BRE - Design Fires For Use in Fire Safety Eng
BRE - Design Fires For Use in Fire Safety Eng
BRE - Design Fires For Use in Fire Safety Eng
BRE Trust
Garston, Watford WD25 9XX
Tel: 01923 664743
Email: secretary@bretrust.co.uk
www.bretrust.org.uk
FB 29
© Copyright BRE 2011
First published 2011
ISBN 978-1-84806-152-1
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION 1
7 COMMODITIES 39
7.1 Beds 39
7.2 Boxes 40
7.3 Buses 42
7.4 Cars 44
7.5 Chairs 46
7.6 Christmas trees 48
7.7 Computers 50
7.8 Curtains 51
7.9 Flight luggage 52
7.10 Hand cart 53
Cont’d . . .
7 COMMODITIES (CONT’D)
7.11 Pallets 55
7.12 Pool fires 57
7.13 Soft toys 60
7.14 Televisions 62
7.15 Upholstered furniture 63
7.16 Wardrobe 64
8 REFERENCES 66
1 INTRODUCTION
The objective of this publication is to provide technical in unnecessary expenditure), but nevertheless capable of
data and guidance for defining a robust, appropriate meeting the life safety requirements to avoid potentially
and acceptable design fire for the fire safety engineering life-threatening omissions.
design of a building. It explains: There are a number of different approaches to defining
• what a design fire is an appropriate design fire ranging from calculation based
• how it can be determined on fuel load surveys of real buildings and quantification to
• its limitations experimental determination. These different approaches
• the experimental data (where available) will be described in detail.
• current calculation methods used for defining a design This publication is aimed at those professionals
fire. involved in the fire safety engineering design process,
either as a designer fulfilling a brief or a regulator/
Depending on the geographical location of a building, approver of the design. It is intended that this publication
its legislative fire safety requirements may be achieved in will provide evidence to assist the review of the
a number of ways. Fire safety engineering is a generally foundation of the fire engineered solution as part of any
accepted approach for demonstrating that the legislative approval process.
fire safety requirements of a design have been achieved. More generally, those in the position of the responsible
A building design which is supported by a person, as defined by the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety
performance-based fire safety engineered solution Order) 2005[1] (FSO), or those delegated as competent
comprises a number of components. One of these under the FSO by the responsible person, are likely to
critical components is the selection of an appropriate find this resource beneficial when undertaking a fire safety
and relevant design fire. In a performance-based fire risk assessment in both fire safety engineered and non-fire
safety engineered solution the design fire will determine a safety engineered buildings. That is, it is important that
number of important parameters for a given space, which the responsible person understands the design principles
include: of his or her buildings so that he or she can ensure that
• the quantity of heat released they are managed on an ongoing basis, within their design
• the quantity of smoke produced limits. Specifically, the fire load is restricted to within
• the composition of the smoke the limits of the assumed design fire. This is particularly
• the fire size important where, for example, a change of use or change
• the temperature of a smoke layer of ownership might occur.
• the time to involvement of all exposed combustible Fire safety engineering design requires the
materials identification of an appropriate fire size on which a design
• the fire duration. can be based[2,3]. This is one of the key decisions in fire
safety engineering design and requires formulation of a
Based on the values determined for the parameters, a fire quantitative description of the fire. Published reliable data
engineered analysis can establish: is scarce and fire safety engineers often resort to a simple
• if predetermined tenability criteria are exceeded generic description based on assumption.
• if further fire protection measures are required (eg a A summary of the most commonly used parameters in
smoke control system) fire safety engineering are detailed as part of the summary
• the specification of such fire protection measures. of each of the experimental fires where available and
include the following parameters:
Clearly, there is great significance associated with the • HRR
selection by the fire safety engineer of an appropriate • heat of combustion
design fire to ensure it is representative of the situation • mass of fire load
considered to fulfil the life safety requirements. In • optical density
addition to this, it is important to determine if the fire • carbon dioxide concentration
safety measures proposed by a fire safety engineered • carbon monoxide concentration.
solution are proportionate (ie not overly onerous, resulting
Fuel-controlled
that were carried out before 1983 and presented in a
CIB W14 workshop report. For some types of occupancy Growth Decay
in particular, advances in technology and changes in
design philosophy have resulted in significant changes, for
example the increased use of IT and the move to open- Ignition
Time
plan accommodation in offices and dwellings.
Clearly, for goods stored in racking (eg in warehouses), Figure 1: Fuel-controlled fire
the fire load per square metre of floor area could
significantly exceed the value in Table 1.
Given the data in Table 1, the maximum heat that can
be released from a fire, assuming that it is fully ventilated
Heat release rate
will be the fire load density (MJ/m2) × the floor area (m2).
If the fire load density is not known or there is a Fuel-controlled case
mixture of unevenly distributed fuels within the enclosure,
then it is possible to calculate the maximum HRR Ventilation-controlled
(assuming that all of the fuel is consumed) using either Ignition Extinction
equations 1 or 2 below, as appropriate. Time
Both of the scenarios described above assume that the Possible interventions during the fire
ventilation conditions within the enclosure of fire origin This is basically an event or series of events that can
remain unchanged as a function of time. occur during the course of a fire and alter the fire’s
While it is important to consider the availability of characteristics. Such interventions could include:
oxygen in the air, it is also important to be aware of • breaking of windows to increase ventilation
circumstances where the thermal decomposition of • opening of doors by occupants during evacuation or
certain materials produces oxygen (an oxidant) in addition by the fire service
to that already present in the air. This could result in a • operation of HVAC system
combustion reaction being supported in the absence • operation of fire dampers
of air (or at reduced oxygen level). In addition, the • operation of smoke control ventilation system
designated function of the building may also introduce • operation of suppression system.
additional sources of oxygen. For example, piped oxygen
and/or cylinders of compressed oxygen are found All these interventions could influence the growth of a
commonly across a hospital site to satisfy the ongoing fire and should be considered in terms of the overall
needs of patients. Such circumstances are not likely to be characterisation and definition of a design fire. Particular
encountered widely, but every effort should be made as care is necessary since what represents a worst case for
part of the fire safety engineering design process to take some interventions might be best case for others.
account of the presence of oxidising materials.
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Table 2: Examples of the fraction of the total heat radiation. Radiative heat transfer has little bearing on the
released which is transferred as convection for a range rate of smoke production, hence it is discounted in the
of different fuel types
design of smoke control systems. However, radiative heat
Material Convective transfer is relevant to the overall fire growth characteristics
fraction
as it is a significant factor in flame spread, fire spread,
Ethanol 0.74
Kerosene 0.65 time–temperature analysis and also in the calculation of
Benzene 0.40 the temperature of the structure.
Octane 0.67 Steady-state design fires are a conservative
Silicone 0.84 representation of a realistic fire scenario for a particular
Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) 0.69 set of circumstances. However, when implemented in a
Douglas fir 0.62 transient analysis, the results may be unconservative in
Polystyrene 0.41 the early phases, particularly in relation to detection time.
Polyurethane 0.42 As such, their application in design may result in the over-
specification of fire safety provisions at cost to a project.
It is probable that as the database of time-dependent
volume per unit of time. Values for the proportion of fire curves increases and broadens in variety, together
the total heat released that is released as convection with advances in fire modelling, the steady-state fire as a
(convective factor) are given in the literature[2, 4, 6]. The design tool may become restricted. However, calculations
values given in Table 2 are taken from reference [6] and based on the use of steady-state design fires provide a
are a selection of the convective fraction values which relatively simplistic method of giving an initial quantitative
could be applied by the designer. evaluation of the impact a particular fire may have on a
The remaining fraction of the total heat released which particular set of circumstances.
is not transferred via convection is mainly transferred via
Ignition
Time
Table 3: The four standard fire growth coefficients. Data from Chitty & Fraser-Mitchell[9]
Fire growth Time to reach Coefficient Fire scenario
coefficient 1 MW αƒ
(s)
Slow 600 0.00293 Densely packed paper
Medium 300 0.01172 Traditional mattress or armchair
Fast 150 0.0469 PU mattress or PE pallets
Ultra fast 75 0.1876 High rack storage
PU = polyurethane, PE = polyethylene.
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alone does not give an assessment of the likely duration 4.3 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN FIRES
of the fire as this is dependent on the amount of fuel In some cases, the fire performance of a particular fuel
available and the ventilation conditions in the vicinity arrangement may not be known or quantified. In such
of the fire. Where this approach is used as part of the cases, it may be necessary and advisable to measure the
process to develop a theoretical fire curve, it is necessary parameters for the particular fuel arrangement and to use
to carry out further calculations (eg the size of the fire at them as the basis for the design fire description within a
the onset of flashover) to set an upper limit to what would fire safety engineering design.
otherwise be an infinite fire growth[2]. Such an experiment should be carefully designed in
The peak HRR values and the time associated to reach discussion with the end user of the data to ensure that it
the peak HRR, shown in chapters 6 and 7, have allowed a is representative and appropriate. It may also be advisable
fire growth coefficient to be determined, where possible, to consult with the approvals authority during the
for the experimental fires detailed in this publication. planning stages to ensure that all concerns are adequately
addressed. A typical checklist of factors that will be
considered will include those listed in Box 2.
A large-scale experiment carried out under an
4.2 OTHER CALCULATION METHODS appropriately sized calorimeter will produce data on
There are a number of different methods for calculating parameters such as HRR, rate of production of smoke
the HRR in an enclosure fire, most of which are based and chemical species such as CO, CO2 (and others as
on experimental data. As such, they could be described specified) as a function of time. Additional localised
as semi-empirical or, in some cases, fully empirical. Due measurements can also be made of parameters including
to this, they are all limited to the conditions relating to temperatures, velocities, heat transfer, chemical species
the experimental design, in particular, in relation to the concentrations and optical density. It is important to note
ventilation conditions and heat transfer characteristics. that any parameters determined experimentally are likely
More information can be found in PD 7974-1[5]. to be specific to the test configuration and apparatus.
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relatively small compartments and becomes inaccurate time at which peak compartment temperatures are
for large open-plan spaces typical in many multistorey reached. An example of the parametric approach is
structures. Unlike the nominal fire curves, the parametric shown in Figure 10.
approach includes a cooling phase and is often used to
design structures to survive compartment burnout. The 5.2 Time-equivalence
parametric curve is given as: The concept of time-equivalence is used to relate the
severity of real fires to the time–temperature relationship
Θg = 1325(1 – 0.324e-0.2t* – 0.204e-1.7t* (Eqn 7) in a standard fire resistance test[15, 16]. Figure 11 illustrates
– 0.472e-19t*) the concept of time-equivalence, relating the actual
maximum temperature of a structural member (ie beams
where: and columns) from an anticipated fire severity, to the
Θg = temperature in the (°C) time taken for the same member to attain the same
fire compartment temperature when subjected to the standard fire.
t* = t.Γ (h) Generally, time-equivalence can either be determined
t = time (h) by using a simple equation or taken from experimental
Γ = [O/b]²/(0.04/1160)² (dimensionless) data from natural and standard fire resistance tests.
b = √(ρcλ) and should lie between (J/m²s½K) Although simple to use, the time-equivalence is a crude
1000 and 2000 approximate method of modelling real fire behaviour
O = opening factor (Av√h/At) (m½) and bears little relationship with real fire behaviour. In
Av = area of vertical openings (m²) addition, the limitations of the method should be clearly
h = height of vertical openings (m) understood. The main limitation is that the method is
At = total area of enclosure (m²) only applicable to the types of members used in the
ρ = density of boundary enclosure (kg/m³) derivation of the adopted formulae. The method is most
c = specific heat of boundary (J/kgK) applicable to unprotected steel frame structures although
of enclosure modification factors exist for concrete and protected steel
λ = thermal conductivity of boundary (W/mK) frames. The most commonly used form of the time-
equivalence method adopted today is that of Eurcode 1
The concept of parametric time (t*) is used to modify the Part 2[15] which is shown below for completeness:
predicted time–temperature relationship. The background The equivalent time of fire exposure, te,d, is calculated
theory to this calculation approach was developed by using:
Wickström[16]. The values 0.04 and 1160 relate to the
opening factor and the thermal inertia of the standard te,d = qf,d.kb.wf (Eqn 8)
fire compartment as used in the original test programme.
The cooling phase of the time–temperature response is where:
assumed to be linear and is dependent on the parametric qf,d = design fire load density (MJ/m²)
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Figure 10: Example of a parametric design fire
Gas temperature
Standard fire
Temperature
Member temperature
Real fire
Time
kb = conversion factor dependent on thermal αv = Av/Af, where Av and Af are the area of the vertical
properties of compartment boundaries ventilation openings and the area of the
(min.m²/MJ), typically taken as 0.09 in the UK compartment floor, respectively
(as per the National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-2[17]) H = the height of the compartment (m)
wf = ventilation factor (dimensionless) αh = Ah/Af, where Ah is the area of horizontal
ventilation openings
where, wf is given by: bv = 12.5(1 + 10αv – αv2) ≥ 10 (Eqn 10)
> @
§·
ZI ¨ ¸ D Y EY D K t (Eqn 9)
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The following two chapters present 29 experimental fires Table 4: Summary of the experimental fire occupancy
which have been categorised into two groups: scenarios included in Chapter 6
• Occupancies (Table 4), which considers design fire
Section no. Occupancy
scenarios that are representative of a type of building
6.1 Bar/Night club
occupancy. These experimental fire scenarios can
6.2 Car parks
include a number of different combustible materials. 6.3 Carpet store
The arrangement of the combustible contents was 6.4 Clothes store
intended to represent that of a typical example of such 6.5 Indoor play area
an occupancy. 6.6 Library
• Commodities (Table 5), of which some of the 6.7 Living room
examples, like the occupancies, may contain a number 6.8 Luggage store
of different combustible materials. The fire tests are 6.9 Office
intended to document the fire performance of stand- 6.10 Prison cell
6.11 Reception
alone items. For example, this resource considers a car
6.12 Retail store
to be a commodity and a car park to be an occupancy.
6.13 Video store
6 OCCUPANCIES
6.1 Bar/Night club
TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)
SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.
FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Upholstered bench seating constructed from chipboard, foam seat and back, 132.7 8
covered in dralon-type material. Solid wooden chairs and tables. Upholstered stools
with material covers and foam fillings. Additional items in the unsprinklered test
included four jackets with polyester outer shell and hollow-fibre fillings
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO
concentrations
REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157
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Heat release rate of an unsprinklered bar
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Heat release rate of a sprinklered bar
TEST TYPE
Three experiments simulating an open-sided carpark (with
and without sprinklers) and one experiment simulating a
car park stacker
SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Six standard-response sprinkler heads (to BS EN 12845:
2004 specification), 5 mm/min with coverage of 12 m²
per head. Mean pressure of 2.5 bar with a maximum flow
rate of 510 litres/min.
FIRE LOAD
Test Description
no.
1 Free burn: 3 cars in a ‘typical’ open-sided car park.
Parking space 1: large hatchback (petrol); Parking space
2: unoccupied; Parking space 3: small car (petrol);
Parking space 4: large estate (diesel).
Fuel levels in all cars approximately 20 litres of either
diesel or petrol.
Fire service intervention after 24 minutes.
2 Sprinklered burn: 3 cars in a ‘typical’ open-sided car
park.
Parking space 1: MPV (petrol); Parking space 2:
unoccupied; Parking space 3: small car (petrol);
Parking space 4: 4×4 (petrol).
Fuel levels in all cars approximately 20 litres of either
diesel or petrol.
Fire service intervention after 85 min. MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Sprinkler operation: 2 heads after 4 minutes, 4 heads Heat release rate, temperatures, optical density,
after 42 minutes, 6 heads after 45 minutes. mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO concentrations
3 Free burn: 3 cars in a ‘typical’ open-sided car park.
Parking space 1: MPV (petrol); Parking space 2: FIRE DESIGN PARAMETERS
unoccupied; Parking space 3: mid-sized estate (diesel);
Parking space 1: 4×4 (petrol). For 0 < t ≤ 1269 s, α1 =0.0101 kW/s2 unsprinklered
Fuel levels in all cars approximately 20 litres of either For 0 < t ≤ 3231 s, α2 =0.00065 kW/s 2
sprinklered
diesel or petrol. For 0 < t ≤ 600 s, α3 =0.0306 kW/s 2
unsprinklered
Fire service intervention after 10.5 minutes.
11 Free burn: 2 cars in a stacker configuration (one directly For 0 < t ≤ 678 s, α11 =0.0164 kW/s 2
unsprinklered
above the other).
Lower parking space: 4×4; REFERENCES
Upper parking space: family estate. BSI. BS EN 12845: 2004 + Amendment 2: 2009 Fixed firefighting
Fuel levels in all cars approximately 20 litres of either systems. Automatic sprinkler systems. Design, installation and
diesel or petrol. maintenance
Fire service intervention after 24.5 minutes.
Shipp M, Fraser-Mitchell J, Chitty R et al. Fire spread in car parks; a
summary of the CLG/BRE research programme and findings. 2009.
Available from http://www.info4fire.com/in-depth-content/full/fire-
spread-in-car-parks
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Stacker test, 2 cars
TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)
SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.
FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Carpet mixes included polypropylene/wool/hair, 100% polypropylene, 80% wool, 117 15
wool/polypropylene mix. Also included vinyl flooring and foam rubber underlay.
Backing materials were either hessian, felt or foam rubber.
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat,
CO2 and CO concentrations
REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157
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Heat release rate of an unsprinklered carpet store
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Heat release rate of a sprinklered carpet store
SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.
FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
All synthetic materials including nylon, polyester, acrylic and cotton mixes. 144.6 363
Each item was hung on a plastic coat hanger. Items included T-shirts,
tracksuit trousers, bomber jackets and fleece tops.
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat,
CO2 and CO concentrations
REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157
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Heat release rate of an unsprinklered clothes store
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Heat release rate of a sprinklered clothes store
TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)
SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.
FIRE LOAD
Description
• The steel framework was covered in pipe lagging material
(expanded foam), with the padded flooring constructed of
plywood and foam covered with PVC. All padded areas were
PVC-covered foam. A GRP slide and polypropylene rotation
moulded crawl tube were present. Netting material was nylon.
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO
concentrations
REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157
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Heat release rate of an unsprinklered play area
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Heat release rate of a sprinklered play area
6.6 Library
TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)
SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four fast response heads on a 3.4 m square grid. Each
sprinkler head had a coverage of 12 m2 and flow rate of
60 l/min.
FIRE LOAD
Description
• One wooden shelving unit fixed to the rear wall (2100 mm
high, 4 bays long) filled with hardback books side by side
(80%) and paperback books stored in a display fashion.
• One metal shelving unit fixed to the wall perpendicular to
Rig hood Fibreglass curtains kept lowered to
the wooden shelving (1800 mm high, 5 bays long) filled with and duct form ‘wall’ behind the wooden shelving
hardback books side by side (80%) and paperback books
stored in a display fashion.
• Two paperback racks (1800 mm long) and two video racks Book shelving wood on this run
(60–75 videos in each) were placed in the centre of the room. Paperback
• A small wood/plastic top table with a VDU, keyboard and racks 1.8m
chair were placed at the end of the metal shelving together long
with a table and three chairs.
Book shelving
Video racks metal on this
(60 75 videos run, against
on each) partition
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total), temperatures, optical density,
Table Table and
mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO concentrations Chairs
VDU with
keyboard
Newspaper/magazine rack
(originally proposed, but not included for tests)
REFERENCE
Webb J & Samme P. The characterisation of library fires using a
sprinklered calorimeter. Private communication, 1996
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Total heat release rate of a library with and without sprinklers
FIRE LOAD
Description
• The contents of the room primarily consisted of:
3-seater settee, 1 dining room chair, 1 beanbag,
2 small coffee tables, 1 sideboard, curtains and books.
• The central area of the floor was laid with carpet tiles (see
diagram, right).
• The seating was part-covered by a throw rug.
• Other furnishings included wicker ornaments, newspapers,
magazines in a rack and candles on horizontal surfaces.
• The curtains were hung from a steel pole (Note: there was no
window).
Dining room Curtain Bean bag
• Books and toys were located on the sofa and sideboard. chair
• A small wastepaper bin containing crumpled newspaper
sheets was located between the beanbag and the settee.
Sofa
Magazine
rack
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The data for this design fire were contributed by
Martin Shipp, BRE Global.
REFERENCE
DeHaan JD. Kirk’s fire investigation. 6th edition. New Jersey,
Pearson Education/Prentice-Hall, 2006
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Total heat release rate of an unsprinklered living room
TEST TYPE
Four free-burn experiments (unsprinklered, fast-response
sprinklers and two with standard sprinklers)
SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.
FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Mainly manmade fibres. Nylon outer shells with PVC waterproof interliner, 92 57
polyester inner pockets and compartment dividers. Some cases had fabric shells
with similar liners to the other cases. Rucksacks were mainly nylon weave
with polyester inner linings.
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO
concentrations
REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157
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6.9 Office
TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)
SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.
FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Melamine-faced chipboard desks, material- and foam-covered MDF dividing screens 245.6 70
on each desk, computer monitors, keyboards and general office items,
which were mainly constructed from plastics. Upholstered office chairs
with material covers, foam seat and back with polypropylene trim.
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO
concentrations
REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157
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Heat release rate of an unsprinklered office
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Heat release rate of a sprinklered office
TEST TYPE
Single experiment (free burn, no sprinklers operated).
Cell contained representative prison-issue furniture and
personal items.
FIRE LOAD
Description
• Double-occupancy prison cell measuring internally
3 m × 4 m and 3 m high, giving a total volume of 36 m³.
• The room was of blockwork construction, internally clad with
plasterboard.
• Fire load comprised 2 prison-issue matresses, 2 prison-issue
bedside lockers, one of which was placed on its side on the
lower level of a bunk bed. The locker on the bunk bed was
filled with: 12 crisp packets, 4 boxes of cereal, a pair of jeans,
a vest, 2 toilet rolls, 2 plastic bottles, a newspaper, a magazine,
10 single CD cases, a computer keyboard, a prison issue duvet
cover, sheet and pillow slip. Additionally, 2 desks, 2 chairs Television
Bunk
(one of which was plastic), 2 pairs of shoes, a towel, 3 shirts, beds Desk and
a television and 2 pairs of jeans. chair
• Fire was manually extinguished after approximately
18.5 minutes. Locker
• Door was open throughout the test.
Desk and
plastic chair
Shower/toilet
cubicle area
Ceiling extract
location
Doorway
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Total heat release rate from a typical prison cell (unsprinklered)
6.11 Reception
TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)
SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.
FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Computer monitors, keyboards, TV/monitor, polypropylene wastebasket, videocassettes 86.5 19
and recorder as well as general office items such as ring binders and paper.
Two office-style leather faced chairs with foam seat and back. Two visitors’ seats
material-covered with hollow-fibre cushions and one material-covered sofa with hollow fibre.
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total & convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO
concentrations
REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157
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7LPH V
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Heat release rate of an unsprinklered reception area
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Heat release rate of a sprinklered reception area
TEST TYPE
Single free-burn experiment (without sprinklers)
FIRE LOAD
Description
• Retail store complete with luggage, plastic manikin, bags,
plastic shoes, LCD display, chairs, storage cupboard and
plastic toys arranged over both the floor area and in hanging
displays.
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate, temperatures, volume flow, rate of
smoke production, O2, CO2 and CO concentrations
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TEST TYPE
Single free-burn experiment (without sprinklers)
FIRE LOAD
Description
• Video cassettes in plastic or cardboard boxes, empty compact
disc cases. Shelving formed from moulded polypropylene
video and CD trays supported by a metal framework. The
layout was intended to represent a corner aisle of a video
shop. The tests represented malicious ignition of the bottom
row of the centre video rack.
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate, temperatures, optical density, radiant
heat, CO2 and CO concentrations
REFERENCE
Samme P & Webb J. The characterisation of video shop fires using
a sprinklered calorimeter. Private communication, 1997
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6 Notes
7 COMMODITIES
7.1 Beds
FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description Mass No.
no. (kg) of items
1 Double bed, bedding, night table 53.70 1
2 Double bed, bedding, night table 53.70 1
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Total heat release rate of a double bed, bedding and night table
7.2 Boxes
TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)
SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.
FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Corrugated cardboard boxes (610 mm × 610 mm × 480 mm) filled with packing materials, 353 96
mainly polystyrene chips and expanded foam mouldings. 16 boxes per stack each on
a wooden pallet with 6 stacks in total
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate and radiant heat
REFERENCE
Garrad G & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design.
Interflam 1999. Proceedings of 8th Conference, Volume 1.
London, Interscience Communications, 1999. p 555
+HDWUHOHDVHUDWH N:
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7RWDO &RQYHFWLYH
Heat release rate of unsprinklered boxes
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Heat release rate of sprinklered boxes
7.3 Buses
TEST TYPE
A single free-burn experiment to simulate a fire in the rear
luggage compartment
FIRE LOAD
Description
• A 13 m single-deck Volvo coach with 49 passenger seats.
The bus was used for development purposes and was
never used in public traffic. Gear box fitted with a retarder.
Fire ignited in the rear luggage compartment using a propane
burner. Calorimeter placed to measure heat release rate from
rear two-thirds of the bus length.
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total), temperatures, visibility, CO, CO2,
HCl, HCN, HF, HBr, SO2, NOa and NO2 concentrations
REFERENCE
Hammarström R, Axelsson J, Försth M et al. Bus fire safety.
SP report 2008:41. Boras, Technical Research Institute of Sweden,
2008. Available as a pdf from: www-v2.sp.se
Test terminated
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Total heat release rate of a bus (fire in luggage compartment)
7.4 Cars
TEST TYPE
Four free-burn experiments:
• Small family car
• fire originating in the passenger compartment
(windows and doors closed)
• fire originating in the engine compartment
• MPV
• fire originating in the passenger compartment
(windows and doors closed)
• fire originating in the engine compartment
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate, temperatures, smoke production,
volume flow rate, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
oxygen depletion
FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description
no.
1 2002 5-Door medium-sized hatchback: Fire originating in the passenger compartment,
ignition using a No. 7 crib, 20 litres of fuel in tank
2 2000 MPV: Fire originating in the passenger compartment, ignition using a No. 7 crib
20 litres of fuel in tank
3 2002 5-Door medium-sized hatchback: Fire originating in the engine bay,
ignition using an IMS-soaked fibreboard, 20 litres of fuel in tank
4 2000 MPV: Fire originating in the engine bay, ignition using an IMS-soaked fibreboard
20 litres of fuel in tank
Note: Experiment nos 1 and 3 self-extinguished and were terminated respectively due to the lack of available air.
Test
terminated
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Fire self-
extinguished
7LPH PLQ
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Total heat release rate of a family car and MPV (fire originating in passenger compartment with windows
and doors closed)
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Total heat release rate of a family car and MPV (fire originating in engine compartment)
7.5 Chairs
FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description Mass No. of
no. (kg) items
1 Stacked chairs constructed from foam and cellulosic material 40.00 16
2 Wood-frame easy chair, polyeurathane cushions, polyolefin fabricA 28.34 1
3 Wood-frame easy chair, cotton padding, polyolefin fabricB 31.20 1
4 Love seat, metal frame, four solid polyurethane foam-filled cushions – 1
covered in plastic-coated fabricC
Chair C
Babrauskas V, Lawson J R, Walton W D & Twilley WH. Upholstered
furniture heat release rates measured with a furniture calorimeter.
NBSIR 82-2604. 1982. Available at http://fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/
fire82/art007.html
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Total heat release rate of 16 stacked chairs
+HDWUHOHDVHUDWH N:
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FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description Mass No. of
no. (kg) items
1 Height 2.6 m, width at widest point 1.7 m, moisture content 30% 17.2 1
Conditioned at 23 °C, 50% RH for 3 weeks. Ignition by electric match
2 Height 2.7 m, width at widest point 1.3 m, moisture content 27% 15.9 1
Conditioned at 23 °C, 50% RH for 3 weeks. Ignition by electric match
3 Height 2.3 m, width at widest point 1.7 m, moisture content 30% 20.0 1
Conditioned at 23 °C, 50% RH for 3 weeks. Ignition by electric match
4 Height 2.5 m, width at widest point 1.2 m, moisture content 30% 9.5 1
Conditioned at 23 °C, 50% RH for 3 weeks. Ignition by electric match
5 Height 2.5 m, width at widest point 1.7 m, moisture content 28% 19.1 1
Conditioned at 23 °C, 50% RH for 3 weeks. Ignition by electric match
6 Height 2.5 m, width at widest point 1.1 m, moisture content 32%
Conditioned at 23 °C, 50% RH for 3 weeks. Ignition by electric match 12.7 1
7 Height 3.1 m, width at widest point 1.5 m, moisture content 25%
Conditioned at 23 °C, 50% RH for 3 weeks. Ignition by electric match 18.6 1
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7.7 Computers
FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description Mass No. of
no. (kg) items
1 Laptop computer in a corrugated cardboard box and polystyrene foam packing 3.41 1
2 Desktop computer in a single wall corrugated cardboard box and 5.93 1
polystyrene foam packing
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7.8 Curtains
FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description Mass No. of
no. (kg) items
1 Mixed material curtains: 39% cotton, 16% polyester, 45% acrylic 1.43 1
2 Mixed material curtains: 39% cotton, 16% polyester, 45% acrylic 1.43 1
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Total heat release rate of pairs of curtains
FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description
no.
1 Air-side airport design fire consisting of two carry-on bags burning simultaneously
2 Land-side airport design fire consisting of bags on a piled-high luggage trolley
The bags were filled with clothing and other representative materials
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/XJJDJH /XJJDJH
SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.
FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Synthetic flowers constructed of manmade fibres, mainly polyester petals 13.1 100+
with polypropylene covered wire stems. Handcart was constructed of MDF
with a polycotton canopy
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total & convective), temperatures,
optical density, radiant heat, CO2 and CO concentrations
REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157
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7LPH V
7RWDO &RQYHFWLYH
Heat release rate of an unsprinklered hand cart
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Heat release rate of an sprinklered hand cart
7.11 Pallets
TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)
SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.
FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Wooden pallets 1200 mm × 1200 mm stacked between 1.15 m and 1.17 m high 500+ 40
Moisture content between 10 to 20%
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO
concentrations
REFERENCE
Garrad G & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design.
Interflam 1999. Proceedings of 8th Conference, Volume 1.
London, Interscience Communications, 1999. p 555
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7LPH V
7RWDO &RQYHFWLYH
Heat release rate of unsprinklered pallets
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7RWDO &RQYHFWLYH
Heat release rate of sprinklered pallets
TEST TYPE
Twelve free-burn experiments incorporating industrial
methylated spirit (IMS) and kerosene fuel
FIRE LOAD
Test Location Fuel Tray size Mass of Nominal
(Length × width × height) fuel fire size
(m) (kg) (kW)
1 Centre of a room IMS99 0.75 × 0.75 × 0.15 24 400
2 Centre of a room IMS99 0.75 × 0.75 × 0.15 24 400
3 Against a wall IMS99 0.75 × 0.75 × 0.15 24 400
4 Against a wall IMS99 0.75 × 0.75 × 0.15 24 400
5 In a corner IMS99 0.75 × 0.75 × 0.15 24 400
6 In a corner IMS99 0.75 × 0.75 × 0.15 24 400
7 In a corner IMS99 1.55 × 1.55 × 0.15 128 2000
8 In a corner IMS99 1.55 × 1.55 × 0.15 128 2000
9 In a corner Kerosine 1.1 × 1.1 × 0.15 60 2000
10 In a corner Kerosine 1.1 × 1.1 × 0.15 60 2000
11 In a corner Kerosine 1.55 × 1.55 × 0.15 160 5000
12 In a corner Kerosine 1.55 × 1.55 × 0.15 160 5000
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total), flame height, temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, oxygen
depletion, CO2 and CO concentrations
REFERENCE
Marshall N. Evaluation of fire models for fire hazard assessment
in buildings. Part 1: Experimental programme. Private
communication, 1999
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7LPH V
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7LPH V
+HDWUHOHDVHUDWH N:
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TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)
SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.
FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Toys: mainly manmade fibres, described as hollow-fibre fillings with plush coverings. 62 383
Wall-mounted items were made of an undetermined plastic and were contained in
blister packs with a cardboard backing.
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO
concentrations
REFERENCE
Garrad G & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design.
Interflam 1999. Proceedings of 8th Conference, Volume 1.
London, Interscience Communications, 1999. p 555
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7LPH V
7RWDO &RQYHFWLYH
Heat release rate of unsprinklered soft toys
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7LPH V
7RWDO &RQYHFWLYH
Heat release rate of sprinklered soft toys
7.14 Televisions
FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description Mass No. of
no. (kg) items
1 28 inch TV in a plastic case. Ignition with a 1 kW propane gas flame 31.83 1
2 25 inch TV in a plastic case. Ignition with a 1 kW propane gas flame 24.42 1
3 28 inch TV in a plastic case. Ignition with a 1 kW propane gas flame 30.53 1
+HDWUHOHDVHUDWH N:
7LPH V
FIRE LOAD
Experiment
Description
no.Design Filling Wrap Cover
1 Fully upholstered 3-seater Polyether foam seat/ Polyester fibre to seat 100% polyester ground cloth/
sofa with loose seat and polyester interior back cushion polyacrylic pile
back cushions
2 Fully upholstered 3-seater CMHR foam seat/ – FR-treated cotton
sofa with loose seat and shredded foam
back cushions interior back
3 As for Experiment 1 but 2-seater sofa
4 As for Experiment 2 but single-seat chair
5 Fully upholstered chair CMHR foam seat/ FR polyester fibre 100% Polyacrylic pile fabric/
with loose seat and FR polyester interior FR back coated/cellulosic
back cushions and back ground
6 Fully upholstered chair HR foam – Leather
with loose seat and
back cushions
FR = fire retardant, HR = high resilient, CMHR = combustion-modified high resilient
MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total), smoke production rate, HCN,
HCI, HBr and CO concentrations
REFERENCE
Sundström B (Ed). Fire safety of upholstered furniture: the final
report on the CBUF research programme. Report EUR 16477 EN.
Brussels, European Commission Measurements and Testing. For
information, visit http://www.sp.se/en/index/research/cbuf/sidor/
default.aspx
7.16 Wardrobe
FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description Mass No. of
no. (kg) items
1 12.7 mm thick Douglas-fir plywood. Two hinged doors on front. 68 1
Unfinished surfaces. Contained 1.93 kg of clothing and paper
2 3.2 mm mahogany veneer plywood and hardboard on 19 × 40 mm 36 1
hardwood frame. Top, bottom and back were hardboard with plywood
sides and doors. Two rolling doors provided access to the interior.
A 384 mm deep shelf extended across the width. Contained 1.93 kg
clothing and paper
Wardrobe α Heat of combustion Spearpoint M. FireBaseXML database. Version 1.34. New Zealand,
(kW/s2) (J/kg) University of Canterbury, 2007. Visit http://www.civil.canterbury.
1 0.29 for 0 < t ≤ 110 s 14900 ac.nz/spearpoint/HRR_Database/HRR_Database.xml
2 0.28 for 0 < t ≤ 150 s 16900
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Total heat release rate of a wardobe
7 Notes
8 REFERENCES
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1541. Available at www.legislation.gov.uk/ combustion products for fires of up to 20MW
[2] Morgan HP, Ghosh BK, Garrad G et al. Design methodologies [11] International Organization for Standardization. ISO 834-
for smoke and heat exhaust ventilation. BRE Report BR 368. 1:1999 Fire-resistance tests – Elements of building construction –
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[3] BSI. BS 7974: 2001 Application of fire safety engineering [12] BSI. BS 476-21: 1987 Fire tests on building materials and
principles to the design of buildings. Code of practice structures. Methods for determination of the fire resistance of
loadbearing elements of construction
[4] BSI. BS 7346-4: 2003 Components for smoke and heat
control systems. Functional recommendations and calculation [13] BSI. BS EN 1363-1: 1999. Fire resistance tests. General
methods for smoke and heat exhaust ventilation systems, requirements
employing steady-state design fires. Code of practice
[14] Lennon T, Rupasinghe R, Waleed N et al. Concrete structures
[5] BSI. PD 7974 Application of fire safety engineering principles in fire: performance, design and analysis. BRE Report BR 490.
to the design of buildings Bracknell, IHS BRE Press, 2007
Part 1: 2003 Initiation and development of fire within the
[15] BSI. BS EN 1991-1-2: 2002 Eurocode 1. Actions on
enclosure of origin (Sub-system 1)
structures. General actions. Actions on structures exposed to fire
[6] BSI. PD 7974 Application of fire safety engineering principles
to the design of buildings [16] Wickström U. Application of the standard fire curve for
Part 2: 2002 Spread of smoke and toxic gases within and expressing natural fires for design purposes. In: Harmathy TZ
beyond the enclosure of origin (Sub-system 2) (Ed) Fire safety, science and engineering: a symposium. ASTM
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Engineers. STP 882. Philadelphia, American Society for Testing and
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[8] National Fire Protection Association. Guide for smoke
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Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions. Actions on
NFPA 92B. NFPA, Quincy, Massachusetts, 2000. Available at www.
structures exposed to fire
minhbao.vn/userfiles/file/A_NFPA92B.pdf
[18] BRE. Design fires database. Watford, BRE, 2003. Available
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from www.brebookshop.com
reference guide. BRE Report BR 459. Bracknell, IHS BRE Press,
2003
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