’t tell her why__________________________________.
13. It is difficult to judge whether __________________________________________or not.
14. An arrogant man cannot understand why ______________________________________.
15. Where _______________________and what ______________________is your business.

69. Instructions as for 68

1. I didn’t believe ___________________________________________________________.
2. Whatever_________________________________________ doesn’t interest my parents.
3. It is a well-known fact _____________________________________________________.
4. Not paying attention to _____________________________________ they didn’t know the
answer.
5. Her remark ____________________________________________ upset my friend Jane.
6. The whole team was shocked by ____________________________________________.
7. It remains a mystery why __________________________________________________.
8. Henry’s opinion is _______________________________________________________.
9. Do you remember _______________________________________________________?
10. It seems __________________________________________________ and neither do I.
11. The teacher insisted that __________________________________________________.
12. It isn’t yet known where __________________________________________________.
13. Whoever___________________________________________ should ask for permission.
14. It’s not easy to find out how ______________________________________________.
15. Her mother was very disappointed_________________________________________.

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6.3 NOMINAL CLAUSES AND THE LANGUAGE OF REPORTING
To report what somebody has stated, one can either use quotation marks (direct/quoted speech)
or a that-clause (that is usually omitted):
Ann said: “I want you to read this article.” (direct speech)
Ann said (that) she wanted me to read that article. (indirect/reported speech)
Reports are often given in a different place from where the original words were spoken. and at a
later time. We usually use reporting verbs, e.g. say, tell and ask, which may be in the present or
past. The tenses of the reported statement are often affected by this.
Ann said (in the example above) is called the reporting clause and the rest of the sentence (the
nominal that-clause) is called the reported clause. In direct speech the reporting clause can be
placed after or in the middle of the reported clause and the subject (if it is not a pronoun) can be
placed after the verb of saying.
Ann said.
“I want you to read this article,” said Ann.
she said.

Reported speech (traditionally called indirect speech) is characterised by a series of formal

features which distinguish it from direct (quoted) speech. Several changes are usually made in
converting direct speech to indirect speech. The essence of these changes is to shift the deictics
of person, time and place away from the direct reference to the original speech situation and
toward the presumed situation of reporting. If the time of reporting is expressed as later than
the time of the utterance, there is generally a change of verb forms. The change is termed
backshift.

TENSES
DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
will  would
present  past
present perfect
past  past perfect
past perfect

ADVERBIALS OF TIME AND PLACE

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
here  there
now  then
tomorrow  the next day
yesterday  the day before
this  that, the

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PRONOUNS
DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
first person pronouns  third person pronouns
(I, we) (he, she, it, they)
second person pronouns  first or third person
(you) pronouns

MOOD
DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
interrogative  declarative

The problem with most pedagogic formulations is that they provide little or no account of the
semantic motivation underlying these changes. They fail to indicate that there are many
situations when there is no need to backshift, and that therefore, backshifting rules should not
be applied mechanically without understanding the underlying semantics. Applying these rules
mechanically to the following utterance, we might arrive at the following curious anomalous
sentence:

John: “I decided to study English because it was a useful language” →

John said that he had decided to study English because it had been a useful language. X

Narrative reports of speech acts involving summary, or some form of evaluation are in fact more
common than attempts to reproduce the original talk in conventional indirect speech. Usually,
we make several changes, such as shortening the original message, or adding descriptive or
evaluative phrases: For instance, the utterance:
“Dammit, man,” he shouted, and slammed his fist hard on the desk top.
might be reported as: He cursed as he slammed his fist hard on the desk top.
or:
Peter says to Ann: "There was an accident in front of my office this morning."
Ann reports it later to her friend Jane:
Peter told me that he had seen an accident in front his office that morning.
Peter didn't say that he saw it, but we suppose he did. The content remained constant, but the
language has changed.

Pedagogical accounts tend to overemphasise the use of that-clauses for the presentation of the
message content report, and fail to indicate that the message content may be expressed through
a noun phrase or, especially when we summarise, through a prepositional phrase.
"Can you tell me how many trains there are to London and when they leave?"
He inquired about trains to London.

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In reported speech we add our own words, thus there is a fundamental difference between
direct and reported (indirect) speech. Reporting is important because a huge amount of
information we get, comes from other people. People report (pass information) each other's
language.

Backshift is optional when the time reference of the original utterance is valid at the time
of reporting, refers to a permanent state, or is true as a fact:
John told me that Alison is living with her parents now. (valid)
The teacher told them that the earth moves around the sun. (true as a fact)
When I met him, he told me that his wife comes from a village in the mountains.
I heard that Tom has poor eyesight. (permanent state)

We do not generally backshift

 Past simple and progressive
Past simple does not generally change when used in a time clause. The verb in the main clause
can remain in the past or change to the past perfect.
When I got there, the place was almost empty. →
She said that when she got there, the place was / had been almost empty.
When the situation still exists in the present, the tense does not change:
We didn't stay in the hotel because it was too expensive. →
He said that they hadn't stayed in the hotel because it was too expensive.
Past progressive doesn’t change if the actions or events were at the same time:
When they arrived, I was still cooking the dinner. →
He said that when they arrived, he was still cooking the dinner.
but when the activity was completed before an event in the past, we have to backshift:
We were planning to go out, but then Joe started feeling sick. →
She said that they had been planning to go out, but then Joe started feeling sick.

 The Future if the event hasn’t happened

I'm meeting George tonight.
Eve said that she is meeting George tonight. (it is still the same day before night)
Eve said that she was meeting last/that night.

 Conditionals
The 1st conditional can be changed into 2nd.
If I have time tomorrow, I 'll visit you.
She told me that if she had time the next day, she would visit me.

We do not change 2nd conditional

If we took a taxi, we would catch the train.
Peter told me that if they took had taken a taxi, they would catch would have caught
the train.

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In the example above tenses cannot be changed because this sentence indicates that they didn't
take a taxi and thus didn't catch the train, while in the situation expressed in the first sentence
they still have a possibility to take a taxi and catch the train. But in the following sentence the
tenses are back shifted since it is obvious that I don't know the answer refers to present
unreality.
If I knew the answer, I would tell you. → If I had known the answer, I would have told you.

 Modal auxiliaries like must, ought to, and should do not normally change:
Must The teacher said: "One must eat vegetables to be healthy." →
The teacher told the students that one must eat.......
The doctor told me that I must drink a lot of water.
Can "I couldn't come yesterday".
He said he couldn't come the day before.
should (obligation)
“You should be more careful.” → I told him he should be more careful.
"I should ask my friend for help, he said. → He said that he should ask his friend for help.
will (willingness, certainty)
"I will always love you." → David said that he will always love her.
could / should, might, must + have + past part.
"The bank couldn't have sent the documents yet," Tim said. →
Tim said that the bank couldn't have sent the documents by that time.
The following modals change their form when reporting:
can - could
"I can help you," Liz said. → Liz said that she could help me.
may -might (possibility)
"The Consul may be available now".
The receptionist said that the consul might be available then.
may - could (permission)
“You may go in now," Jill said. → Jill said that I could go in at that time.
must - had to (obligation)
"You must bring 3 photographs." → He said that I had to bring 3 photographs.
Eileen said that she had to leave before 7 p.m.
should - would (after I or we)
"I should be grateful if. . ." → He said he would be grateful if . . .

In reporting we often need to make use of the interpretative skill of recognising the illocutionary
force of the original speech act (e.g. complain, apologise, agree, proclaim, threaten, etc.) and of
selecting an appropriate reporting verb:
"Have another drink." → She offered another drink.
"Let's go to the cinema this evening." → They suggested going to the cinema.
"If I were you, I'd think it over carefully before deciding." → I advised him to think
carefully before making up his mind.
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The reporting verb may be replaced by:
 reporting adjective
"I really didn't take your book." → Andrew was sure that he hadn't taken my book.
 reporting noun
"Why don't we go for a walk?" → I disagreed with her suggestion.
 reporting adjunct
The teacher said: "The library closes at 5 p.m." →
According to the teacher, the library. . .

There are various other nuances of meaning that may be expressed in choice of reporting signal
(verb, noun, adjective, adjunct). For example, a reporting signal may:
- show the purpose (illocutionary force) of the original utterance
(advise, state, suggest, offer, claim, inquire, request, warn, instruct. . .)
- include the original manner of utterance
(shout, sigh, bellow, whisper, stammer. . .)
- signal the negative context or purpose of the original utterance
(criticise, blame, belittle, ridicule. . .)
- signal how the original utterance relates to the preceding or following discourse
(reply, add, rejoin, retort, . . .)
- indicate the reporter's estimation of the truth of what is reported (to imply belief, disbelief,
or neutrality about the truth of what is reported)
(reveal, mention, admit, disclose, allege, exaggerate. . .)

6.3.1 INDIRECT QUESTIONS, EXCLAMATIONS, DIRECTIVES

The rules for reported speech apply to indirect questions as well as to exclamations, and
directives. The only difference is that for indirect questions, a wh-clause is used instead of a that-
clause. Indirect yes/no questions are introduced by whether or if. Indirect wh-questions are
introduced by the wh-word which begin the question in direct speech. Alternative questions
behave in the same way, they are generally introduced by whether. Exclamations are introduced
by wh- clause and directives by a that-clause or to-infinitive clause.

“Do you like this picture?” → She asked me whether/if I liked that picture.
“When will Tom arrive?” → Dad wanted to know when Tom would arrive.
“Did you take a bus or train?” → They asked me whether I had taken a bus or train.
“What an excellent idea it is!” → Maria said what an excellent idea it was.

With directives, there is no tense backshift in the verb forms, the mandative subjunctive, putative
should, or to-infinitive is used (see examples below).

“Stop making this noise.” → I ordered that he (should) stop that noise.
I asked him to stop that noise.

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There is also a type of indirect question in which the reported clause is a to-infinitive clause
beginning with a wh-word:

I wanted to know where to park my car. (Where should I park my car?

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EXERCISES 70-80
70. Complete the sentences below with the most suitable answer (a-d). There is only one
correct answer for each gap.
1. I had an accident and took my car to the garage. My husband asked me where ___b___.
a. is my car c. my car is e. is your car?
b. my car was d. was my car

2. The old lady next door must have a lot of cats. I don't know how many ________.
a. cats does she have c. she has cats e. cats has she
b. does she has cats d. cats she has

3. Do you know ____________ from the earth? I have no idea.

a. how far the moon is c. how the moon is far e. whether how is the moon far
b. how far is the moon d. if how far the moon is

4. Diana is playing her music too loud. I can't hear what ____________ .
a. is saying your brother c. does your brother say e. your brother says
b. that your brother is saying d. your brother is saying

5. When I left home, my uncle gave me some advice. He said __________ give up.
a. I shouldn't c. don't e. no
b. that shouldn't d. that I don't
6. Jill didn't want to go to the car show. Her husband insisted that ___________ with him.
a. she come c. she had come e. she has come
b. she came d. she comes

7. My boss wants this report immediately. He demanded that it __________ ready by 5:00.
a. is b. will be c. be d. was e. should be

8. Did he tell you where __________ the report when you finish?
a. should you put c. you put e. will you put
b. you to put d. to put

9. My friend predicted _____________ receive a lot praise for my work.

a. that I would c. what would I e. me to
b. that I d. what I

10. My friend saw an accident. He told me ____________ at the scene of the accident.
a. if he'd seen c. what he'd seen e. that he'd seen
b. what he saw d. whether he saw

11. Is it true that all movies will be available online? _______ is unbelievable!
a. That all movies will be available c. Due to the fact that all movies will be available
b. All movies will be available d. It is that all movies will be available
e. Being available all movies

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 12. Can you tell me how to fix my computer? That depends on ____________ an old
computer.
a. if you have c. that have you e. about your having
b. whether you have d. if have you

13. Is it true __________ people are saying about the new laptops?
a. that what c. if e. what
b. that d. whether or not

14. _______________ light-weight is important.

a. How a computer is c. If a computer is e. If or not a computer is
b. Is a computer d. Whether or not a computer is

15. What are you going to do with your old computer? Nothing! _________ is too expensive.
a. That I want to do c. That what I want to do e. If what I want to do
b. What I want to do d. What do I want to do

71. Match each report (1-10) with the actual words spoken (a-j).

1. Helen wondered whether we could do it.

2. Angie admitted that she might have done it.
3. My friend suggested that we do it.
4. His mother reminded him to do it.
5. George asked us to do it.
6. Robert advised me to do it.
7. Our teacher insisted that we do it.
8. Peter agreed that he would do it.
9. My parents expected me to do it.
10. Mike doubted whether he had done it.

a/ You really must do it.

b/ OK, perhaps I did it.
c/ If I were you, I would do it.
d/ Are you sure you can do it?
e/ I don’t think he did it.
f/ Don’t forget to do it, will you?
g/ Let’s do it.
h/ I thought you were going to do it.
i/ Will you do it, please?
j/ It’s all right by me if you do it.

72. Correct the mistakes in the reported questions.

1. I asked my friend how many times has she been in the French Alps.
2. They wanted to know if the postman delivered the package.
3. He couldn’t tell me what is the time.

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 4. The taxi driver asked where did I want to go.
5. My roommate didn’t want to tell where he went last night.
6. They wondered why I am so surprised that Maria will not join us.
7. The interviewer asked me what I’m planning to do tomorrow.
8. I was curious what will our new teachers look like and how old are they.
9. I didn’t ask him if he had been coming or not with us.
10. My sister wanted to know which will be better; if to take a taxi or go by bus.
11. She didn’t know what would she do after she graduates.
12. Mr. Peterson went out to check why was his dog barking tonight.

73. Circle the word in bold that correctly completes the sentence

1. The spokesperson of RGN denied/refused that they were going to reduce production.
2. George suggested/advised me to wait inside the building.
3. The police officer ordered /reminded the teenagers that they had to clean up the mess.
4. They tried to persuade /make me to stay till the end of the party.
5. Bill denied /refused to pay the bill in the restaurant.
6. The receptionist confirmed/reassured that we had booked two rooms.
7. Sandra’s mother forbid/warned her not to ride her bike on the motorway.
8. Health experts advise /recommend us to drink about 2 litres of water daily.
9. The examinee answered/ replied the examining board without hesitation.
10. The usherette mentioned/ reminded us that the performance was going to start in a few
minutes.

74. Choose the most appropriate reporting verb from the list below to complete the
sentences in reported speech.
admit mention advise explain complain insist
declare announce boast promise warn realise

1. “The deep end of the lake is dangerous for swimming today.”

One of the lifeguards ___________ us that __________________________________
2. “Oh, I’ve left my handbag in the classroom.”
Kate suddenly ______________ that _______________________________________
3. “My administration will cut taxes in this country.”
In his speech the president _____________ that ______________________________
_____________________________________.
4. “By the way, we are planning to go for holidays to France this summer.”
Our friend John ____________ that ________________________________________

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 5. “If I were you, I wouldn’t go there alone.”
Alice ______________that _______________________________________________
6. “The reason I need the money is because I’m going to buy a new car next week.”
When I asked Tom, he ___________that _____________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
7. “The concert in the park will begin at 8:00.”
The speaker on the radio ____________ that __________________________________
8. “Yes, it’s true. I’ve been cheating.”
The student _____________ that ___________________________________________
9. “The radio I bought last week doesn’t work.”
The angry customer _____________ that ____________________________________
10. “I’m much better than anyone in the team.”
My brother _____________ that ___________________________________________
11. “You simply must do it tomorrow.”
Paul’s boss ____________ that ____________________________________________
12. “I will never do such a stupid thing again.”
One of the boys ____________ that ________________________________________

75. Instructions as for 74

predict object suggest remark deny claim
promise reply protest recommend admit order

1. “You have arrested me, although you don’t have any evidence.”
The suspect _____________ that ____________________________________________
2. “I didn’t eat all the cookies.”
The little boy _____________ that ___________________________________________
3. “OK, perhaps I said it after all,” said John.
John _______________that _________________________________________________
4. “We will not get any rain tonight.”
The weathercaster _____________ that _______________________________________
5. “I don’t know the answer.”
She asked him a question, but he ___________ that ______________________________
6. “I’ll take you to the cinema after dinner.”
The children were crying, so their mother _________ that _________________________
7. “You must bring the book back today. I need it badly.”
Uncle Frank ____________ that _____________________________________________
8. “Let’s go for a walk instead of watching this stupid film.”
I ________________ that ___________________________________________________
9. “It’s much colder than yesterday.”
During lunch he looked out of the window and __________ that ____________________
_____________________________________

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 10. “You should study from different sources if you want to pass the exam.”
My classmate ____________ that ____________________________________________
11. “This is my bicycle, not John’s.”
Mark __________ that _____________________________________________________
12. “I really didn’t cause the accident.”
The driver __________ that _________________________________________________

76. Rewrite the sentences in reported speech replacing the word said by one of the
reporting verbs above the exercise to express the proper meaning. Use non-finite
structures instead of “that- clauses”.
expect remember suggest refuse apologise invite admit
demand warn offer advise remind deny insist

1. “I won’t tell you the truth.”

She ________________________________________________________________
2. “No, I really didn’t copy the answers from Ian.”
Patrick _____________________________________________________________
3. “Don’t forget to post this letter for me.”
Lea ____________________________________________________________________
4. “I thought you were going to help me with this bag.”
My mother ______________________________________________________________
5. “Would you like to come to dinner this evening?”
My boyfriend ____________________________________________________________
6. “Let’s take a short rest before we start climbing up the hill.”
The tourist guide _________________________________________________________
6 ” Have some more coffee.”
My landlady ____________________________________________________________
8. “I’m sorry that I’m late.”
Susan __________________________________________________________________
9. “We need action not empty words.”
The production manager ___________________________________________________
10. “Don’t you dare smoke in this room.”
Tim’s mother ____________________________________________________________
11. “I wouldn’t cook the meet too long, if I were you.”
Jennifer _________________Gill ____________________________________________
12. “Yes, I told her about it yesterday.”
He ___________________________________________________________________
13. “It is crucial that you take extra lessons, Jim.”
The teacher ____________________________________________________________
14. “I still have in my memory that I played cards with my grandparents.”
I still _________________________________________________________________

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77. Rewrite the sentences in reported speech replacing the word said by one of the
given reporting verbs to express the proper meaning. Use non-finite structures
instead of “that- clauses”. If needed, use appropriate prepositions after verbs.

threaten accuse blame afraid praise regret

discourage ban propose succeed pretend beg

1. “Please, don’t show this picture to my boyfriend.”

My friend ___________________________________________________________
2. “I’m sure you didn’t tell me the truth,” said the boy’s mother.
The boy’s mother ______________________________________________________
3. “Don’t go for holidays to Egypt. The situation is not good there.”
His parents tried to ____________________________________________________
4. “I’m sorry, but I don’t understand your question,” said the accused criminal.
The accused __________________________________________________________
5. “I think it’ll be a god idea to change the name of our company”
The manager _________________________________________________________
6. “I’m so frightened, I might fall down and hurt myself.”
Helen was ___________________________________________________________
7. “If it were not for you, we could have won the match.”
The coach ___________________________________________________________
8. “If my policies will not be adopted, I will resign.”
The chairman ________________________________________________________
9. “Your essay is the best, you’ve done a very good job, Harry.”
The teacher __________________________________________________________
10.” I’m so sorry that I sold my old car for so little money.”
Her best friend _______________________________________________________
11. “We managed to solve all the tasks within the time limit.”
The competitors ______________________________________________________
12.” He mustn’t drive for six months because he caused a car accident.”
He’s been ___________________________________________________________

78. Report the following questions. Use also other introductory verbs (enquire,
wonder…), or expressions (want to know, to be curious…) to introduce your reports.

1. Jim asked, “Did you buy any fruit?”

___Jim wanted to know whether I had bought some fruit. __
2. My mother asked, “Do I have to see your teacher?”
______________________________________________________________________
3. The repairman asked, “Was anyone using the Xerox a few minutes ago?
______________________________________________________________________

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 4. He asked, “Are you going to take this picture with you?
______________________________________________________________________
5. Ann asked, “Will you be ready if I come to pick you up at 5 p.m. this afternoon?”
_____________________________________________________________________
6. The manager asked, “Did you do this work on your own?”
_____________________________________________________________________
7. Mrs. Smith asked, “Is your brother coming to visit you tomorrow?”
_____________________________________________________________________
8. The old lady asked, “What’s your name?”
_____________________________________________________________________
9. Roberta asked, “Has our new boss arrived in the office yet?
_____________________________________________________________________
10. Little Jimmy asked, “Can I play with my new toy here?”
_____________________________________________________________________
11. My boss asked, “Have you been working on the report or not?”
_____________________________________________________________________
12. The instructor asked, “Do you always drive so fast?”
_____________________________________________________________________

79. Instructions same as for 78.

1. She asked, “How long have you been waiting here?”
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Dr. Norris asked, “How are you today?”
_____________________________________________________________________
3. The teacher asked, “Where did you take this article from?”
_____________________________________________________________________
4. George asked, “Whose book is on my table?”
_____________________________________________________________________
5. He asked, “How do you do it?”
_____________________________________________________________________
6. Our neighbour asked, “How can I help you with this work?”
_____________________________________________________________________
7. The teacher asked, “What are you thinking about this moment?”
_____________________________________________________________________
8. I asked, “Where was Rachel living when she met Kevin?”
_____________________________________________________________________
9. The young mother asked, “When does a baby usually say his or her first word?”
_____________________________________________________________________
10. My girlfriend asked, “Who did you meet at the party yesterday?”
____________________________________________________________________
11. He asked, “Should people be allowed to smoke here?”
____________________________________________________________________
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80. Report the following questions and answers.

1. Ronald asked, “Did you get a letter from the agency?” and I said, “Yes.”
____________________________________________________________________
2. The customer asked, “Can I have a closer look at this computer? and the shop assistant
said, “Yes.”
____________________________________________________________________
3. He asked, ‘Are they coming to take the litter today?” and I said, “No.”
____________________________________________________________________
4. Mira asked, ‘Have you met my cousin before?” and I said, “No.”
____________________________________________________________________
5. She asked, “Do you like this cake?” and I said, “Yes.”
____________________________________________________________________
6. The secretary asked, “Shall I cancel the meeting for tomorrow?” and her boss said “Yes”.
____________________________________________________________________
7. Kate asked, “Can I have a day off?” and Mr. Gethin said, “No.”
____________________________________________________________________
8. Tim asked, “Will your roommate get angry if I stay until midnight?” and I said, “No.”
____________________________________________________________________
9. Ron asked, “Is this the latest news you have told me?” and I said, “Yes.”
____________________________________________________________________
10. My colleague asked, “Can you play golf?” and I said, “No.”
____________________________________________________________________

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6.4 RELATIVE CLAUSES
Relative clauses correspond in many ways to adjectives, thus are sometimes also called adjective
clauses. A relative clause is characteristically a postmodifier in a noun phrase. It is linked to a part
or all of the main clause by a back-pointing element, a wh-word or that, which have a
grammatical role (clause element or part of clause element) in the relative clause in addition to
their linking function. Relative clauses consist of the following components: the relativizer
(relative pronoun or adverb), the head of the noun phrase, and the gap. The relativizer points
back to the head of the noun phrase, which is generally referred to as the antecedent. The gap is
a missing but understood element, which corresponds in meaning to the head noun (LGSWE,
8.7), such as in the example below where the head noun phrase is ‘an email’ to which the
relative pronoun ‘that’ refers, and the gap occurs in the direct object position (that he had
received = he had received an e-mail)

Mr Davis had been sitting on an email that he had received anonymously on March 8 for more
than two weeks. . .

Relative clauses can be introduced by relative pronouns (relativizers) – which, who, whom,
whose, and that, or relative adverbs – where, when, and why. The relative pronoun can
sometimes be omitted altogether (zero relativizer).
The choice of relativizer depends on:
 whether the noun is personal (animate) or non-personal (inanimate):
The man who asked me the way was a stranger.
The car which was following us was a new Ford.
Who is distinctive in that it is used almost exclusively with an animate head, while which is used
with a wide range of inanimate heads.

 the grammatical role of the relativizer within the clause; whether it refers to the subject or
object in the main clause:
My son who is now in Prague spent the summer in Germany. (who = my son)
The lady whom I helped carry her luggage was travelling to London. (I helped her)
Who occurs usually to refer to subject, whom refers only to object.

 whether the clause is restrictive or non- restrictive (see 6.3.1):

We have 30 men who/that are working from 6am to 5pm, so we hope to finish next
week.
I asked Mr. Halley, who (that) is our history teacher, whether he had been to Egypt.

That cannot be used in non-restrictive relative clauses (it can’t be preceded by a comma).
However, the choice among relativizers is influenced by a number of additional grammatical
factors:

107
 the pronoun whose has a syntactic role comparable to the possessive determiners and is
typically used to mark a possessive relationship between a human head noun and some other
noun phrase. It can be further used to mark other genitive relationships with completely
inanimate, sometimes abstract, head nouns.
There are at least two students in this group whose names we do not know.
The house whose owner has died is for sale.
An alternative to whose with inanimate head nouns is the phrase of which:
I’ve read a short story, the main character of which was called Norma.
Mr. Reynolds is the central figure in the picture of the members of the Royal Academy,
of which he was first President.
 the relative adverbs where, when and why are used to modify place, time and reason.
 that is used for both personal and non-personal reference
- it can’t follow a preposition
- it isn’t used in non-restrictive clauses
- can refer to subject as well as to object
- not used when the head of a relative clause is a demonstrative pronoun
I recognised a sound like that which reminded me of my childhood.
- there is a strong preference for that when the head is an indefinite pronoun
She wouldn’t do anything that would hurt me.
 the zero ralativizer, as well as whom is used only with non-subject referents
The man whom/that the boy asked for help... (who or that refer to the object = the man)
The man X the boy asked for help...

There are four structural variants for relative clauses with relative adverbials:
1. Relative adverbials that substitute for an entire adverbial:
They are going to pull down the apartments where no one lives.
I’ll never forget the day when I met you.
I don’t understand the reason why you hate him.

2. The use of relativizer which is proceeded by the preposition that marks the adverbial element
in the relative clause:
They are going to pull down the apartments in which no one lives.
I’ll never forget the day on which I met you.

3. To leave the preposition stranded in the relative clause. The relativizer is often omitted with
this option:
They are going to pull down the apartments (which/that) no one lives in.

4. To omit the preposition altogether, providing no surface marker of the adverbial. The
relativizer is often omitted in these structures:
They are going to pull down the apartments no one lives in.
I’ll never forget the day I met you.
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6.4.1 RESTRICTIVE AND NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES
Modification by relative clauses can be of two types.
RESTRICTIVE - the head can be viewed as a member of a class which can be linguistically
identified only through the modification that has been supplied. The information the relative
clause expresses “forms an integral part of the message conveyed by the independent clause as a
whole” (Huddleston, 1995:157) as in:
People who smoke cigarettes are in danger of getting lung cancer.
With regard to expression, restrictive relative clauses are clearly distinguished from the non-
restrictive type in both speech and writing. In spoken English, a restrictive relative clause
belongs, with its antecedent, to one tone group; this in turn is reflected in written English by the
lack of punctuation between the antecedent and the relative clause:
The man who/that witnessed the murder is being questioned by the police.

Restrictive relative clauses can modify indefinite pronouns, personal pronouns, and other
determiners (someone, anybody, everything, he, they, the one, those, all, etc.):
There is someone (whom) I want to meet.
Everything (that) he said was pure nonsense.
He who laughs last laughs best.
Paula was the only one I knew at the party.
Scholarships are available for those who need financial support.

NON-RESTRICTIVE - the function of the non-restrictive type is to add a further specification of

something that is already presented as specific. The head can be viewed as unique or as a
member of a class that has been independently identified. The modification given to the latter is
additional information which is not essential for identifying the head noun phrase. The relative
pronoun is who, whose, preposition + whom or which as in:
Miss Hughes, who was born in Venezuela, was admired by Mr Blunket for her feisty
character.
We asked our teacher, who teaches German, whether she had been to Berlin.
I met Mr. Blake, whose daughter is my girl-friend.
The headmaster, for whom everyone had the greatest respect, made a speech.
St. Patrick’s Cathedral, which is the most famous sight of the city, is visited by thousands of
tourists every year.

Non-restrictive relative clauses may have an expression of time or place as antecedent. The
relative adverbs where and when are used:
I’m looking forward to the end of October, when my brother arrives from France.
She recommended me the Dalton Hotel, where she had stayed several times.

If a dependent clause or phrase is non-restrictive it does not limit or define the element it
modifies. In other words, it does not restrict its meaning. If it were omitted, the meaning of the
sentence would not change much. Non-restrictive structures form a separate tone group which is
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linked to the main clause by tone concord; that is to say, they are spoken on the same tone. This
tone concord is a signal of apposition between units. In the written language, it is reflected by
commas. Most problems occur with clauses introduced by who, which or that, but non-restrictive
phrases may also cause difficulty. Non-restrictive modifiers are always set off by commas to
indicate their subordinate function in the sentence.

Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses differ in both meaning and expression. With
regard to meaning, non-restrictive relative clauses do not define subsets, as does the restrictive
type. Compare the restrictive relative clauses (a), (c) below with the non-restrictive ones of (b)
and (d):
(a) I met his brother who lives in York.
(he has more brothers and I met one of his brothers, the one who lives in York)
(b) I met his only brother, who lives in York.
(he has only one brother, which is already fully specified by only)
(c) Students who would like to apply for scholarship should fill in this form.
(only those students that want to apply for scholarship have to fill in the form not
everyone)
(d) Students, who would like to apply for scholarship, should fill in this form.
(all students in general)

SENTENTIAL relative clauses are a further non-restrictive type of relative clauses, in which the
specific antecedent is not necessarily a noun, but may be a whole clause, or any one or more
constituents. This type of relative clause is introduced by the relativizer which always proceeded
by a comma. For example:
She was late again, which made me really angry.
(her coming late made me angry)
Robert admires Mrs Randall, which surprises me.
(not Mrs Randall, but the fact that Robert admires her surprises me)

6.4.2 REDUCTION OF RELATIVE CLAUSES INTO NON-FINITE STRUCTURES

All three types of non-finite clause: -ing participle clauses, -ed participle clauses, and to- infinitive
clauses can function as postmodifier similar to relative clauses. The mentioned non-finite clauses
are, in fact, reductions of relative clauses, and are used to express the same meanings as the
finite forms.
There are two ways in which a finite relative clause can be reduced:
1. The subject pronoun and the be-form of the verb are omitted:
The boy who is playing the piano is my brother Ben.
The boy who is playing the piano is my brother Ben.

2. If there is no be-form of the verb, in the relative clause, it is sometimes possible to omit the
subject pronoun and change the verb to its –ing form:

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 English has an alphabet which consists of 26 letters.
English has an alphabet which consisting of 26 letters.
By applying the above two rules, finite restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses may be
reduced to:
-ing participle clauses
Please, hand your application form to the lady who is/will be standing at the door.
Please, hand your application form to the lady standing at the door.
All the students who want to sign up for the course should go to Room 246.
All the students wanting to sign up for the course should go to Room 246.
As the participle clause does not have tense, the action it refers to can be interpreted, according
to context, as past, present or future.

-ed participle clauses

The ideas which are presented in that article are interesting.
The ideas presented in that article are interesting.
In the library you can find valuable books that were written in the 19th century.
In the library you can find valuable books written in the 19th century.
The participle clause corresponds in meaning to a passive relative clause, but the participle
clause contains none of the distinction that can be made by tense and aspect.

to- infinitive clauses

The issue which is to/will be consulted at the meeting is none of my concern.
The issue to be consulted at the meeting is none of my concern.
He is the last person who would help us in this case.
He is the last person to help us in this case.
Neil Armstrong was the first man who stepped on the Moon.
Neil Armstrong was the first man to step on the Moon.
The next presenter who had to read his paper didn’t appear.
The next presenter to read his paper didn’t appear.

The to- infinitive resembles the other non-finite clauses in not making distinctions of tense and
aspect, so that its time reference alters according to context. The to- infinitive clause is often
preceded by next, last, ordinal numerals or superlatives. In many infinitive clauses, the head of
the noun phrase stands in the relation of object or prepositional object to the infinitive verb:
John is the right person to ask about it.
(John is the right person you/we/one/etc. should ask about it.)
There are plenty of soft drinks to choose from.
(There are plenty of soft drinks from which you can choose.)

As in nominal to-infinitive clauses (see 6.2.3), the subject of the infinitive clause may be
separately introduced by for:
There are plenty of soft drinks for you to choose from.
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Also, relative clauses that post-modify time and place can be reduced to infinitive clauses:
It will soon be the time when we have to leave.
It will soon be the time (for us) to leave
A nice picnic spot where I’d like to go is the Rocky valley.
A nice picnic spot (for me) to go is the Rocky valley.

Finite relative clauses can be reduced to prepositional phrases, noun phrases, adjective phrases,
or adverb phrases.
prepositional phrases
All the books that are on the top shelf are mine.
All the books on the top shelf are mine.
If you want to join us, write your name on the list which is at the reception.
If you want to join us, write your name on the list at the reception.
Prepositional phrases are by far the most common type of postmodifier in all registers. In many
cases, prepositional phrases can be re-phrased as full relative clauses with nearly equivalent
meaning. Prepositional phrases beginning with with often correspond to full relative clauses with
the main verb have:
They experimented with varieties which have a long maturation period.
They experimented with varieties with a long maturation period.

noun phrases (appositives)

John Smith, who is our chairman, called the meeting to order.
John Smith, our chairman, called the meeting to order.

adjective phrases
She is the woman who is responsible for the improvement.
She is the woman responsible for the improvement.

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EXERCISES 81-94
81. Underline each Relative clause (if any) in the following sentences. Then circle the
noun or pronoun modified by each clause.

1. I borrowed a book from the new library which was opened only last week.
2. The film that I saw on Sunday was not as good as the book.
3. Patrick, who celebrated his 40th birthday, looks younger than his brother who is 37.
4. Sunday is the day when I relax at home.
5. They asked me which of the two pictures I liked more.
6. The tomatoes that we are having in our salad come from the garden we planted last year.
7. By 9:30, which was almost closing time, there were no customers in the restaurant.
8. People who smoke cigarettes are in danger of getting lung cancer.
9. He had a very rude remark, which irritated his girl-friend.
10. We visited st. Vincent’s Cathedral, where my grandfather got baptised.
11. This is an ancient building the history of which goes back to the 17 th century.
12. When the auction finished, there was only one painting which hadn’t been sold.
13. I didn’t know where I should look for it.
14. Jacob has small, dark eyes, which peer inquisitively from behind metal-rimmed glasses.
15. The idea that we’ll hitch-hike didn’t appear realistic.
16. Yesterday I met a friend whom I hadn’t seen for ages.
17. New Zeeland is the country I’d like to visit when I get retired.
18. He introduced me to his roommates, one of whom I’d already met before.
19. I have lost my wedding ring, which was a shame.
20. There is always something in her stories that I don’t believe.

82. Choose the most suitable word from the ones in bold in each sentence.
1. What is the telephone number of the man that/which left this message?
2. Denver, that /which is a beautiful city, has two universities.
3. This is Sue, who/whom is going to take dancing lessons with us.
4. It is a very impressive story what/that Jason told us.
5. I’ve read all her books, some of which/them were really interesting.
6. In November, that/when the weather gets cooler, we usually start wearing boots.
7. This dog house, which/whose roof has holes in it, is very old.
8. He is a police officer which/whom I respect very much.
9. He was driving very fast, what/which was dangerous.
10. I’ve already met my new neighbours, one of them/whom is a foreigner.

83. Decide whether it is possible to leave out the relative pronoun in each sentence.

1. The old lady whom I was talking to when you saw me was Mr. Jason.
2. Is the book which you are reading interesting?

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 3. Do you like the expensive boots that are in the catalogue?
4. She is a talented actress that will be soon popular.
5. Was the man who Maria dined with her husband?
6. The message that arrived this morning bothers me.
7. Sara was ready to do all that her boyfriend thought about.
8. Tessa is not a kind of person who gets on with everyone.
9. There is no one whom I would recommend you as an expert in this field.
10. In the gallery I saw only a few pictures which impressed me.

84. Fill in the gaps with the most appropriate relativizer where needed.

1. I don’t know _______ told you that, but they were wrong.
2. It is the time _______ most restaurants and fast food stores close.
3. Diana overslept and missed her classes, _________ is unusual for her.
4. There are not many people in ________I trust.
5. I’m not sure _________ car is parked in front of our garage. I might be John’s.
6. Old age is a problem ________should concern all of us.
7. She didn’t want to reveal all _________ she knew about it.
8. Is there anything else ________ you wanted to ask me?
9. The old house _________ fence is falling into pieces is inhabited by immigrants.
10. It is the funniest story _______ I have heard.
11. The students, one of ________ is Peter’s brother, left the classroom in a mess.
12. Now I know the reason _________ she left the party so soon.
13. The fire-fighters tried to put out the fire for _________no one was to blame.
14. Mrs Grant was the first person _________ I met that morning.

85. Punctuate the following clauses according to whether they are restrictive or non-restrictive.

1. The man to whom I was just talking is one of my new colleagues.

2. My father who is more than 180cm tall played basketball in college.
3. Dr. Hurst who is our dentist is a big fan of Manchester United.
4. Martin cheated during the final exam which was stupid of him.
5. Our first grammar test which was on tenses was not easy for me.
6. I don’t like the fence which they built around this building.
7. When we were in Denver, we met John who used to be my best friend at elementary
school.
8. There was no one who could tell us the way to the nearest police station.
9. His parents live in Colorado which is a famous ski resort.
10. Mr. Ray who has just got married has been our substitute tutor for the last month.
11. Gold which is used for making jewellery is mined in different parts of the world.
12. I think the waiter who took our order spent some time in Italy.

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86. Explain the difference between the pairs of relative clauses.
1. a/ The apples which are in the basket are ripe.
b/ The apples, which are in the basket, are ripe.

2. a/ My brother who lives in Prague has two children.

b/ My brother, who lives in Prague, has two children.

3. a/ His car which is parked in front of the house was very expensive.
b/ His car, which is parked in front of the house, was very expensive.

87. Join the sentences by changing the second sentence of each pair into a relative
clause that modifies the entire statement. (oral exercise)

1. Janice brought his pet tortoise to class. This surprised the teacher.
2. Adrian missed the bus and came late to work. This caused him troubles with his director.
3. He is not on the telephone, and this makes it difficult to get in touch with him.
4. The little boy was brought up in a broken family. This affected his behaviour.
5. Few people attended last week’s lecture. This was a pity, since important issues were
discussed.

88. Combine the following main clauses into one complex sentence by changing one
clause into a relative clause. Be careful of punctuation.
1. Mathew scored the winning goal. He was playing with the team for the first time.
__Mathew, who was playing with the team for the first time, scored the winning goal.
2. The tsunami caused widespread damage. It swept some villages into the ocean.
____________________________________________________________________
3. The families lost everything in the storm. Their homes and cars were completely destroyed.
________________________________________________________________________
4. Dick hasn’t given an explanation. He decided to drive instead of fly.
_______________________________________________________________________
5. Isn’t that the movie studio? He made many of his films in it.
_______________________________________________________________________
6. The man has just arrived in London. We spoke to him.
_______________________________________________________________________
7. They are now living in Houston. Mark’s company is located there.
_______________________________________________________________________
8. His book is in the library. The book is for the graduate students.
_______________________________________________________________________
9. Their house was almost destroyed. The roof of the house was blown off by strong wind.
___________________________________________________________________

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 10. They will not move until May. The weather is warm enough for travelling at this time of
year.
_______________________________________________________________________
11. Harvard has always been a prestigious university. It is in Massachusetts.
_______________________________________________________________________
12. He is really a very intelligent student. All his professors respect him.
_______________________________________________________________________
13. He sat on a chair and fell down. The leg of the chair was broken.
_______________________________________________________________________
14. Dr. Jones is undoubtedly an excellent surgeon. I have much respect for him.
_______________________________________________________________________
15. We came within sight of Mont Blanc. Its summit has attracted a lot of climbers.
_______________________________________________________________________

89. Combine the following clauses into one sentence using a relative clause.

1. You shouldn’t listen to anything. They say it.

You shouldn’t listen to anything (that) they say.
2. The worst is that I’ll have to do it on my own. This can happen.
__________________________________________________________________
3. The teacher has checked all the essays. She didn’t like some of them.
_________________________________________________________________
4. Everyone said that Jill started it. They witnessed the row.
__________________________________________________________________
5. Paul and his brother are saying the same thing. I believe none of them.
__________________________________________________________________
6. The most expensive tickets were 30 dollars. I have bought them.
__________________________________________________________________
7. We were given two difficult tasks. I managed to solve both of them.
__________________________________________________________________
8. He introduced me to his new friends. I’ve already met one of them.
__________________________________________________________________
9. He promised to do anything. I asked him to do it.
__________________________________________________________________
10. The team members decided to take extra lessons. The youngest of them is my brother.
__________________________________________________________________

90. Replace the finite clauses in italics by non-finite clauses, or appositive phrases.

1. The students who are taking Professor Hughes’ lesson are enjoying it.
taking Professor Hughes’ lesson________________

116
 2. The new house which is built on the corner of this street was designed by my uncle.
______ __________________________________________
3. Mr. Jordan, who is my husband’s colleague, has won a new car.
________________________________________________
4. The violence that exists in every country today has upset many people around the world.
________________________________________________
5. Patients who suffer with heart disease, which is the major illness that exists in the Western
world today, can benefit from laughter.
________________________________________________
6. Companies that have been already computerised realised that the number of staff that was
needed for stock- control can be substantially reduced.
________________________________________________
7. The tourists who intend to take a boat trip should write their names on the list which is at
the reception.
________________________________________________
8. There are about five proposals that will be discussed at the meeting.
________________________________________________
9. The damaged car which is carrying dangerous chemicals is in danger of falling into the
ditch.
________________________________________________
10. We spent our holiday in the town which had suffered disastrous floods the previous year.
________________________________________________
11. There are still a lot of questions that must be answered before we decide what to do.
________________________________________________
12. Only the students who had asked for special permission were allowed to leave the course.
________________________________________________

91. Combine the following sentences using participle, infinitive, noun, prepositional
phrases, or verbless clauses.

1. The new hotel will be opened next week. It has 35 bedrooms, a restaurant and a bar.
________________________________________________
2. Unfortunately, there are numerous terrorist organizations. They operate around the world.
________________________________________________
3. The house is for sale. It is next to ours.
________________________________________________
4. Most of the forests have now been destroyed. They once covered our hills.
________________________________________________
5. He took me to see the old farmhouse. It was rebuilt last year.
________________________________________________

117
 6. The police found a bag full of money. The money was taken in the robbery.
________________________________________________
7. The old building, which was once a majestic castle, is now in ruins.
________________________________________________
8. Here is the book that you must read for the seminar.
________________________________________________
9. The girl who is behind you is Mrs. Egan’s daughter.
________________________________________________
10. That is Gina, who is a fashion model and has a pet monkey.
________________________________________________

92. State whether the subordinate clauses in the following sentences are noun clauses
or relative clauses.

1. The announcer reported whose name was mentioned as a possible candidate for the
presidency. ________
2. Nervous students usually forget everything that they have studied. ________
3. She didn’t agree with the proposal that the system should be changed. ________
4. Can you recall where they have put the present for Jean? ________
5. The idea that occurred to me seemed to be very challenging. ________
6. The fact that she has cheated really bothers me. _______
7. They didn’t believe the rumour that Ken and Jane had got divorced. ________
8. He asked me where I’d met my fiancée. _______
9. Jennifer prepared for her children a breakfast that was good and nutritious. _______
10. We were not able to answer the question whether it was right or not. ________

93. Rewrite each sentence in a way that the meaning stays the same and the new
sentence contains a relative clause. Start as shown and make necessary omissions.

1. I enjoyed reading this book very much.

This is the book (that) I enjoyed reading very much.
2. If someone manages to lift this rock, they are stronger than I am.
Anyone _________________________________________________________
3. She had promised us a lot of things, which she later regretted.
She _____________________________________________________________
4. The old car has broken down.
The car __________________________________________________________
5. I won’t help you any more.
This _____________________________________________________________
6. We were working until 9:30 p.m. and then finally stopped.
We were working until 9:30, at ________________________________________

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 7. I won’t recommend anyone to tutor you.
There is __________________________________________________________
8. We spent our honeymoon at this hotel.
This is the hotel ____________________________________________________
9. My cousin’s dog has already won two competitions.
This is my cousin ___________________________________________________
10. They usually go for holidays late July.
Late July is the time _________________________________________________

94. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals and so that the
meaning stays the same. Use relative clauses if possible.

1. The teacher didn’t notice the cheating students. WHO

___ The teacher didn’t notice the students who were cheating.
2. We highly respect Dr. Irwing, an expert in biology. WHOM
____________________________________________________
3. It was a pity that he lost the last game. WHICH
____________________________________________________
4. I met my boyfriend for the first time in this restaurant. WHERE
____________________________________________________
5. The Jaguar in our garage belongs to my uncle. He is a wealthy man. WHOSE
____________________________________________________
6. I miss my Granny more than anyone. THAT
____________________________________________________
7. I was not accustomed to that kind of treatment. WHICH
____________________________________________________
8. I have many friends, some are foreigners. WHOM
____________________________________________________
9. I don’t remember the date of their wedding. WHEN
____________________________________________________
10. Diana was my best friend I told my secrets to. WHOM
____________________________________________________
11. The winner of the race will get an award of $1000. WHO
____________________________________________________
12. Any student wanting to apply for scholarship should fill in this form. WHOEVER
____________________________________________________

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6.5 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Adverbial clauses modify a verb, adjective, adverb, or main clause. They function as adverbials in
the main clause, generally as adjuncts and disjuncts. As with adverbials in general, they are
optional and have some freedom of positioning; both initial and final placement are common.
Adverbial clauses are regularly marked by a subordinator indicating the relationship to the main
clause. In the case of most finite adverbial clauses, a subordinator must be used. Clauses in a few
semantic categories have alternative forms for finite clauses. Non-finite clauses usually occur
without a subordinator; however, they may also occur with subordinators. With adverbial
clauses, then, speakers and writers have choices in: whether to use a subordinator and which
particular subordinator to use.
As with non-clausal adverbials, adverbial clauses, both finite and non-finite, are used to realise
time, place, manner, reason/cause, purpose, result, concession, condition, and comparison.

meaning subordinator
time after, as, before, once, since, till, until, when, while, whilst, as soon as,
as long as, now that, by the time
place where, wherever
manner as, as if, as though
reason/cause because, as, since, seeing (that)
result so (that), such that
purpose so that, in order that
condition if, unless, even if, only if, in case (that), whether or not, in the event (that),
provided (that), on condition that, as long as, whenever, wherever
concession although, though, even though, even if, whereas, while, whilst
contrast whereas, while
comparison than, as, as if, as though
preference rather than

Time: When she gets her driving license, her father will buy her a new car.
Place: Wherever you go there’s such an ordeal.
Manner: He inspected my passport suspiciously as if he thought it was counterfeit.
Reason: David should have gone to the party because it would be a way for him to make
friends and meet people.
Purpose: He turned the radio down so that the child could fall asleep.
Condition: Well, I’m going to feel lucky if my car isn’t towed.
Concession: Although she was very busy, Natalie was willing to help us.
etc.
In addition to these semantic categories, adverbial clauses fit other semantic categories that are
not found with non-clausal structures. Clauses can be used to show preference and proportion.
Furthermore, there is a type of non-finite adverbial clause which cannot be typically classified
into any one semantic category. These supplementive clauses, typically –ing clauses, have been
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designated as a separate category. They have an implicit and somewhat ill-defined relationship
with the main clause.

(a) He shook his head, still gazing at the patterns of sunshine on the grass outside the hut.
(b) Watching him as the days went by, Angela had noticed signs of physical decline.
(c) She was very much as she had expected to be, having found in her marriage nothing to
surprise her.
In these structures, the relationship between supplementive adverbial clause and main clause is
left indeterminate. For example, we might interpret all three of the above examples as denoting
time relationships; concurrent time in (a) and (b), and a series of events in (c). However, the
adverbial clause in (a) could also be considered as manner adverbial, and the adverbial clause in
(b) and (c) could be interpreted as reason clauses. Thus, rather than try to specify a single
meaning for such clauses, we simply acknowledge them as showing a circumstance that
supplements the action or state in the main clause.

Semantic analysis of adverbial clauses is complicated by the fact that many subordinators
introduce clauses with different meanings (the same subordinator can have different
meanings); thus, the type of clause can be determined only by examination of the function of the
clause:

(1) He did his work as his boss had instructed.

(2) Fred can’t speak English as well as he writes it.
(3) Tim Collins decided to spend his holiday in Austria as he had never been there before.
(4) As she was posting the letter, she realized that she hadn’t put a stamp on the
envelope.

Each of the adverbial clause above is introduced by the same subordinator, but they have
different meanings: (1) manner, (2) comparison, (3) reason, and (4) time.

Adverbial clauses and long modifying phrases that are placed at the beginning of a sentence and
thus precede the main clause are usually SEPARATED from the main clause by a COMMA:
Although it can be very harmful, people judge the success of a holiday by the suntan.
Before penicillin and other antibiotics were developed, pneumonia was often fatal.

When an adverbial clause follows the main clause, NO COMMA is used if the dependent clause is
closely related to the meaning of the sentence:
I went to the theatre every month x when I lived in New York.

If a following dependent clause is only loosely related to the main clause and would be preceded
by a distinct pause in speech, it is separated from the main clause by a comma:
Their new house will be finished by summer, unless, of course, unexpected delays occur.

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6.5.1 CLAUSES OF TIME
Finite adverbial clauses of time are most commonly introduced by such subordinators as when,
as, after, before, while, until, since.

He was astonished when Paula responded to their music with rough and rude slang.
While Nikki is at college, her children will be attending a local school.
He abandoned the attack after the woman screamed and bit him several times.
As you stand holding your glass, you see into the bedroom.

An adverbial clause of time relates the time of the situation in its clause to the time of the
situation in the main clause. Depending in large part on the subordinator, the time of the main
clause may be previous to that of the adverbial clause (until), simultaneous with it (while), or
subsequent to it (after). The time relationship may also convey duration (as long as), recurrence
(whenever), and relative proximity (just after). Clauses of time can come at the beginning of the
sentence, or be placed after the main clause.
In adverbial clauses of time present tense is used, not future.
After she graduates, she will leave the country for two months.
I’ll speak to you when I come back.
Future tense appears in reported speeches and reported questions in nominal clauses:
She wants to know when they will come. (nominal clause)

The subordinators used to introduce adverbial clauses of time have the following meanings:
when = at the time
while, as = during that time
by the time = one event is completed before another event
since = from that time to the present
until, till = to that time and then no longer
as/so long as = during all that time, from beginning to end
whenever = any time

Note:
When may also introduce a relative clause and a noun clause. Here, the clauses are not
reversible:
He spoke of the time when he was a boy. (relative clause, modifies the noun ‘time’)
Please tell me when they will have their wedding. (noun clause as object of the main
clause)

6.5.1.1 REDUCTION OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF TIME INTO MODIFYING PHRASES

Adverbial clauses of time beginning with after, before, while, and since can be reduced into
modifying phrases (non-finite clauses), and the ways in which the changes are made are the
same as those when changing relative clauses to phrases (6.3.2):

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1. Omit the subject of the dependent clause and the be form of the verb:
While I was walking to class, I ran into Kelly. → While walking to class, I ran into Kelly.

2. if there is no be form of the verb, omit the subject and change the verb to ing- form.
Before I left for work, I had had several phone calls. → Before leaving for work, . . .

An adverbial clause can be changed to a modifying phrase only when the subject of the adverbial
clause and the subject of the main clause are identical.
While the teacher was lecturing, Roger fell asleep.
While lecturing Roger fell asleep. – means that ‘Roger was lecturing, and he fell asleep.’

Non-finite adverbial clauses can be used with or without subordinators.

-ing clauses:
Since Mary came to this country, she has made a lot of friends.
Since coming to this country, Mary has made a lot of friends.

After he (had) finished his homework, he went to bed.

After finishing his homework, he went to bed.
After Having finished his homework, he went to bed.

-ed and verbless clauses:

[When he was] asked by journalists about the refugee problem, he ignored the question.
The students were waiting outside the classroom until [they were] told to enter.
He promised to come as soon as [it was] possible.

To- infinitive clauses without a subordinator or a subject may have temporal function, expressing
the outcome of the situation:
He hurried home only to find the house empty. (He hurried home and found...)

6.5.2 CLAUSES OF PLACE

Adverbial clauses of place are introduced by where or wherever. Where is specific and wherever
is non-specific. The clause may indicate position or direction.
I parked my car where I usually leave it.
She wanted to go wherever she could find a quiet and peaceful place. [‘to any place
where’]

The subordinate clauses modify the verbs (parked, wanted to go) in the main clauses, telling us
where I parked my car and wanted to go.
Note that where may introduce a relative clause (1) or a nominal clause (2):
(1) Do you remember the place where we first met?
(2) Perhaps you could show me where you put it.

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Where in sentence (1) modifies the noun ‘place’, not the verb in the main clause, so the
subordinate clause is a relative clause. The subordinate clause where you put it in sentence (2)
functions as an object as it answers the question What can you show me?; therefore, it is a
nominal clause.

6.5.3 MANNER CLAUSES

Adverbial clauses of manner modify the verbs in the main clauses telling us how the action or
event was performed. They are introduced by as, as if, and as though.
He solved the problem as one might have expected.
My brothers swim as if they were fish.
She acted as though she had never met her.

Usually the idea following as if/as though is “untrue”. In this case, verb usage is similar to that in
conditional sentences:
He is not a child, but she talked to him as if he were a child.
She did not fall into the river. She looked as though she had fallen into the river.
Tom will be here. → They spoke as if he wouldn’t be here.
The simple past is used in the manner clause if the action (situation, event, state) expressed by
the verb in the main clause and in the subclause relate to the same time, but the past perfect
tense must be used if one relates to previous time.

6.5.4 REASON AND CAUSE CLAUSES

In general reason clauses convey a direct relationship with the main clause. The relationship may
be that of:
cause – effect Harry is a fast runner because he trains a lot.
reason – consequence Because they were very hungry, they had a big hamburger.
motivation – result As she is my best friend, I’ll support her.
circumstance – consequence Since the weather has become colder, we won’t go out.

The subordinators because and since are most commonly used to introduce result clauses as well
as cause. Cause and reason are overlapping notions (both answering the question Why?). Other
subordinators used to express the above-mentioned relationship are as, now that, and seeing
that, which have a meaning very close to as and since. Now that has also an element of time
meaning.
William stayed at home because he had a sore throat and temperature.
Since we had nothing really to do, we were lying on the beach.
As I didn’t myself know about it, I could not tell her.
Now that the weather has improved, we’ll be able to enjoy the picnic.

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6.5.4.1 EXPRESSING CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIP IN NON-FINITE CLAUSES
Often an ing- phrase at the beginning of a sentence gives the meaning of ‘because’. The
subordinator because is not used in the non-finite clause. It is omitted, but the resulting phrase
expresses a cause and effect relationship.
Example of a non-finite clause of reason and cause:
Needing some money, she cashed a check.
(Because she needed some money, she cashed a check.)
Having seen that film before, I don’t/didn’t want to go again.
(Because I have/had seen that film before...)
Having nothing really to do, we were lying on the beach. . .
(As I had really nothing to do...)
Having heard nothing further from him, we assumed he wasn’t coming.
(Since we had heard nothing/hadn’t heard anything...)

A form of ‘be’ in the adverbial clause is often changed to ‘being’.

Because she was unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle.
Being unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle.
x Unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle.

Reason and cause can be expressed also by prepositions because of and due to, which have to
be followed by a noun phrase, not an adverbial clause:
Because of the cold weather, we stayed at home.

6.5.5 RESULT CLAUSES

Result is opposite of cause. Result (cause-effect relation) can be expressed by a subordinate
clause introduced by means of structures so...that and such...that:
The meaning of Because the weather was nice, we decided to go to the beach.
cause effect
can be expressed by a result clause:
The weather was so nice that we decided to go to the beach.
It was such nice weather that we decided to go to the beach.

The structures above may have the following patterns:

so + adj./adv. + that (so slowly that)
so + quantifier + noun + that (so much work that)
such + a (an)+ adj. + sg. noun + that (such a pretty girl)
such + adj. + pl. noun + that (such nice pictures)
such + adj. + mass noun + that (such cold water)
such + adj. + abstract noun + that (such passionate love)

Placing such or so at the beginning of the sentence will result in inverted word order:
Such an energetic woman was his mother that ....., So energetic was his mother that ........
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As it was mentioned in 5.2.1.1, The relationship of result can be expressed also by coordinating
conjunction so and conjunctive adverbs (linking adverbials) therefore, consequently and as a
result.
I didn’t have any change, so I couldn’t give the beggar anything.
He had forgotten to set his alarm clock; therefore, he overslept.

6.5.6 PURPOSE CLAUSES

The intended result or purpose of an action is usually expressed by a to- infinitive clause
preceded by in order and so as, but may also be expressed by a finite clause introduced by so
that or more formally by in order that.
We were in a hurry (in order) to catch the last train.
Greta spent her holidays in Munich (so as) to improve her German.

Finite purpose clauses require a modal auxiliary (can, could, will, would, may, might, depending
on the time referred to in the main clause:
Mum turned off the radio so that Joan could study.
I’m taking my umbrella so that I will not get wet.
They were whispering so that they would not disturb the lecturer.

Sometimes, it is difficult to distinguish between result and purpose clauses when both they are
introduced by so that. Compare:
1/ The doctor explained the nature of my illness in medical terms, so that I didn’t understand
fully.
2/ The doctor explained the nature of my illness in medical terms so that I shouldn’t understand
fully. (So that I shouldn’t understand fully, the doctor explained…)

The clauses in the second sentence are reversible (can change position), so the subclause is a
purpose clause.

6.5.7 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

In general, conditional clauses convey a direct condition in that the situation in the main clause is
directly dependent on the situation in the conditional clause.
If I were rich, I would go on a world cruise.

The conditional clause above tells us what condition would have to be fulfilled in order to make
my going on a world cruise possible. In other words, the truth of the statement ‘I would go on a
world cruise’ depends on the fulfilment of the condition of my being rich.

The most common subordinators for conditional clauses are if and unless, which are also used
with non-finite and verbless clauses. Other conditional subordinators are restricted to finite

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clauses: as long as, in case, on condition that, only if, provided (that), providing (that),
supposing (that, whether or not.
Unless the lessons are very cheap, I won’t be able to take any. (unless = if not)
I will enjoy living with my friends as long as they keep the apartment clean.
If they keep it clean, I will stay with them.
In case they become too messy, however, I’m going to save enough money to get my
own apartment.
The ceremony will be held inside only if it rains.
When only if introduces the sentence, there is subject-verb inversion in the main clause:
Only if it rains, will the ceremony be held inside.

The conditional clause often precedes the main clause, but it may also come after it. Present
tense, not future, is used in a conditional clause after the subordinator even though the verb in
the conditional clause may refer to a future event or situation.
Some conditional clauses express an indirect condition, in that the condition is not related to the
situation in the main clause:
If you remember your history lessons, the war was started by the other side.
If you are going my way, I need a lift.

It is often suggested that there are three types of conditional clauses. This hypothesis is based on
the fact that three different forms can be used after if in conditional clauses. Thus, the
supposition is concerned with the way the conditional is formed and not with the underlying
meanings of the forms used. There are a number of variations in the tenses or verb forms that
can be used in conditional sentences.

Conditional clause Main clause example

Type zero if + present present If we heat water, it boils.
generally If I stay out late, I always get a taxi home.
true
Type 1 if + present future forms If he is at home, Jean will visit him.
Likely (pres. perfect) imperative If Bob’s got the message, he’ll phone you.
to happen can, should can/could If I can finish early, I’ll come.
may/might If I should see him, I’ll tell him the news.
should /ought to If you need any help, call me.
must If you come late, I might be in bed.
Type 2 if + past would + inf. If you were coming with me, I’d give you
hypothetical, could/might a lift.
unlikely If you asked him, I’m sure he would do it.
to happen If we had more money, we could go out.

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Type 3 if+ past perfect would + perf. infinitive If she had called me, I would have come.
unfulfilled If you had worked harder, you would
condition in have passed the exam.
the past

In addition to all the tense variations that we can use in the first, second and third conditionals, it
is also possible to mix conditionals so that, for example, the if clause uses a verb form used in the
first conditional and the main clause uses a verb form used in the third conditional. The context
defines the meaning.
If I had eaten my breakfast, I wouldn’t be hungry now. 3rd + 2nd
If you come to the party tomorrow, I wouldn’t bring Mike with you. 1st + 2nd
If she loved him, she would have stayed with him. 2nd + 3rd

Conditional clauses are like questions. Because they indicate uncertainty, they usually contain
non-assertive items, such as any, ever, yet, etc. instead of assertive ones like some, always,
already: If you ever touch me again, I’ll scream.
She is taking a stick with her in case she has any trouble.

When we base our hypothesis on underlying meanings (semantic categories), it should be noted
that clauses of condition can be further divided into three subcategories; they can present:
an open (also called real), hypothetical (also called unreal), and rhetorical condition

OPEN conditionals are neutral because the truth or falsehood of what the sentence describes is
‘open’, ie unknown. Open conditionals leave unresolved the question of the fulfilment or non-
fulfilment of the condition, and hence also the truth of the proposition expressed by the main
clause. Open conditional expresses a real possibility that an event or action might occur in the
present or future or could have occurred in the past. There are three main types of open
(possible, real) conditional:
present and past habit
If you feel seasick, take one of these tablets.
If Colin is in London, he is undoubtedly staying at the Hilton.
If she saw even the smallest fly trapped in a jar, she would be upset.

Here if can be replaced by whenever. It indicates a habit or continually repeated situation that
may occur at any time, or that used to occur regularly in the past. The sentences above leave
unresolved whether you feel seasick, Colin is in London, or she saw a fly, and thus we don’t know
whether ‘you take a tablet ‘or ‘Colin is staying at the Hilton’, etc.
deductions
If he wins today, he stands a good chance of being selected.
If the rains don’t come again this year, the country will not have enough water.
If it rains next month, there should be enough water to last until monsoon comes.
If you wanted to control your finances, you’d welcome a Home-owners Loan plan.
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Here the speaker is making a deduction about future possibilities or attitudes. Both the present
and past tenses may be used. The use of the past, however, usually reflects a greater
uncertainty.
future possibilities
If two more people join, we can run the course.
If two more people joined, we could run the course.
If you are thinking of buying a new house, ask your parents for advice.
If Hillary is in good mood, she will certainly help you.
Here the speaker is talking about possible events or actions in the future. Once again, the use of
the past tense shows the speaker is less certain.
When speaking of a future possibility, will is rarely used in the if clause. Will can be used to
emphasise a determination and possible habit on the part of the subject. Would is used
similarly to express a past habit:
If you will arrive late, you must expect to miss the food.
If you would arrive late, you must have expected to miss the food.

A conditional is not always expressed with an if clause. On some occasions (more formal) an
• inversion form can be used:
Should he come home after seven, he always brings some flowers. (If he should…)
Were it to rain on Saturday, we wouldn’t go to the fair. (If it were to rain…)
Were my father alive, he would be 85 now. (If my father were alive…)
Had it not been for his kindness, he would have ended up as a homeless.
(If it hadn’t been…)
• the imperative and a co-ordinating clause:
Start a saving account now, and we’ll give you $100.
Don’t come closer, or he’ll hit you.

HYPOTHETICAL conditional, on the other hand, conveys the speaker’s belief that the condition
will not be fulfilled, (for future conditions), is not fulfilled (for present conditions), or was not
fulfilled (for past conditions) and hence the probable or certain falsity of the proposition
expressed by the main clause. It expresses an imaginary situation. There are three types of
hypothetical (impossible) conditional.
 impossible now (or improbable future)
If you had a video, you could record it yourself tonight.
(But you don’t have a video, so you won’t be able to.)
If my father were alive, he would be 85 now. (But he is dead, so he isn’t.)

 non-existent past (referring to the present)

If you had a video, you could have recorded it yourself last night.
(But you don’t have a video, so you weren’t able to do it.)
If my father were alive, he would have been 85 last week.
(But he is dead, so he wasn’t.)
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 non-existent past (referring to the past)
If you had had a video, you could have recorded it yourself last night.
(But you didn’t have, so you didn’t record the programme.)
If the car had started, I would have been on time.
(But the car didn’t start.)

In all these examples we are looking at events or situations which cannot occur or didn’t occur.
With the past form of the verb to be, were is used instead of was in the if clause.
If I were you ..., If she/he were…

RHETORICAL conditional clauses give the appearance of expressing an open condition, they are
less common form of a conditional, but combined with the main clause, they make a strong
assertion:
If you believe that, you will believe anything.
(You should not believe that, or You certainly can’t believe that.)
If she is 18, I’m 21.
(It can’t be true that she’s 18, as it’s not true that I’m 21.)
If she’s beautiful, Maria is Miss Universe.
(Since Maria is obviously not Miss Universe, she is certainly not beautiful.)
In the examples above, the proposition in the main clause is absurd, and the proposition in the
conditional clause is shown to be false.

6.5.7.1 NEGATIVE CONDITION

Negative condition can be expressed by unless.
Stamford will be dropped from the team unless he improves his performance.
(The only way Stanford can stay in the team is to improve his performance.
If he doesn’t improve it, he’ll be dropped.)
Sharon always comes unless she’s ill.
(The only reason she wouldn’t come would be if she were ill.)

Unless is used only for real conditionals. With hypothetical conditionals we must use if... not, or
but for + noun phrase:
If it hadn’t been for John, we would have lost the match.
(If John hadn’t played well, we would have lost the match.)
But for John, we would have lost the match.
As with other conditionals, there are alternative ways of expressing negative condition by
coordinating conjunctions such as:
▫ conjunctive adverb: Stamford should improve; otherwise, he will be dropped.
▫ central coordinator: You’d better hurry, or you’ll be late.

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6.5.7.2 ALTERNATIVE CONDITIONS
The conditional meaning of if is combined with the meaning of either...or in the correlative
conjunctions whether...or, which specify two contrasting conditions:
You’ll have to pay, whether you like it or not. (...if you like it, or even if you don’t).
Whether trained or not, Marilyn is doing an excellent job.
The ceremony will be held outside, whether it rains or not.
(rain doesn’t matter, it will be held outside, anyway)

The statement in the main clause is true in ‘any of the conditions’ covered by the subclause. The
concessive meaning comes from the implication that it is unexpected for the same situation to
apply under two contrasting conditions.

6.5.7.3 UNIVERSAL CONDITIONAL-CONCESSIVE CLAUSES

A similar meaning as in 6.3.2.1 above, is present in the conjunctions whatever, whoever,
wherever, etc. The universal conditional-concessive clause indicates a free choice from any
number of conditions. The statement in the main clause is true in any of the conditions covered
by the subclause.
She looks pretty, whatever she wears. (She looks pretty even if she wears ugly clothes.)
Wherever he goes, he makes friends.
The same meaning can be expressed by an adverbial clause beginning no matter wh-:
She looks pretty, no matter what she wears.
Whatever your problem is, it can’t be worse than mine.
Don’t let them in, whoever they may be.
However hard you may try, you won’t be able to do it.

6.5.8 CLAUSES OF CONCESSION AND CONTRAST

A type of adverbial meaning that overlaps with conditional meaning is that of concession and
contrast (also called opposition).
 CONCESSIVE clauses indicate that the situation in the main clause is contrary to what we might
expect in view of the situation in the concessive clause. Concessive clauses are introduced
chiefly by although, even if, even though, and though.
We are enjoying ourselves, although/though the weather is bad.
Even though he had seen her only once, he recognised her face in the crowd.

Even though is slightly more emphatic than though. Even though cannot be shortened to even.
The ideas of condition (if) and implied contrast (even) are combined in the conjunction even if:
I always enjoy sailing, even if the weather is rough.
Even though I wasn’t sleepy, I went to bed.
(In spite of the fact that I wasn’t sleepy, I went to bed.)

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The meaning of even though can be expressed (rather formal style) by special constructions with
adjectives or adverbs followed by as:
Much as I would like to help, I have other work I must do.
(Even though I would like to help very much, I have...)
Strange as it may seem, nobody was injured in the car accident.
(Even though it may seem strange, ...)
Tired as I was, I continued working in the greenhouse.

Except for whereas, the subordinators may introduce non-finite and verbless clauses:
Although approving the plan in general, the committee expressed several objections.
Though over eighty, she is still very active.

Besides the above-mentioned subordinators, unexpected result can be expressed also by

independent clauses using:
▫ coordinating conjunctions but, but...anyway, but...still, yet...still
He hadn’t eaten for days, but he looked strong and healthy.
It was raining, but we went swimming anyway.
David didn’t study for the test, but he still passed it.
No one asked her to come, yet she still joined us.
▫ conjunctive adverbs nevertheless, nonetheless and however
It was dark; however, they went for a walk.
▫ prepositions despite, in spite of
They went for a walk in spite of darkness.
Despite the fact that he’s Russian, he speaks without a strange accent.

 To show CONTRAST (direct opposition) between two equivalent ideas, we use while and
whereas. They may be used with the idea of either clause with no difference in meaning.
Contrast clauses give the idea that ‘just the opposite is true’.
Elizabeth is lively and talkative, whereas / while her sister is quiet and reserved.
Whereas Elizabeth is lively and talkative, her sister is quiet and reserved.

It does not make any difference which idea comes first and which comes second. The two ideas
are directly opposite. Direct opposition can be expressed by use of conjunctive adverbs however,
on the other hand, and on the contrary:
Elizabeth is lively and talkative; however, her sister is quiet and reserved.
Nicolas is very good at math; on the contrary, he has difficulties with languages.
They are not rich. On the other hand, they are poor.

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6.5.9 CLAUSES OF SIMILARITY AND COMPARISON
For both similarity clauses and comparison clauses, there is a semantic blend with manner if the
verb is dynamic.
 Clauses of SIMILARITY are introduced by as and like (AmE). These subordinators are commonly
pre-modified by just and exactly.
Please do (exactly) as I said.
It was (just) like I imagined it would be.

 Clauses of COMPARISON are introduced by as, as if, as though, than, which are followed by a
clause, and like (AmE)., which is followed by a noun object (in informal Engl. also by a clause).
It looks as if / as though it is going to rain.
It looks like rain.
If the comparison is hypothetical, verb usage is similar to that in conditional clauses – subjunctive
or hypothetical past.
She behaved as if she were / had been a child. (She is not a child.)
He acted as though he had never met him. (He has met him.)
His stepfather treated him kindlier than any real father would have done.
The subordinators as, as if, as though can introduce non-finite and verbless clauses:
She winked at me as if to say that I shouldn’t say anything.
Fill in the application form as instructed.

In comparative clauses, a proposition expressed in the main clause is compared with a

proposition expressed in the subordinate clause. Comparison includes comparisons of
equivalence (as...as), non-equivalence (-er... than), comparisons of sufficiency (enough...to), and
excess (too...to). Words that are repeated in both clauses may be omitted in the subordinate
clause.
Jane is as healthy as her sister is.
Jane is healthier than her sister is.
Roderick is sensitive enough to understand your feelings.
Marilyn was too polite to say anything about his behaviour.

6.5.10 OTHER TYPES OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

In addition to the above semantic categories, adverbial clauses fit other semantic categories that
are not found with non-clausal structures. Clauses can be used to show exception, preference,
proportion, and comment.
 Clauses of EXCEPTION are introduced by but that (formal), except (informal), except that, only
(informal), and less frequently excepting (that).
I would write her a letter, except that I don’t have anything else to do.
Harry would have gone to the party, only Terry advised him not to.

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 Clauses of PREFERENCE are usually non-finite and may be introduced by subordinators rather
than, sooner than, which are followed by the bare infinitive or –ing.
The architects recommended the city build more apartments in urban areas, rather than
sacrifice rural open spaces. (they prefer to build apartments in urban areas)
It might be worthwhile to spend more time thinking how we might build humans to
systems, sooner than designing them out in the pursuit of technical advances.
The same subordinators may introduce finite clauses:
Rather than Charles should miss the train, he’ll get a taxi.

 Clauses of PROPORTION are mostly introduced by the + comparative, and require a correlative
the + comparative form in the main clause or by as with or without so. Proportional clauses
involve a kind of comparison. They express a proportionality or equivalence of degree between
two situations.
As he grew older, his vitality decreased.
The higher we climbed, the better view of the countryside we had.

 COMMENT clauses are clauses (like disjuncts) which are not integral part of the sentence, but
indicate the speaker’s / writer’s attitude to the action or event, or add a comment upon its truth.
They are loosely connected to the main clause, they normally lack an explicit link, and they are
usually short and can appear initially, finally, or medially, and thus generally have a separate tone
unit. Comment clauses are usually in the present rather than past tense, first of second rather
than third person.
It’s a good tip, you know, isn’t it?
Frank Stamford, as you probably know, has won the university tennis tournament.

A typical comment clause includes idiomatic or cliché expressions: you see, as I say, I’m afraid, as
I said, you know, to be honest, to be fair, generally speaking, etc. We distinguish the following
types of comment clauses:
▫ like the core of the main clause: There was no answer, I believe, to his question.
▫ an adverbial clause: I’ve been very busy lately, as you know.
▫ a nominal relative clause: What was upsetting, we lost our way.
▫ to-infinitive clause: I’m not sure what to do, to be honest.
▫ -ing clause: Speaking from memory, haven’t you got a Ford Fiesta?
▫ -ed clause: All things considered, he has done very well.

Comment clauses generally contain a transitive verb or an adjective which elsewhere requires a
nominal that-clause as complementation. We can therefore see a correspondence between
sentences containing such clauses and those containing indirect statements:
There wasn’t anyone, I believe, at home. (comment clause)
I believe that there wasn’t anyone at home. (main clause + nominal clause)
You know, I think you’re wrong. (comment clause)
You know (that) I think you’re wrong. (main clause + nominal clause)
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EXERCISES 95-110
95. Underline the adverb clauses in the following paragraph.
Although the institution of marriage has suffered in many countries, in the past few
years, there has been an unusually large number of divorces in the United States. In the
past, when two people married each other, they did so with the idea of staying together
for life, while today many individuals seem to enter marriage with the feeling that they
can always get a divorce, provided that the marriage does not work out. In the past, a
large majority of Americans frowned at the idea of divorce. Furthermore, many people
believed that getting a divorce was a luxury that only the rich could afford. Indeed, getting
a divorce was very expensive. However, since so many people have begun to take a more
casual view of marriage, it is interesting to note that costs of getting a divorce are lower.
In fact, wherever you go in the United States today, it is not unusual to see newspaper ads
that provide information on how and where to go to get a “cheap divorce.”
In spite of the fact that Hollywood has always been known as the divorce capital of the
world, today the divorce rate among the movie stars is so high that it is difficult to know
who is married to whom, if you are interested in this kind of information. Today, many
movie stars change husbands and wives as though they were changing clothes. Until the
institution of marriage again becomes a serious and important part of many people’s lives,
we will probably continue to see a high rate of divorce.
(Adapted from C.W.Pollock:Communicate What You Mean, 1982, page 117)

96. In each sentence below, circle the subordinators, underline the adverbial clauses,
and name the relationship they express.

1. When he was in high school, he didn’t study a lot, yet he had good results. – time__

2. She was looking at me as I was trying to fasten the rope to the fence. ___________

3. Although Robert did his best, he couldn’t work out the right answer. ___________

4. Since I didn’t answer all the questions, I got a low mark. ___________

5. Take an umbrella so that you won’t get wet. ______________

6. Before Mr. Todd handed out the exam papers, he had given us some instructions.________

7. Mr. Leaver probably won’t bother us provided that everyone pays attention to his request.
____________
8. The party was not as good as I had expected though it was intended to be a nice surprise.
____________

9. Check your answers if you are in doubt. ____________

10. He looked at her as if he had met her before. _____________

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 11. Dr. Grey was accepted for the position because he had passed the qualifying test.______

12. He has been living with his cousin since he came to the United States. _________

13. The coat she liked was so expensive that she decided not to buy it. ____________

14. Katherine sent me a message as soon as she arrived at Madrid. ____________

15. When we entered the restaurant, the waiter told us to sit wherever we wanted.
_________

97. Identify the adverbial clauses and complete them by an appropriate subordinator.

1. The teacher told us to submit our assignments ____________ we could.

2. The performance was _________ long ________ I couldn’t wait _________ it ends.

3. He treated his children ____________ they were adults.

4. I’ll go with you ____________ you want ___________ it is within walking distance.

5. ______________ you get up before 7 o’clock, you’ll miss the bus to Hardmitz.

6. David didn’t do it ___________ I had wanted. He actually made a mess in it.

7. I read ___________ an interesting story __________ I decided to buy another book from

the same author.

8. Mr. Stingy hid his coins ____________ no one could find them.

9. _______________ I respect him, I can’t agree with his proposal.

10. ______________ my parents returned home from work, I had done the shopping.

11. I’m staying in the office till 7 p.m. ___________ I can get all my work done.

12. Peter will set out for a journey across the country ____________ he passes his exams.

13. Maria speaks German better __________ she writes it.

14. ________________ they were waiting for the bus, they saw an accident.

15. I have already made several friends ____________ we moved to our new house.

98. Complete the following sentences to show proper time relationships. Pay special
attention to verb tenses.

1. I haven’t heard of them since _________________________________________last year.

2. Yesterday evening I went the cinema after ______________________________________.

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 3. By the time he finishes his studies, he _________________________________________.
4. Since he moved to Prague last year, Thomas ___________________________________.
5. Whenever we ___________________________________, she gets nervous.
6. ______________________________________________, by the time they arrived.
7. Please, let me know as soon as you ___________________________________________.
8. The next time ___________________________________, we are going to visit the Tower.
9. Sharon will travel to India after she ___________________________________________ .
10. This is the first time __________________________________________________.
11. _____________________________________________ ever since I was a child.
12. I won’t forget this day as long as _______________________.
13. When Peter ______________________________________, he’ll play with his child.
14. As _________________________________________ it started to rain.
15. I won’t stop nagging him until ________________________________________.

99. Complete the following by independent and dependent clauses to show proper
time relationships. Pay special attention to verb tenses and punctuation.

1. Ann decided to leave as soon as _________________________________________.

2. They lit the fire just before ______________________________________________.
3. I won’t tell you the secret until ___________________________________________.
4. Ever since _______________________________ ___________________________.
5. When I was getting ready to school in the morning ___________________________.
6. Every time she _______________________________________________________.
7. By the time she graduates ______________________________________________.
8. When I opened my bag ________________________________________________.
9. ____________________________________whenever________________________.
10. Next week when I ___________________________________________________.
11. ________________________________________ until I met him two months ago.
12. Before they ________________________________________________________.
13. George _________________________________ while _____________________.
14. The last time _______________________________________________________.
15. ____________________________________________by the time they get married.
16. After I ____________________________________________________________.
17. As soon as _____________________________________ we started the lesson.
18. The moment _______________________________________________________

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100. Read the following sentences and correct the errors in tense usage.

1. Please send me an SMS message as soon as Marta will arrive.

2. As my friends were leaving, I realised that I haven’t offered them one for the road.
3. I wasn’t tired although I am working all day.
4. Barbara was trying to get a taxi because she waited for James to pick her up for more
than an hour.
5. They were climbing up the mountain since morning and still haven’t reached the summit.
6. By the time they will come back, we will do a lot of work in the garden.
7. I haven’t written to my girlfriend since I am very busy lately.
8. She intends to look for a job in New York after she will graduate from university.
9. Ever since I was a child I am afraid of big dogs that bark at me.
10. As long as you will follow the instructions, you won’t have difficulties getting there.
11. While I wrote my composition last night, I heard a loud noise coming from the street.
12. Helen has just finished eating her lunch when she heard us coming.

101. Reduce the finite adverbial clauses of time into phrases.

Example: When Peter heard a noise, he looked out of the window.
Hearing a noise, Peter looked out of the window.
After he had listened to the news, he switched the radio off and left.
After listening/Having listened to the news, he switched the radio off and left.

1. While we were camping in the mountains, we enjoyed the beautiful scenery.

_____________________________________
2. After they had finished their coffee, they went back to work.
_____________________________________
3. Before Ivan left his country, he was not sure what he would do in England.
_____________________________________
4. I’ve been to Paris twice since I started to study French language.
_____________________________________
5. I tripped on the carpet while I was running to open the door.
_____________________________________
6. When he watched me crossing the street, Harry shouted at me.
_____________________________________
7. After she read the instructions, Maria tried to get the device started.
_____________________________________

8. Before they went to bed, they switched off the lights and checked the doors.
_____________________________________
9. I haven’t heard anything from Jill and Kate since I left their place.
_____________________________________
10. Tom had read a lot of history books before he decided to study this subject.
____________________________________
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 11. When he was playing football, John twisted his ankle.
____________________________________
12. While he was in New York, my brother visited a lot of his American friends.
____________________________________

102. Replace the finite clauses in italics by non-finite clauses, using participles, and
making any necessary changes in word order.

1. While the pilot was flying over the ocean, he saw a beautiful rainbow.
_______________________________________________________
2. As Paul had seen the film before, he didn’t want to go to the cinema with them.
_______________________________________________________
3. After we spend some time in Paris, we will travel to Marseille.
_____________________________________________________
4. Before we entered the examination room, we had to switch our mobile phones off.
_____________________________________________________
5. Because I hadn’t studied a lot, I failed the test.
_____________________________________________________
6. Since Frank was afraid of the dark, he switched all the lights on.
_____________________________________________________
7. When I discovered I had lost my keys, I called my son.
_____________________________________________________
8. My father agreed to let me drive the car after he had talked it over with my mum.
_____________________________________________________
9. Because the forest area is so dry this summer, it is prohibited to light camp fires.
_____________________________________________________
10. While Mary was reading a bed-time story, little Rony fell asleep.
_____________________________________________________
11. Because George wasn’t paying attention to his driving, he almost ran over a big dog.
____________________________________________________
12. Since Mr. Cawley had been a fireman at one time, he knew exactly what to do when the
fire broke out in the laboratory.
_____________________________________________
13. When Bob saw me catch fish after fish, he began using the same bait.
_________________________________________

103. Complete the sentences with the verbs given in brackets.

1. If she (have) _______________ a good dictionary, she would write the letter in English.
2. If Peter (be) _______________ at the party last night, he would have met Jill there.
3. If I (submit) _______________ the essay tomorrow, I will get the result on Friday.

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 4. If they invite me, I (join) _____________ them.
5. I (come) _______________ to the meeting on time if I had known you would start at 3:45.
6. Eva’s brother always (get) _____________sleepy at work if he (not, have) _____________
a coffee after breakfast.
7. I (tell) ______________ you the answer if I knew it.
8. My uncle is not rich, but if he (be) _______________, he (buy) _____________ a Porsche.
9. If I (not, read) __________________ the book, I (not, understand) _________________
the film I saw yesterday.
10. You’d better take my advice. If I (be) _____________ you, I (read) _____________the
instructions before I start.
11. If Tom (not, come) ______________ within half an hour, I (go) ____________there alone.
12. It was raining on Sunday. If the weather (be) ______________ nice, we (go) __________
for a trip.

104. Complete the sentences with independent or conditional clauses.

1. If ____________________________, give him this book.
2. I don’t mind waiting for the bus unless ____________________.
3. If he had asked me, ___________________________________.
4. I will go with him only if ________________________________.
5. Dan wouldn’t have gone to the party unless _________________________________.
6. They will go for a trip to the mountains provided that _____________________________.
7. I wouldn’t be so angry ________________________________.
8. If he eats breakfast, _____________________________ all day.

9. Lea would have passed the exam if ____________________________.

10. I’m sure she would help me if ___________________________.

11. If I were in your place, _________________________ last week.
12. She would have bought you a present ____________________________.

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105. Match the conditional clauses 1-8 with the dependent clauses A-H to form mixed
Conditional sentences.

1. If Ursula were a better tennis player A he wouldn’t be so angry

2. If I had finished my report yesterday B I would have told him the truth.
3. If she had followed the doctor’s advice C you could be a doctor now.
4. If I were you D he would be still working in ANTEX.
5. If you had studied harder E his girlfriend wouldn’t have left him
6. If they don’t call you soon F she wouldn’t have problems now.
7. If he didn’t spend a lot of time at work G she could have won the match
8. If he hadn’t received a better job offer H I could go with you out tonight.
9. If they had done it properly I you could contact them

106. Combine the following ideas using an appropriate subordinator to express the
relationship indicated in brackets.
1. She eats only low-calorie food. She wants to remain slim. (purpose)
__________________________________________________________________________
2. The wind was very strong. It blew off some roofs and caused other damage. (reason-result)
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Considerable restrictions will be introduced. The new law will be revised. (time)
__________________________________________________________________________
4. He had never studied English. He enrolled in the first level. (cause)
__________________________________________________________________________
5. I am always a careful driver. I had an accident last month. (concession)
__________________________________________________________________________
6. Simon was walking down the stairs. He wasn’t drunk. (manner)
__________________________________________________________________________
7. Everyone admires my vintage car. I appear with my car. (place)
__________________________________________________________________________
8. We won’t pay the bills on time. They will pay back the money they owe us. (condition)
__________________________________________________________________________
9. He hadn’t seen a live cow. He was five years old. (time)
__________________________________________________________________________
10. Theresa climbed higher and higher. She had a better view. (comparison)
__________________________________________________________________________

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107. Complete the sentences with finite or non-finite adverbial clauses of the type indicated.

1. Terry had some troubles with his boss ____________________________________ (time)

2. ________________________________ he managed to catch the early train. (concession)
3. I can’t advise you _________________________________________________ (condition)
4. I haven’t written to my girlfriend _______________________________________ (reason)
5. _______________________________________________we will have enough food in the
future. (condition)
6. Glenn mowed the lawn in the garden __________________________________ (purpose)
7. A chameleon changes colour ___________________________________________ (time)
8. He speaks Italian better __________________________________________(comparison)
9. When he entered the room, everyone looked at him _______________________________
_________________________ (manner)
10. My parents usually spend their holidays _________________________________ (place)
11. ________________________________________ we still saw the first goal. (concession)
12. The crewmen were able to survive in a lifeboat ____________________________ (time)

108. Choose the correct linking word in each sentence. (there is only ONE correct answer)

1. Although/ However/In spite of she had little training, she was able to win the match as long
as/ because / due to her technique was better than her rival’s.
2. James is nervous because / because of /for his daughter’s illness.
3. If only / Even if / Provided that you’d offered to pay me more than I earn, I wouldn’t have
done it.
4.Despite/ Because of/ Even though Paul hadn’t been there before, he easily found the way
to the hotel due to/ as/ yet it was on the main square.
5. We put the food on the table since /before / while we sat down to eat.
6. Provided that / Even if / Supposing that Sarah gets promoted, will she move to London?
7. Her plain will have landed when/ by the time/ until we arrive at the airport.
8. Our neighbour, Mr. Edmond, looked at me since / as if/ as he had never seen me before.
9. Though / Unless / In case you are able to get along with people, you’ll be unhappy.
10. Patricia studies medicine so / therefore/ so that she could help her people.
11. Lincoln had been a successful lawyer as soon as / after/ before he became president.
12. Some think that he is unfriendly, even though/ while/ until he likes people very much.

109. Complete the following sentences with the type of adverb clause indicated.

1. _________________________________________, we didn’t sleep well _____________

(concession)
_______________________________________________.
(cause/reason)
2. _______________________________ I closed the door __________________________.
(purpose) (time)
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 3. Some of the questions on the test were _________________________________________
(reason-result)
______________________________________________.
(concession)

4. _______________________________________________ I won’t travel there by air

(condition)
__________________________________________________
(reason)
5. _________________________________________________ he was looking desperately
(time)
around ___________________________________________________.
(manner)
6. ____________________________________________ they let us sit down ____________
(time)
_____________________________________ __________________________________.
(place) (condition)

110. Replace the finite clauses in italics by non-finite or verbless clauses, using participles,
or infinitives, and making any necessary changes in word order.

1. As I have already had some experience in these matters, I think my advice could be of help.
________________________________________________
2. Motorists should be very careful when they drive on icy roads.
________________________________________________
3. Although his plan received general support from the committee, it wasn’t carried out
until it had been amended.
________________________________________________
4. Because I hadn’t been there before, I had to ask which bus I should take.
________________________________________________
5. They were in a hurry so that they wouldn’t come late.
________________________________________________
5. Children under the age of 15 won’t be allowed to enter the bar unless they are accompanied
by their parents.
________________________________________________
6. Although my grandparents are over 75, they still travel a lot.
________________________________________________
7. When it is seen in this light, the matter doesn’t seem so serious.
________________________________________________
8. Although the machine still functioned, we didn’t think it was practical to use.
____________________________________________________
8. We are very happy now that we learn that he’s the best in the group.
________________________________________________

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9. Since we didn’t want to disturb them, we quietly left the classroom.
________________________________________________
10. Tina has put on some weight in the last two weeks, even though she is on a diet.
________________________________________________
11. Whether it is translated into English or not, the book is a bestseller in our country.
________________________________________________
12. We had to postpone the meeting since there was no one in the office on time.
________________________________________________
13. Although their cottage was built from discarded materials, everyone thinks it’s beautiful.
______________________________________________

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