BRE - Design Fires For Use in Fire Safety Eng

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DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING


This publication provides technical data and guidance on defining a robust and
appropriate design fire for use in the fire safety engineering design of a building.
It explains:
• what a design fire is
• how it can be determined
• the limitations of current methodologies DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN
FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING
• experimental data
• calculation methods used to define a design fire.
Current approaches to defining an appropriate design fire, ranging from the
quantification of fuel load based on surveys of real buildings to experimental
measurements, are described in detail.
Aimed at professionals involved in the fire safety engineering design process, Christopher Mayfield and Danny Hopkin
either as designers fulfilling a brief or as regulators/approvers of the design, this
guidance provides data that originate from a range of sources including fire tests
undertaken by BRE Global. It can be used to source quantifiable parameters
such as heat release rates and fire growth rates that are proportionate to the fire
hazard foreseen.

Mayfield and Hopkin


RELATED TITLES FROM IHS BRE PRESS
AUTOMATIC FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS
BR 510, 2010
FIRE SAFETY AND SECURITY IN RETAIL PREMISES
BR 508, 2010
AUTOMATIC FIRE SPRINKLER SYSTEMS
FB 19, 2009
SPRINKLER SYSTEMS EXPLAINED
BR 503, 2009
FIRE SAFETY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Background to BS 8110 fire design
BR 468, 2004
FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING: A REFERENCE GUIDE
BR 459, 2003
IHS BRE Press

IHS BRE Press, Willoughby Road


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www.brebookshop.com
FB 29

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DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN
FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING
Christopher Mayfield and Danny Hopkin

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ii DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

This work has been funded by BRE Trust. Any views


expressed are not necessarily those of BRE Trust. While
every effort is made to ensure the accuracy and quality of
information and guidance when it is first published, BRE
Trust can take no responsibility for the subsequent use of
this information, nor for any errors or omissions it may
contain.

The mission of BRE Trust is ‘Through education and


research to promote and support excellence and
innovation in the built environment for the benefit of
all’. Through its research programmes the Trust aims to
achieve:
• a higher quality built environment
• built facilities that offer improved functionality and
value for money
• a more efficient and sustainable construction sector,
with
• a higher level of innovative practice.

A further aim of BRE Trust is to stimulate debate on


challenges and opportunities in the built environment.

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in England and Wales (no. 3282856) and registered
as a charity in England (no. 1092193) and in Scotland
(no. SC039320).

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Printed on paper sourced from responsibly managed


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FB 29
© Copyright BRE 2011
First published 2011
ISBN 978-1-84806-152-1

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7 DESIGN CONTENTS
FIRE DATA iii

CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 IMPORTANT FACTORS INFLUENCING QUANTIFICATION OF A DESIGN FIRE 2

3 STEADY-STATE DESIGN FIRES 5

4 TIME-DEPENDENT DESIGN FIRES 7


4.1 t-squared fire growth curves 7
4.2 Other calculation methods 8
4.3 Experimental design fires 8
4.3.1 Heat release rate 9
4.3.2 Smoke production rate 9

5 FULLY DEVELOPED FIRES 10


5.1 Parametric design fires 10
5.2 Time-equivalence 11

EXPERIMENTAL FIRE DATA 13


6 OCCUPANCIES 14
6.1 Bar/Night club 14
6.2 Car parks 16
6.3 Carpet store 18
6.4 Clothes store 20
6.5 Indoor play area 22
6.6 Library 24
6.7 Living room 26
6.8 Luggage store 28
6.9 Office 30
6.10 Prison cell 32
6.11 Reception 34
6.12 Retail store 36
6.13 Video store 37

7 COMMODITIES 39
7.1 Beds 39
7.2 Boxes 40
7.3 Buses 42
7.4 Cars 44
7.5 Chairs 46
7.6 Christmas trees 48
7.7 Computers 50
7.8 Curtains 51
7.9 Flight luggage 52
7.10 Hand cart 53

Cont’d . . .

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iv DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

7 COMMODITIES (CONT’D)
7.11 Pallets 55
7.12 Pool fires 57
7.13 Soft toys 60
7.14 Televisions 62
7.15 Upholstered furniture 63
7.16 Wardrobe 64

8 REFERENCES 66

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1 INTRODUCTION 1

1 INTRODUCTION
The objective of this publication is to provide technical in unnecessary expenditure), but nevertheless capable of
data and guidance for defining a robust, appropriate meeting the life safety requirements to avoid potentially
and acceptable design fire for the fire safety engineering life-threatening omissions.
design of a building. It explains: There are a number of different approaches to defining
• what a design fire is an appropriate design fire ranging from calculation based
• how it can be determined on fuel load surveys of real buildings and quantification to
• its limitations experimental determination. These different approaches
• the experimental data (where available) will be described in detail.
• current calculation methods used for defining a design This publication is aimed at those professionals
fire. involved in the fire safety engineering design process,
either as a designer fulfilling a brief or a regulator/
Depending on the geographical location of a building, approver of the design. It is intended that this publication
its legislative fire safety requirements may be achieved in will provide evidence to assist the review of the
a number of ways. Fire safety engineering is a generally foundation of the fire engineered solution as part of any
accepted approach for demonstrating that the legislative approval process.
fire safety requirements of a design have been achieved. More generally, those in the position of the responsible
A building design which is supported by a person, as defined by the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety
performance-based fire safety engineered solution Order) 2005[1] (FSO), or those delegated as competent
comprises a number of components. One of these under the FSO by the responsible person, are likely to
critical components is the selection of an appropriate find this resource beneficial when undertaking a fire safety
and relevant design fire. In a performance-based fire risk assessment in both fire safety engineered and non-fire
safety engineered solution the design fire will determine a safety engineered buildings. That is, it is important that
number of important parameters for a given space, which the responsible person understands the design principles
include: of his or her buildings so that he or she can ensure that
• the quantity of heat released they are managed on an ongoing basis, within their design
• the quantity of smoke produced limits. Specifically, the fire load is restricted to within
• the composition of the smoke the limits of the assumed design fire. This is particularly
• the fire size important where, for example, a change of use or change
• the temperature of a smoke layer of ownership might occur.
• the time to involvement of all exposed combustible Fire safety engineering design requires the
materials identification of an appropriate fire size on which a design
• the fire duration. can be based[2,3]. This is one of the key decisions in fire
safety engineering design and requires formulation of a
Based on the values determined for the parameters, a fire quantitative description of the fire. Published reliable data
engineered analysis can establish: is scarce and fire safety engineers often resort to a simple
• if predetermined tenability criteria are exceeded generic description based on assumption.
• if further fire protection measures are required (eg a A summary of the most commonly used parameters in
smoke control system) fire safety engineering are detailed as part of the summary
• the specification of such fire protection measures. of each of the experimental fires where available and
include the following parameters:
Clearly, there is great significance associated with the • HRR
selection by the fire safety engineer of an appropriate • heat of combustion
design fire to ensure it is representative of the situation • mass of fire load
considered to fulfil the life safety requirements. In • optical density
addition to this, it is important to determine if the fire • carbon dioxide concentration
safety measures proposed by a fire safety engineered • carbon monoxide concentration.
solution are proportionate (ie not overly onerous, resulting

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2 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

2 IMPORTANT FACTORS INFLUENCING


QUANTIFICATION OF A DESIGN FIRE
Box 1: Factors influencing the characteristics of a fire
A design fire is a simplified approximation of a fire that
is considered to be representative of a fire involving a • Building design
specified hazard. • Building fabric
• Environmental influences
• Potential ignition sources and locations
• Types of combustible materials
For a design fire to be representative of a realistic fire
• Distribution, arrangement and quantity of different fuels
situation, it should replicate the physical size and heat
• Ventilation conditions
output of the fire changing with time. This allows the
• Possible interventions during the fire
growing threat to occupants, property/business continuity,
and firefighters to be calculated as time progresses[4].
Time-based calculations often form part of a holistic
assessment, where the time to the onset of untenable Potential ignition sources and locations
conditions is compared with the time required for the A hazard assessment covering both accidental and
safe evacuation of occupants of the building or the time deliberate ignition events and the probabilities of each
recommended for the initiation of successful firefighting should be conducted and potential ignition sources
operations. To undertake a time-based assessment, fire and locations identified. Deliberate ignition can be
growth curves need to be selected that are applicable characterised by multiple ignition sources. Depending on
to the exact circumstances of the building occupancies, the hazards identified, the probability of them occurring
fuel arrangements and suppression system performance, and the resulting consequences, a design may involve fire
where appropriate[4]. Where this information is available protection measures to significantly reduce or eliminate
it can be integrated into a fire engineered solution for a either the hazard, probability and/or consequences of an
building following recommended fire safety engineering ignition event. However, it is recognised that this may not
procedures, such as BSI’s PD 7974[5] series of documents. always be achievable.
Several important factors which influence the
characteristics of a fire are summarised in Box 1 Types of combustible materials
and described in the sections below. They are well The type of occupancy and the use of the building
documented and should be considered in the will govern the types of combustible materials. The
quantification of a design fire. combustible materials may be present as construction
products incorporated into the fabric of the building or
Building design the contents of the building, or both. During the early
The geometry and layout of the building should be clearly stages of a fire, the contents will typically be of primary
understood and defined. concern.

Building fabric Distribution, arrangement and quantity of


Combustible construction elements and insulation types, different fuels
presence of vapour barriers in roofs, and types of roof, The way that the different fuels are distributed within
floor and wall constructions should be identified. the building will have an effect on the characteristics of
the fire so all readily available fuel should be considered
Environmental influences including:
Internal environmental conditions should be defined in • wall and ceiling linings
terms of ambient temperatures, oxygen concentration, • low-level localised storage of goods
air movement, presence of HVAC systems and how these • high-rack, high-density storage of goods
could impact on pre-fire and fire conditions • distribution of furniture and types of furniture
(eg office, residential)
• materials being processed.

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2 IMPORTANT FACTORS INFLUENCING QUANTIFICATION OF A DESIGN FIRE 3

Table 1: Fire load densities for different occupancies where:


Extract from PD 7974-1[5] QTOTAL = total heat release (kJ)
Occupancy Fire load density mTOTAL = total mass loss (kg)
Average Fractile ∆HC = heat of combustion of fuel (kJ/kg)
(MJ/m2) (MJ/m2)
80% 90% 95% If the fuel load is mixed, equation 2 can be applied as
Dwelling 780 870 920 970 follows:
Hospital 230 350 440 520
Hospital storage 2000 3000 3700 4400
QTOTAL = (mTOTAL. ∆HC)FUEL1 + (mTOTAL . ∆HC)FUEL2 + …..
Hotel bedroom 310 400 460 510
= ∑ mTOTAL i × ∆HC i (Eqn 2)
Offices 420 570 670 760
Shops 600 900 1100 1300
Manufacturing 300 470 590 720 where i = fuel type.
Manufacturing 1180 1800 2240 2690
and storage Fire load density is the fire load per unit area. This is
Libraries 1500 2250 2550 – obtained by dividing QTOTAL from equation 1 or 2 by the
Schools 285 360 410 450 floor area of the enclosure of fire origin.
The distribution and orientation of any fire load
is important in determining the rate of fire growth.
Combustible material orientated vertically can yield
They will all result in different distributions of fuel load a rapid rate of fire growth as a result of the increased
per square metre of floor area which is commonly potential for direct flame impingement on unburnt
referred to as the fire load density. material leading to increased levels of radiative and
Traditionally, hazard assessment focuses on the building convective heat transfer.
contents as the primary available fuel source(s). However,
with new developments in the design of buildings leading Ventilation conditions
to the use of more combustible construction, it might The ventilation of an enclosure within a building is of
be necessary to consider the construction materials in significance in determining the HRR of a fire. Assuming an
the hazard assessment. This is occurring as a result of enclosure of fire origin with defined dimensions and fire
a concerted effort to use renewable materials (often load. If there is sufficient ventilation to the space within
cellulose-based) and highly thermally efficient materials which the fire is initiated, without intervention, the fire
(synthetic polymer-based). In the majority of cases, a can grow until it has consumed all of the available fuel
building’s fabric will be controlled by building regulation (Figure 1).
requirements (depending on the geographical location) If ventilation of the same enclosure with an identical
and to the same extent any combustible elements of fire load is restricted, the fire growth and heat release will
construction should be fire-separated from the areas become limited by the available oxygen and the mass of
containing the fire hazards within a building, to prevent fuel consumed by the fire will also be limited (Figure 2).
them from becoming involved in fire.
Fire load densities for different types of occupancies
are provided in Table 1 taken from PD 7974-1[5].
However, caution should be exercised when using these
data as they are derived from a series of fire load surveys
Heat release rate

Fuel-controlled
that were carried out before 1983 and presented in a
CIB W14 workshop report. For some types of occupancy Growth Decay
in particular, advances in technology and changes in
design philosophy have resulted in significant changes, for
example the increased use of IT and the move to open- Ignition
Time
plan accommodation in offices and dwellings.
Clearly, for goods stored in racking (eg in warehouses), Figure 1: Fuel-controlled fire
the fire load per square metre of floor area could
significantly exceed the value in Table 1.
Given the data in Table 1, the maximum heat that can
be released from a fire, assuming that it is fully ventilated
Heat release rate

will be the fire load density (MJ/m2) × the floor area (m2).
If the fire load density is not known or there is a Fuel-controlled case
mixture of unevenly distributed fuels within the enclosure,
then it is possible to calculate the maximum HRR Ventilation-controlled

(assuming that all of the fuel is consumed) using either Ignition Extinction
equations 1 or 2 below, as appropriate. Time

QTOTAL = mTOTAL × ∆HC (Eqn 1) Figure 2: Ventilation-controlled fire

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4 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

Both of the scenarios described above assume that the Possible interventions during the fire
ventilation conditions within the enclosure of fire origin This is basically an event or series of events that can
remain unchanged as a function of time. occur during the course of a fire and alter the fire’s
While it is important to consider the availability of characteristics. Such interventions could include:
oxygen in the air, it is also important to be aware of • breaking of windows to increase ventilation
circumstances where the thermal decomposition of • opening of doors by occupants during evacuation or
certain materials produces oxygen (an oxidant) in addition by the fire service
to that already present in the air. This could result in a • operation of HVAC system
combustion reaction being supported in the absence • operation of fire dampers
of air (or at reduced oxygen level). In addition, the • operation of smoke control ventilation system
designated function of the building may also introduce • operation of suppression system.
additional sources of oxygen. For example, piped oxygen
and/or cylinders of compressed oxygen are found All these interventions could influence the growth of a
commonly across a hospital site to satisfy the ongoing fire and should be considered in terms of the overall
needs of patients. Such circumstances are not likely to be characterisation and definition of a design fire. Particular
encountered widely, but every effort should be made as care is necessary since what represents a worst case for
part of the fire safety engineering design process to take some interventions might be best case for others.
account of the presence of oxidising materials.

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3 STEADY-STATE DESIGN FIRES 5

3 STEADY-STATE DESIGN FIRES


The simplest approach to specifying a design fire is based building, it is determined between the approver and the
on assessing the largest size a fire is reasonably likely to designer that a steady-state design fire is most appropriate
reach in the situation being considered[4]. This is then for the situation being considered, then the size of the
used as the basis for the design of the fire protection steady-state fire must be defined based on a credible fire
systems and assumes that the HRR continues indefinitely. area dependent on the fuel sources likely to be present.
Figure 3 shows an example of a plot of a generic HRR The basis of the design fire must be clearly explained
versus time representation of a steady-state design fire. so that its limitations are easily understood. If there is a
Steady-state design fires have historically been employed design fire within this publication that is representative of
as a basis for design, as there has previously been an the design scenario, the fixed fire size for design will need
acknowledged lack of data in relation to time-dependent to be defined based on consideration of the fire growth
design fires[2]. Steady-state design fires have been used in curve. Selection of a peak HRR for a steady-state design
the design of smoke control systems in a range of building may represent an onerous design condition, but only in
occupancies, but they were initially applied to the design relation to the fuel load for which the data are available.
of smoke control systems in enclosed and partially If the design fire (transient or steady state) is going to
enclosed shopping centres. be employed to determine the specification of a smoke
Research into smoke control in enclosed and partially control system, consideration should be given to the
enclosed shopping centres and the subsequent guidance proportion of the total heat released which is convection.
produced[2] used the methodology of selecting a fixed fire A number of the design fires presented in this publication
size. By basing the design of the smoke control system have had the fraction of the total heat released as
on the maximum likely fire size means that, as stated convection plotted or stated. In cases where this has not
previously, any fire size up to the maximum fire will be been possible, it can be determined by the application of
managed by the system and a degree of flexibility can be an appropriate correction factor based on the type of fuel
retained. For example, even if the occupancy changes, load to determine the convected fraction.
the designer may be able to demonstrate that the It is the convective portion of the total heat released
maximum likely fire size is still within the bounds of the which relates to the entrainment of air into the rising
original smoke control system design. plume above the fire, thus the rate of smoke being
If, in the design of the fire safety precautions for a produced, which is normally expressed in terms of mass/






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Figure 3: Example of a generic steady-state design fire 

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6 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

Table 2: Examples of the fraction of the total heat radiation. Radiative heat transfer has little bearing on the
released which is transferred as convection for a range rate of smoke production, hence it is discounted in the
of different fuel types
design of smoke control systems. However, radiative heat
Material Convective transfer is relevant to the overall fire growth characteristics
fraction
as it is a significant factor in flame spread, fire spread,
Ethanol 0.74
Kerosene 0.65 time–temperature analysis and also in the calculation of
Benzene 0.40 the temperature of the structure.
Octane 0.67 Steady-state design fires are a conservative
Silicone 0.84 representation of a realistic fire scenario for a particular
Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) 0.69 set of circumstances. However, when implemented in a
Douglas fir 0.62 transient analysis, the results may be unconservative in
Polystyrene 0.41 the early phases, particularly in relation to detection time.
Polyurethane 0.42 As such, their application in design may result in the over-
specification of fire safety provisions at cost to a project.
It is probable that as the database of time-dependent
volume per unit of time. Values for the proportion of fire curves increases and broadens in variety, together
the total heat released that is released as convection with advances in fire modelling, the steady-state fire as a
(convective factor) are given in the literature[2, 4, 6]. The design tool may become restricted. However, calculations
values given in Table 2 are taken from reference [6] and based on the use of steady-state design fires provide a
are a selection of the convective fraction values which relatively simplistic method of giving an initial quantitative
could be applied by the designer. evaluation of the impact a particular fire may have on a
The remaining fraction of the total heat released which particular set of circumstances.
is not transferred via convection is mainly transferred via

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4 TIME-DEPENDENT DESIGN FIRES 7

4 TIME-DEPENDENT DESIGN FIRES


This type of design fire provides a closer approximation However, despite these uncertainties, for fully ventilated
to a real fire than a steady-state design fire. It is generally fires, it has been found that the rate of development
accepted that there are five stages characteristic of the approximates to a parabolic growth (a t-squared growth)
development of a fire: following an initial incubation period[5, 7, 8]. Thus:
• ignition 

• pre-flashover (growth) 4 D I W  WR (Eqn 3)
• flashover
• fully developed where:


• decay. 
4 = D I HRR
W  WR at any time (kW)

4 D I W=
 WRfire growth coefficient (kW/s2)
Where the fully developed and decay stages occur t = time (s)
during the post-flashover phase of the fire, these can be t0 = incubation time of fire (s)
represented schematically as given in Figure 4. 

After ignition of the first item(s) has occurred, the 4 D I appears
The coefficient W  WR to lie in the range of
speed of fire growth is dependent on the transfer of heat 10-3 kW/s2 for slowly developing fires to 1 kW/s2 for rapid
to adjacent combustible materials and products and the fire growth[7]. Four standard fire curves have been defined
ease with which they are ignited. As a consequence, fire and validated[9]; the values of the coefficients are set out
growth rates will vary significantly. The following sections in Table 3.
explain how these may be approximated. The t-squared curve is quadratic without any limit; it
does not have a steady state and decay period. When the

4 D I presented
coefficients W  WR in Table 3 are plotted for each
of the four fire growth coefficients (slow, medium, fast
4.1 t-SQUARED FIRE GROWTH CURVES and ultrafast) they appear as shown in Figure 5. These fire
As has already been discussed, the growth phase of a fire growth coefficients are derived from the time taken to
is sensitive to many variables, such as the: reach the HRR of 1 MW.
• distribution of combustible material within a space The fire growth coefficient is a valid way of predicting
• properties of the materials the likely rate at which a fire will develop to its maximum
• configuration of the materials. HRR for horizontally spreading fires, but alone, it does not
provide the user with the maximum heat release value.
Users should be aware that the fire growth coefficient

Incipient Growth Flashover Fully developed Decay Extinction


phase phase phase phase
Temperature

Ignition

Time

Figure 4: Phases of fire development

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8 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

Table 3: The four standard fire growth coefficients. Data from Chitty & Fraser-Mitchell[9]
Fire growth Time to reach Coefficient Fire scenario
coefficient 1 MW αƒ
(s)
Slow 600 0.00293 Densely packed paper
Medium 300 0.01172 Traditional mattress or armchair
Fast 150 0.0469 PU mattress or PE pallets
Ultra fast 75 0.1876 High rack storage
PU = polyurethane, PE = polyethylene.








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8OWUDIDVW )DVW 0HGLXP 6ORZ 

Figure 5: The t-squared fire growth curves

alone does not give an assessment of the likely duration 4.3 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN FIRES
of the fire as this is dependent on the amount of fuel In some cases, the fire performance of a particular fuel
available and the ventilation conditions in the vicinity arrangement may not be known or quantified. In such
of the fire. Where this approach is used as part of the cases, it may be necessary and advisable to measure the
process to develop a theoretical fire curve, it is necessary parameters for the particular fuel arrangement and to use
to carry out further calculations (eg the size of the fire at them as the basis for the design fire description within a
the onset of flashover) to set an upper limit to what would fire safety engineering design.
otherwise be an infinite fire growth[2]. Such an experiment should be carefully designed in
The peak HRR values and the time associated to reach discussion with the end user of the data to ensure that it
the peak HRR, shown in chapters 6 and 7, have allowed a is representative and appropriate. It may also be advisable
fire growth coefficient to be determined, where possible, to consult with the approvals authority during the
for the experimental fires detailed in this publication. planning stages to ensure that all concerns are adequately
addressed. A typical checklist of factors that will be
considered will include those listed in Box 2.
A large-scale experiment carried out under an
4.2 OTHER CALCULATION METHODS appropriately sized calorimeter will produce data on
There are a number of different methods for calculating parameters such as HRR, rate of production of smoke
the HRR in an enclosure fire, most of which are based and chemical species such as CO, CO2 (and others as
on experimental data. As such, they could be described specified) as a function of time. Additional localised
as semi-empirical or, in some cases, fully empirical. Due measurements can also be made of parameters including
to this, they are all limited to the conditions relating to temperatures, velocities, heat transfer, chemical species
the experimental design, in particular, in relation to the concentrations and optical density. It is important to note
ventilation conditions and heat transfer characteristics. that any parameters determined experimentally are likely
More information can be found in PD 7974-1[5]. to be specific to the test configuration and apparatus.

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4 TIME-DEPENDENT DESIGN FIRES 9

Box 2: Typical checklist of factors to consider when


designing an experimental fire
• Identification of types of combustible materials
• Mass of each type of combustible material
• Probability of involvement of each combustible material
in fire
• Type of fire load
• Distribution of fire load
• Calculation of fire load density
• Ignition scenario
• Parameters to be measured
• Ventilation conditions, whether an enclosure is required,
etc.
• Large-scale calorimetry (such as the 10 MW calorimeter Figure 6: Office fire during early phases of development
in BRE Global Burn Hall) will be required to measure the
parameters, heat release rate, rate of smoke produced, rate
of production of chemical species (eg CO, CO2…). There
are only a few large-scale calorimeters available worldwide
• Estimation of maximum heat release and assessment of
whether the laboratory facility has the necessary capacity to
carry out the experiment safely (if not, re-visit the fuel load
or consider mitigation measures, or both)
• Suppression system to be included or not
• Fire-fighting provisions

4.3.1 Heat release rate


The total heat release rate (HRR) of the gases produced
from a fire are measured by monitoring the amount of
oxygen that has been removed from a given mass of gas
under a large calorimeter hood. The method requires all Figure 7: Fully developed luggage store fire
the gaseous products to be collected by a large extraction
hood and duct system in which the required properties
of the combustion gases are subsequently monitored.
The oxygen concentration is measured as a function
of time using a paramagnetic type analyser, while the
concentrations of CO2 and CO are typically measured
using infrared gas analysers.
The total heat release can also be measured using
the mass loss rate of fuel. This is determined by using
a load cell arrangement on which the fuel is mounted,
typically on a metal framework on which four load
cells are mounted at each corner. The load cells used
are essentially strain gauges which generate a voltage
according to load.

4.3.2 Smoke production rate


The total smoke production rate is measured within the
collection hood and duct of the calorimeter. It is typically
determined by measuring the obscuration of light across
the duct. For more details, see ISO 24473[10].

Figure 8: Developing fire in an indoor play area

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10 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

5 FULLY DEVELOPED FIRES


Nominal or standard fire curves are the simplest Standard (ISO) fire curve:
representation of fully developed post-flashover fire for Θg = 20 + 345log10(8t + 1) (Eqn 4)
design applications. Such fires are normally adopted in
the performance-based design of fire exposed structures External fire curve:
(structural fire engineering). They include the standard Θg = 660(1 – 0.687e–0.32t – 0.313e–3.8t) + 20 (Eqn 5)
(ISO 834[11]) fire curve which is used in the derivation of
fire resistance[12, 13] as well as more severe representations Hydrocarbon fire curve:
of fire behaviour such as the hydrocarbon fire. Less Θg = 1080(1 – 0.675e–0.167t – 0.675e–2.5t) + 20 (Eqn 6)
severe representations also exist such as the external
fire curve (used for elements of a structure outside the where:
building envelope)[14]. Nominal fire curves essentially Θg = the compartment gas temperature (°C)
assume that flashover occurs instantaneously at the point t = time from ignition (min).
of ignition, the fire then continues to grow indefinitely
with no cooling. Three fire curves taken from Eurocode
1, Part 2[15] are shown below in Figure 9. The use of
the standard fire (ISO 834[13]) curve as a design fire 5.1 PARAMETRIC DESIGN FIRES
means that the performance of the structure can be The parametric design fire curve, as specified in
directly benchmarked against regulatory fire resistance Eurocode 1 Part 2[15], is a step forward in complexity from
requirements. Although more realistic representations nominal fire curves and relates the time–temperature
of a compartment fire exist, ie parametric design fires response of a compartment to the available ventilation,
(discussed below), the standard fire curve is still largely fire load density and thermal characteristics of the
used in the performance-based design of timber compartment boundary. Similar to the nominal fire
structures. curves, the parametric approach is a post-flashover
The corresponding equations for each curve, taken model assuming instantaneous flashover at ignition
from Eurocode 1, Part 2[15], are shown below for and is almost exclusively adopted by structural fire
completeness: engineers undertaking performance-based designs. The
application of parametric design fires is largely limited to



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FB29.Design fires.1.Prelims&1-5.indd 10 24/11/2010 14:42:02


5 FULLY DEVELOPED FIRES 11

relatively small compartments and becomes inaccurate time at which peak compartment temperatures are
for large open-plan spaces typical in many multistorey reached. An example of the parametric approach is
structures. Unlike the nominal fire curves, the parametric shown in Figure 10.
approach includes a cooling phase and is often used to
design structures to survive compartment burnout. The 5.2 Time-equivalence
parametric curve is given as: The concept of time-equivalence is used to relate the
severity of real fires to the time–temperature relationship
Θg = 1325(1 – 0.324e-0.2t* – 0.204e-1.7t* (Eqn 7) in a standard fire resistance test[15, 16]. Figure 11 illustrates
– 0.472e-19t*) the concept of time-equivalence, relating the actual
maximum temperature of a structural member (ie beams
where: and columns) from an anticipated fire severity, to the
Θg = temperature in the (°C) time taken for the same member to attain the same
fire compartment temperature when subjected to the standard fire.
t* = t.Γ (h) Generally, time-equivalence can either be determined
t = time (h) by using a simple equation or taken from experimental
Γ = [O/b]²/(0.04/1160)² (dimensionless) data from natural and standard fire resistance tests.
b = √(ρcλ) and should lie between (J/m²s½K) Although simple to use, the time-equivalence is a crude
1000 and 2000 approximate method of modelling real fire behaviour
O = opening factor (Av√h/At) (m½) and bears little relationship with real fire behaviour. In
Av = area of vertical openings (m²) addition, the limitations of the method should be clearly
h = height of vertical openings (m) understood. The main limitation is that the method is
At = total area of enclosure (m²) only applicable to the types of members used in the
ρ = density of boundary enclosure (kg/m³) derivation of the adopted formulae. The method is most
c = specific heat of boundary (J/kgK) applicable to unprotected steel frame structures although
of enclosure modification factors exist for concrete and protected steel
λ = thermal conductivity of boundary (W/mK) frames. The most commonly used form of the time-
equivalence method adopted today is that of Eurcode 1
The concept of parametric time (t*) is used to modify the Part 2[15] which is shown below for completeness:
predicted time–temperature relationship. The background The equivalent time of fire exposure, te,d, is calculated
theory to this calculation approach was developed by using:
Wickström[16]. The values 0.04 and 1160 relate to the
opening factor and the thermal inertia of the standard te,d = qf,d.kb.wf (Eqn 8)
fire compartment as used in the original test programme.
The cooling phase of the time–temperature response is where:
assumed to be linear and is dependent on the parametric qf,d = design fire load density (MJ/m²)






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12 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

Gas temperature

Standard fire
Temperature

Member temperature

Real fire

Equivalent time te,d

Time

Figure 11: The concept of time-equivalence

kb = conversion factor dependent on thermal αv = Av/Af, where Av and Af are the area of the vertical
properties of compartment boundaries ventilation openings and the area of the
(min.m²/MJ), typically taken as 0.09 in the UK compartment floor, respectively
(as per the National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-2[17]) H = the height of the compartment (m)
wf = ventilation factor (dimensionless) αh = Ah/Af, where Ah is the area of horizontal
ventilation openings
where, wf is given by: bv = 12.5(1 + 10αv – αv2) ≥ 10 (Eqn 10)

> @

§· 
ZI ¨ ¸ ˜      D Y    EY ˜ D K t  (Eqn 9)
©+¹ 

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EXPERIMENTAL FIRE DATA 13

EXPERIMENTAL FIRE DATA

The following two chapters present 29 experimental fires Table 4: Summary of the experimental fire occupancy
which have been categorised into two groups: scenarios included in Chapter 6
• Occupancies (Table 4), which considers design fire
Section no. Occupancy
scenarios that are representative of a type of building
6.1 Bar/Night club
occupancy. These experimental fire scenarios can
6.2 Car parks
include a number of different combustible materials. 6.3 Carpet store
The arrangement of the combustible contents was 6.4 Clothes store
intended to represent that of a typical example of such 6.5 Indoor play area
an occupancy. 6.6 Library
• Commodities (Table 5), of which some of the 6.7 Living room
examples, like the occupancies, may contain a number 6.8 Luggage store
of different combustible materials. The fire tests are 6.9 Office
intended to document the fire performance of stand- 6.10 Prison cell
6.11 Reception
alone items. For example, this resource considers a car
6.12 Retail store
to be a commodity and a car park to be an occupancy.
6.13 Video store

A summary of the most commonly used parameters in fire


safety engineering are detailed as part of the summary of
each of the experimental fires where available, including Table 5: Summary of the experimental fire
the following: commodities included in Chapter 7
• heat release rate
Section no. Commodity
• heat of combustion
7.1 Beds
• mass of fire load 7.2 Boxes
• optical density 7.3 Buses
• carbon dioxide concentration 7.4 Cars
• carbon monoxide concentration. 7.5 Chairs
7.6 Christmas trees
Indicative gas concentrations and smoke production 7.7 Computers
parameters are included where available. However, these 7.8 Curtains
parameters alone may not be appropriate for adoption in 7.9 Flight luggage
computational models. Full tranisent definition of many 7.10 Hand cart (selling flowers)
7.11 Pallets
of the experimental fires contained in this publication are
7.12 Pool fires
available in BRE’s Design fires database[18].
7.13 Soft toys
7.14 Televisions
7.15 Upholstered furniture
7.16 Wardrobe

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14 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

6 OCCUPANCIES
6.1 Bar/Night club
TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)

SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.

FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Upholstered bench seating constructed from chipboard, foam seat and back, 132.7 8
covered in dralon-type material. Solid wooden chairs and tables. Upholstered stools
with material covers and foam fillings. Additional items in the unsprinklered test
included four jackets with polyester outer shell and hollow-fibre fillings

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO
concentrations

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


Optical density Mass flow rate CO2 CO
(OD/m) (kg/s) (ppm) (ppm)
Unsprinklered (Test terminated at 2900 s) 2.51 (2025) 3.12 (1485) 14289 (2058) 615 (1356)
Sprinklered (No sprinkler activated, 0.81 (108) 2.31 (648) 4381 (498) 423 (237)
Test terminated at 1500 s)
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


For 0 < t ≤ 372 s, α = 0.0045 kW/s2 (unsprinklered)

REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157

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6 OCCUPANCIES 15

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA







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Heat release rate of an unsprinklered bar






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Heat release rate of a sprinklered bar

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16 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

6.2 Car parks

TEST TYPE
Three experiments simulating an open-sided carpark (with
and without sprinklers) and one experiment simulating a
car park stacker

SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Six standard-response sprinkler heads (to BS EN 12845:
2004 specification), 5 mm/min with coverage of 12 m²
per head. Mean pressure of 2.5 bar with a maximum flow
rate of 510 litres/min.

FIRE LOAD
Test Description
no.
1 Free burn: 3 cars in a ‘typical’ open-sided car park.
Parking space 1: large hatchback (petrol); Parking space
2: unoccupied; Parking space 3: small car (petrol);
Parking space 4: large estate (diesel).
Fuel levels in all cars approximately 20 litres of either
diesel or petrol.
Fire service intervention after 24 minutes.
2 Sprinklered burn: 3 cars in a ‘typical’ open-sided car
park.
Parking space 1: MPV (petrol); Parking space 2:
unoccupied; Parking space 3: small car (petrol);
Parking space 4: 4×4 (petrol).
Fuel levels in all cars approximately 20 litres of either
diesel or petrol.
Fire service intervention after 85 min. MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Sprinkler operation: 2 heads after 4 minutes, 4 heads Heat release rate, temperatures, optical density,
after 42 minutes, 6 heads after 45 minutes. mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO concentrations
3 Free burn: 3 cars in a ‘typical’ open-sided car park.
Parking space 1: MPV (petrol); Parking space 2: FIRE DESIGN PARAMETERS
unoccupied; Parking space 3: mid-sized estate (diesel);
Parking space 1: 4×4 (petrol). For 0 < t ≤ 1269 s, α1 =0.0101 kW/s2 unsprinklered
Fuel levels in all cars approximately 20 litres of either For 0 < t ≤ 3231 s, α2 =0.00065 kW/s 2
sprinklered
diesel or petrol. For 0 < t ≤ 600 s, α3 =0.0306 kW/s 2
unsprinklered
Fire service intervention after 10.5 minutes.
11 Free burn: 2 cars in a stacker configuration (one directly For 0 < t ≤ 678 s, α11 =0.0164 kW/s 2
unsprinklered
above the other).
Lower parking space: 4×4; REFERENCES
Upper parking space: family estate. BSI. BS EN 12845: 2004 + Amendment 2: 2009 Fixed firefighting
Fuel levels in all cars approximately 20 litres of either systems. Automatic sprinkler systems. Design, installation and
diesel or petrol. maintenance
Fire service intervention after 24.5 minutes.
Shipp M, Fraser-Mitchell J, Chitty R et al. Fire spread in car parks; a
summary of the CLG/BRE research programme and findings. 2009.
Available from http://www.info4fire.com/in-depth-content/full/fire-
spread-in-car-parks

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 16 24/11/2010 14:44:00


6 OCCUPANCIES 17

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA









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Single car, medium size, engine fire
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Total heat release rates from car park fires

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18 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

6.3 Carpet store

TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)

SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.

FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Carpet mixes included polypropylene/wool/hair, 100% polypropylene, 80% wool, 117 15
wool/polypropylene mix. Also included vinyl flooring and foam rubber underlay.
Backing materials were either hessian, felt or foam rubber.

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat,
CO2 and CO concentrations

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


Optical density Mass flow rate CO2 CO
(OD/m) (kg/s) (ppm) (ppm)
Unsprinklered (Test terminated at 1400 s) 2.23 (1116) 3.97 (1110) 30845 (1134) 907 (1137)
Sprinklered (First sprinkler activated at 380 s, 3.72 (240) 2.79 (381) 12858 (399) 2350 (225)
Test terminated at 500 s)
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


For 0 < t ≤ 591 s, α = 0.0238 kW/s2 (unsprinklered)

REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 18 24/11/2010 14:44:02


6 OCCUPANCIES 19

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA





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Heat release rate of an unsprinklered carpet store






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Heat release rate of a sprinklered carpet store

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20 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

6.4 Clothes store


TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)

SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.

FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
All synthetic materials including nylon, polyester, acrylic and cotton mixes. 144.6 363
Each item was hung on a plastic coat hanger. Items included T-shirts,
tracksuit trousers, bomber jackets and fleece tops.

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat,
CO2 and CO concentrations

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


Optical density Mass flow rate CO2 CO
(OD/m) (kg/s) (ppm) (ppm)
Unsprinklered (Test terminated at 310 s) 4.00* (228) – 100867 (309) 4922 (282)
Sprinklered (First sprinkler activated at 290 s, 1.04 (336) 3.12 (297) 26451 (312) 710 (315)
Test terminated at 500 s)
*Limit of measuring range for instrument
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


For 150 < t ≤ 310 s, α = 0.308 kW/s2 (unsprinklered)

REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157

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6 OCCUPANCIES 21

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA







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Heat release rate of an unsprinklered clothes store






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Heat release rate of a sprinklered clothes store

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22 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

6.5 Indoor play area

TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)

SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.

FIRE LOAD
Description
• The steel framework was covered in pipe lagging material
(expanded foam), with the padded flooring constructed of
plywood and foam covered with PVC. All padded areas were
PVC-covered foam. A GRP slide and polypropylene rotation
moulded crawl tube were present. Netting material was nylon.

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO
concentrations

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


Optical density Mass flow rate CO2 CO
(OD/m) (kg/s) (ppm) (ppm)
Unsprinklered (Test terminated at 360 s) 4.00* (330) 3.62 (357) 201347 (369) 8550 (369)
Sprinklered (First sprinkler activated at 440 s, 1.02 (633) 2.72 (432) 7024 (453) 931 (423)
Test terminated at 800 s)
*Limit of measuring range for instrument
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


For 100 < t ≤ 370 s, α = 0.1 kW/s2 (unsprinklered)

REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 22 24/11/2010 14:44:04


6 OCCUPANCIES 23

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA







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Heat release rate of an unsprinklered play area






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Heat release rate of a sprinklered play area

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24 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

6.6 Library

TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)

SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four fast response heads on a 3.4 m square grid. Each
sprinkler head had a coverage of 12 m2 and flow rate of
60 l/min.

FIRE LOAD
Description
• One wooden shelving unit fixed to the rear wall (2100 mm
high, 4 bays long) filled with hardback books side by side
(80%) and paperback books stored in a display fashion.
• One metal shelving unit fixed to the wall perpendicular to
Rig hood Fibreglass curtains kept lowered to
the wooden shelving (1800 mm high, 5 bays long) filled with and duct form ‘wall’ behind the wooden shelving
hardback books side by side (80%) and paperback books
stored in a display fashion.
• Two paperback racks (1800 mm long) and two video racks Book shelving wood on this run
(60–75 videos in each) were placed in the centre of the room. Paperback
• A small wood/plastic top table with a VDU, keyboard and racks 1.8m
chair were placed at the end of the metal shelving together long
with a table and three chairs.
Book shelving
Video racks metal on this
(60 75 videos run, against
on each) partition

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total), temperatures, optical density,
Table Table and
mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO concentrations Chairs
VDU with
keyboard

Newspaper/magazine rack
(originally proposed, but not included for tests)

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


CO2 CO
(%) (ppm)
Unsprinklered (Test terminated at 16 mins) 4.00 (1080) 1000 (1080)
Sprinklered (First sprinkler activated at 3.5 mins, 1.40 (240) 900 (720)
Test terminated at 20 mins)
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


For 0 < t ≤ 580 s, α = 0.008 kW/s2 (unsprinklered)

REFERENCE
Webb J & Samme P. The characterisation of library fires using a
sprinklered calorimeter. Private communication, 1996

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 24 24/11/2010 14:44:08


6 OCCUPANCIES 25

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA





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Total heat release rate of a library with and without sprinklers

Unsprinklered test after 6 minutes (approximate fire size of


1 MW)

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 25 24/11/2010 14:44:12


26 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

6.7 Living room


TEST TYPE
One free-burn experiment (no sprinklers operated)

FIRE LOAD
Description
• The contents of the room primarily consisted of:
3-seater settee, 1 dining room chair, 1 beanbag,
2 small coffee tables, 1 sideboard, curtains and books.
• The central area of the floor was laid with carpet tiles (see
diagram, right).
• The seating was part-covered by a throw rug.
• Other furnishings included wicker ornaments, newspapers,
magazines in a rack and candles on horizontal surfaces.
• The curtains were hung from a steel pole (Note: there was no
window).
Dining room Curtain Bean bag
• Books and toys were located on the sofa and sideboard. chair
• A small wastepaper bin containing crumpled newspaper
sheets was located between the beanbag and the settee.

Sofa

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN Waste bin


Heat release rate (total), temperatures, oxygen depletion,
CO2 and CO concentrations

Magazine
rack

Sideboard Carpet tiles Small tables

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


CO2 CO Minimum O2
(%) (%) (%)
Unsprinklered (Test terminated at 24 mins) 0.94 (660) 0.026 (660) 19.9 (660)
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


For 300 < t ≤ 660 s, α = 0.04 kW/s2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The data for this design fire were contributed by
Martin Shipp, BRE Global.

REFERENCE
DeHaan JD. Kirk’s fire investigation. 6th edition. New Jersey,
Pearson Education/Prentice-Hall, 2006

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 26 24/11/2010 14:44:12


6 OCCUPANCIES 27

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA



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Total heat release rate of an unsprinklered living room

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 27 24/11/2010 14:44:12


28 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

6.8 Luggage store

TEST TYPE
Four free-burn experiments (unsprinklered, fast-response
sprinklers and two with standard sprinklers)

SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.

FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Mainly manmade fibres. Nylon outer shells with PVC waterproof interliner, 92 57
polyester inner pockets and compartment dividers. Some cases had fabric shells
with similar liners to the other cases. Rucksacks were mainly nylon weave
with polyester inner linings.

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO
concentrations

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


Optical density Mass flow rate CO2 CO
(OD/m) (kg/s) (ppm) (ppm)
Unsprinklered (Test terminated at 175 s) 4.0* (110) 3.95 (175) 64994 (175) 5059 (175)
Sprinklered (Fast-response sprinkler activated 4.0* (150) – 53978 (220) 4322 (220)
at 110 s, Test terminated at 500 s)
Sprinklered (Standard-response sprinkler 1 4.0* (60) 4.05 (140) 47747 (145) 3479 (130)
activated at 60 s, Test terminated at 400 s)
Sprinklered (Standard-response sprinkler 2 4.0* (105) 3.81 (115) 40658 (155) 2730 (155)
activated at 100 s, Test terminated at 460 s)
*Limit of measuring range for instrument
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


For 75 < t ≤ 175 s, α = 0.6054 kW/s2 (unsprinklered)

REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 28 24/11/2010 14:44:13


6 OCCUPANCIES 29

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA







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Heat release rate of a sprinklered luggage store

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 29 24/11/2010 14:44:13


30 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

6.9 Office

TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)

SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.

FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Melamine-faced chipboard desks, material- and foam-covered MDF dividing screens 245.6 70
on each desk, computer monitors, keyboards and general office items,
which were mainly constructed from plastics. Upholstered office chairs
with material covers, foam seat and back with polypropylene trim.

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO
concentrations

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


Optical density Mass flow rate CO2 CO
(OD/m) (kg/s) (ppm) (ppm)
Unsprinklered (Test terminated at 1800 s) 2.21 (846) 4.13 (1575) 107157 (1779) 11803 (1728)
Sprinklered (First sprinkler activated at 950 s, 0.84 (903) 2.54 (924) 6063 (942) 493 (1137)
Test terminated at 1200 s)
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


For 500 < t ≤ 1200 s, α = 0.0003 kW/s2 (unsprinklered)

REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 30 24/11/2010 14:44:14


6 OCCUPANCIES 31

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA








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7LPH V

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Heat release rate of an unsprinklered office






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Heat release rate of a sprinklered office

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 31 24/11/2010 14:44:15


32 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

6.10 Prison cell

TEST TYPE
Single experiment (free burn, no sprinklers operated).
Cell contained representative prison-issue furniture and
personal items.

FIRE LOAD
Description
• Double-occupancy prison cell measuring internally
3 m × 4 m and 3 m high, giving a total volume of 36 m³.
• The room was of blockwork construction, internally clad with
plasterboard.
• Fire load comprised 2 prison-issue matresses, 2 prison-issue
bedside lockers, one of which was placed on its side on the
lower level of a bunk bed. The locker on the bunk bed was
filled with: 12 crisp packets, 4 boxes of cereal, a pair of jeans,
a vest, 2 toilet rolls, 2 plastic bottles, a newspaper, a magazine,
10 single CD cases, a computer keyboard, a prison issue duvet
cover, sheet and pillow slip. Additionally, 2 desks, 2 chairs Television
Bunk
(one of which was plastic), 2 pairs of shoes, a towel, 3 shirts, beds Desk and
a television and 2 pairs of jeans. chair
• Fire was manually extinguished after approximately
18.5 minutes. Locker
• Door was open throughout the test.

Desk and
plastic chair
Shower/toilet
cubicle area

Ceiling extract
location

Doorway

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


Minimum Volume
oxygen CO2 CO HCN HCL flow rate
(%) (m3/s) (m3/s) (ppm) (ppm) (m3/s)
0.2 (mid-height) 0.165 (1074) 0.03 (396) 1030 (600) 51 (600) 20 (600)
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN REFERENCE


Heat release rate (total), temperatures, optical density, Annable K. Watermist systems for prison cells. 2010. Available at
HCN, HCL, CO2 and CO concentrations www.info4fire.com/in-depth-content/full/water-mist-systems-for-
prison-cells
FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER
For 0 < t ≤ 600 s, α = 0.0069 kW/s2

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 32 24/11/2010 14:44:15


6 OCCUPANCIES 33

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA



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Total heat release rate from a typical prison cell (unsprinklered)

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 33 24/11/2010 14:44:16


34 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

6.11 Reception

TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)

SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.

FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Computer monitors, keyboards, TV/monitor, polypropylene wastebasket, videocassettes 86.5 19
and recorder as well as general office items such as ring binders and paper.
Two office-style leather faced chairs with foam seat and back. Two visitors’ seats
material-covered with hollow-fibre cushions and one material-covered sofa with hollow fibre.

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total & convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO
concentrations

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


Optical density Mass flow rate CO2 CO
(OD/m) (kg/s) (ppm) (ppm)
Unsprinklered (Test terminated at 1700 s) 4.00* (975) 4.23 (1062) 51615 (1515) 12589 (1629)
Sprinklered (First sprinkler activated at 360 s, 2.14 (366) 2.90 (345) 10628 (378) 642 (381)
Test terminated at 500 s)
*Limit of measuring range for instrument
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


For 180 < t ≤ 1400 s, α = 0.003 kW/s2 (unsprinklered)

REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 34 24/11/2010 14:44:17


6 OCCUPANCIES 35

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA






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Heat release rate of an unsprinklered reception area








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7LPH V

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Heat release rate of a sprinklered reception area

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 35 24/11/2010 14:44:17


36 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

6.12 Retail store

TEST TYPE
Single free-burn experiment (without sprinklers)

FIRE LOAD
Description
• Retail store complete with luggage, plastic manikin, bags,
plastic shoes, LCD display, chairs, storage cupboard and
plastic toys arranged over both the floor area and in hanging
displays.

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate, temperatures, volume flow, rate of
smoke production, O2, CO2 and CO concentrations

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


Smoke Volume
CO CO2 O2 minimum production rate flow rate
(%) (%) (%) (m2/s) (m3/s)
Unsprinklered 0.08 (1128) 1.66 (1122) 19.07 (1113) 14.77 (1152) 16 (1122)
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


For 0 < t ≤ 153 s, α = 0.184 kW/s2 (unsprinklered)

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA






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Total heat release rate of an unsprinklered retail store

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 36 24/11/2010 14:44:22


6 OCCUPANCIES 37

6.13 Video store

TEST TYPE
Single free-burn experiment (without sprinklers)

FIRE LOAD
Description
• Video cassettes in plastic or cardboard boxes, empty compact
disc cases. Shelving formed from moulded polypropylene
video and CD trays supported by a metal framework. The
layout was intended to represent a corner aisle of a video
shop. The tests represented malicious ignition of the bottom
row of the centre video rack.

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate, temperatures, optical density, radiant
heat, CO2 and CO concentrations

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


Optical density CO2 CO
(OD/m) (%) (ppm)
Unsprinklered 2.5 (240) 4.1 (660) 7000 (660)
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


For 100 < t ≤ 660 s, α = 0.02 kW/s2 (unsprinklered)

REFERENCE
Samme P & Webb J. The characterisation of video shop fires using
a sprinklered calorimeter. Private communication, 1997

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA







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Total heat release rate of an unsprinklered video store 

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 37 01/12/2010 13:46:42


38 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

6 Notes

FB29.Design fires.2.Occupancies6.indd 38 24/11/2010 14:44:22


7 COMMODITIES 39

7 COMMODITIES
7.1 Beds

FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description Mass No.
no. (kg) of items
1 Double bed, bedding, night table 53.70 1
2 Double bed, bedding, night table 53.70 1

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN REFERENCES


Heat release rate (total) Spearpoint M. FireBaseXML database. Version 1.34. New Zealand,
University of Canterbury, 2007. Visit http://www.civil.canterbury.
ac.nz/spearpoint/HRR_Database/HRR_Database.xml
FIRE DESIGN PARAMETERS
Bed α Heat of combustion
(kW/s2) (J/kg)
1 2.22 for 0< t ≤ 360 s 18100
2 0.82 for 0< t ≤ 230 s 18100

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA







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7LPH V
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Total heat release rate of a double bed, bedding and night table

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 39 24/11/2010 14:45:43


40 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

7.2 Boxes

TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)

SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.

FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Corrugated cardboard boxes (610 mm × 610 mm × 480 mm) filled with packing materials, 353 96
mainly polystyrene chips and expanded foam mouldings. 16 boxes per stack each on
a wooden pallet with 6 stacks in total

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate and radiant heat

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


Optical density Mass flow rate
(OD/m) (kg/s)
Unsprinklered (Test terminated at 880 s) 4.00* (625) 3.71 (880)
Sprinklered (First sprinkler activated at 1200 s, 3.07 (1470) 3.03 (1355)
Test terminated at 1600 s)
*Limit of measuring range for instrument
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


For 0 < t ≤ 880 s, α = 0.0362 kW/s2 (unsprinklered)

REFERENCE
Garrad G & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design.
Interflam 1999. Proceedings of 8th Conference, Volume 1.
London, Interscience Communications, 1999. p 555

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 40 24/11/2010 14:45:44


7 COMMODITIES 41

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA









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Heat release rate of unsprinklered boxes






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Heat release rate of sprinklered boxes

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 41 24/11/2010 14:45:44


42 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

7.3 Buses

TEST TYPE
A single free-burn experiment to simulate a fire in the rear
luggage compartment

FIRE LOAD
Description
• A 13 m single-deck Volvo coach with 49 passenger seats.
The bus was used for development purposes and was
never used in public traffic. Gear box fitted with a retarder.
Fire ignited in the rear luggage compartment using a propane
burner. Calorimeter placed to measure heat release rate from
rear two-thirds of the bus length.

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total), temperatures, visibility, CO, CO2,
HCl, HCN, HF, HBr, SO2, NOa and NO2 concentrations

Photos courtesy of Björn Sundström, SP Technical Research


Institute of Sweden

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS (inside passenger compartment after 8 minutes)


CO CO2 HCl HCN HF HBr SO2 NOa NO2
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
3030 1710 51 65 <5 <10 <10 <15 <5

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


For 0 < t ≤ 1140 s, α = 0.009 kW/s2

REFERENCE
Hammarström R, Axelsson J, Försth M et al. Bus fire safety.
SP report 2008:41. Boras, Technical Research Institute of Sweden,
2008. Available as a pdf from: www-v2.sp.se

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 42 24/11/2010 14:45:45


7 COMMODITIES 43

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA





Test terminated
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7LPH PLQ

Total heat release rate of a bus (fire in luggage compartment)

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 43 24/11/2010 14:45:45


44 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

7.4 Cars
TEST TYPE
Four free-burn experiments:
• Small family car
• fire originating in the passenger compartment
(windows and doors closed)
• fire originating in the engine compartment
• MPV
• fire originating in the passenger compartment
(windows and doors closed)
• fire originating in the engine compartment

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate, temperatures, smoke production,
volume flow rate, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
oxygen depletion

FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description
no.
1 2002 5-Door medium-sized hatchback: Fire originating in the passenger compartment,
ignition using a No. 7 crib, 20 litres of fuel in tank
2 2000 MPV: Fire originating in the passenger compartment, ignition using a No. 7 crib
20 litres of fuel in tank
3 2002 5-Door medium-sized hatchback: Fire originating in the engine bay,
ignition using an IMS-soaked fibreboard, 20 litres of fuel in tank
4 2000 MPV: Fire originating in the engine bay, ignition using an IMS-soaked fibreboard
20 litres of fuel in tank
Note: Experiment nos 1 and 3 self-extinguished and were terminated respectively due to the lack of available air.

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


Smoke production Volume flow rate CO2 CO
(m2/s) (m2/s) (%) (%)
Experiment 1 0.095 (510) 15.386 (0 to 2217) 0.057 (0 to 2163) 0.004 (1959)
Experiment 2 0.492 (1413) 18.069 (0 to 1300) 0.050 (0 to 1800) 0.022 (78)
Experiment 3 91.164 (2940) 19.378 (0 to 4836) 1.334 (2650) 0.046 (2800)
Experiment 4 81.183 (2529) 19.539 (0 to 3504) 1.181 (3546) 0.044 (3078)
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETERS REFERENCE


For 750 < t ≤ 930 s, α = 0.06 kW/s2 in Experiment 3 Shipp M, Fraser-Mitchell J, Chitty R et al. Fire spread in car parks.
For 300 < t ≤ 750 s, α = 0.0098 kW/s2 in Experiment 4 A summary of the CLG/BRE research programme and findings.
2009. Available at www.info4fire.com/in-depth-content/full/fire-
spread-in-car-parks

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 44 24/11/2010 14:45:48


7 COMMODITIES 45

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA




Test
terminated



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Total heat release rate of a family car and MPV (fire originating in engine compartment)

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 45 24/11/2010 14:45:49


46 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

7.5 Chairs

FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description Mass No. of
no. (kg) items
1 Stacked chairs constructed from foam and cellulosic material 40.00 16
2 Wood-frame easy chair, polyeurathane cushions, polyolefin fabricA 28.34 1
3 Wood-frame easy chair, cotton padding, polyolefin fabricB 31.20 1
4 Love seat, metal frame, four solid polyurethane foam-filled cushions – 1
covered in plastic-coated fabricC

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN REFERENCES


Heat release rate (total) Spearpoint M. FireBaseXML database. Version 1.34. New Zealand,
University of Canterbury, 2007. Visit http://www.civil.canterbury.
ac.nz/spearpoint/HRR_Database/HRR_Database.xml
FIRE DESIGN PARAMETERS Chair A
Chairs α Heat of combustion Williamson RB & Dembsey NA. Advances in assessment methods
(kW/s2) (J/kg) for fire safety. Interflam 1990. Proceedings of 5th Conference.
1 0.255 for 0 < t ≤ 84 s 15000 London, Interscience Communications, 2001. p
2 0.017 for 0 < t ≤ 350 s –
3 0.0075 for 0 < t ≤ 365 s 16800 Chair B
4 0.0012 for 0 < t ≤ 500 s – Lawson JR, Walton WD & Twilley WH. Fire performance of
furnishings as measured in the NBS furniture calorimeter. Part I.
NBSIR 83-2787. 1984. Available at http://fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/
fire84/art002.html

Chair C
Babrauskas V, Lawson J R, Walton W D & Twilley WH. Upholstered
furniture heat release rates measured with a furniture calorimeter.
NBSIR 82-2604. 1982. Available at http://fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/
fire82/art007.html

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 46 24/11/2010 14:45:49


7 COMMODITIES 47

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA








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7LPH V

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Total heat release rate of 16 stacked chairs




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Total heat release rate of single chairs

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 47 24/11/2010 14:45:49


48 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

7.6 Christmas trees

FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description Mass No. of
no. (kg) items
1 Height 2.6 m, width at widest point 1.7 m, moisture content 30% 17.2 1
Conditioned at 23 °C, 50% RH for 3 weeks. Ignition by electric match
2 Height 2.7 m, width at widest point 1.3 m, moisture content 27% 15.9 1
Conditioned at 23 °C, 50% RH for 3 weeks. Ignition by electric match
3 Height 2.3 m, width at widest point 1.7 m, moisture content 30% 20.0 1
Conditioned at 23 °C, 50% RH for 3 weeks. Ignition by electric match
4 Height 2.5 m, width at widest point 1.2 m, moisture content 30% 9.5 1
Conditioned at 23 °C, 50% RH for 3 weeks. Ignition by electric match
5 Height 2.5 m, width at widest point 1.7 m, moisture content 28% 19.1 1
Conditioned at 23 °C, 50% RH for 3 weeks. Ignition by electric match
6 Height 2.5 m, width at widest point 1.1 m, moisture content 32%
Conditioned at 23 °C, 50% RH for 3 weeks. Ignition by electric match 12.7 1
7 Height 3.1 m, width at widest point 1.5 m, moisture content 25%
Conditioned at 23 °C, 50% RH for 3 weeks. Ignition by electric match 18.6 1

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN REFERENCES


Heat release rate (total) Spearpoint M. FireBaseXML database. Version 1.34. New Zealand,
University of Canterbury, 2007. Visit http://www.civil.canterbury.
ac.nz/spearpoint/HRR_Database/HRR_Database.xml
FIRE DESIGN PARAMETERS Stroup DW, DeLauter L, Lee J & Roadarmel G. Scotch pine
Tree α Total heat release Christmas tree fire tests. NIST Report FR 4010. Gaithersburg
(kW/s2) (MW) MD, Building and Fire Research Laboratory, National Institute of
1 1.63 for 0 < t ≤ 51 s 161.282 Standards and Technology, 1999
2 2.98 for 0 < t ≤ 21 s 138.803
3 1.85 for 0 < t ≤ 53 s 203.852
4 0.38 for 0 < t ≤ 63 s 84.243
5 0.89 for 0 < t ≤ 61 s 188.31
6 0.26 for 0 < t ≤ 81 s 93.5425
7 1.63 for 0 < t ≤ 44 s 151.42

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 48 24/11/2010 14:45:49


8 COMMODITIES 49

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA






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Total heat release rate of Christmas trees (Trees 1–4)








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Total heat release rate of Christmas trees (Trees 5–7)

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 49 24/11/2010 14:45:50


50 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

7.7 Computers

FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description Mass No. of
no. (kg) items
1 Laptop computer in a corrugated cardboard box and polystyrene foam packing 3.41 1
2 Desktop computer in a single wall corrugated cardboard box and 5.93 1
polystyrene foam packing

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN REFERENCES


Heat release rate (total) Hasegawa HK, Alvares NJ & White JA. Fire tests of packaged
and palletized computer products. Fire Technology 1999: 35(4):
291–307
FIRE DESIGN PARAMETERS Spearpoint M. FireBaseXML database. Version 1.34. New Zealand,
Computer α Total heat release University of Canterbury, 2007. Visit http://www.civil.canterbury.
(kW/s2) (MW) ac.nz/spearpoint/HRR_Database/HRR_Database.xml
1 0.0086 for 100 < t ≤ 358 s 42.5
2 0.0135 for 100 < t ≤ 266 s 43.7

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA






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7LPH V

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Total heat release rate of individual computers

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 50 24/11/2010 14:45:50


7 COMMODITIES 51

7.8 Curtains

FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description Mass No. of
no. (kg) items
1 Mixed material curtains: 39% cotton, 16% polyester, 45% acrylic 1.43 1
2 Mixed material curtains: 39% cotton, 16% polyester, 45% acrylic 1.43 1

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN REFERENCES


Heat release rate (total) Gross D. Data sources for parameters used in predictive modeling
of fire growth and smoke spread. NBSIR 85-3223. 1985. Available
at: http://fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/fire85/art001.html
FIRE DESIGN PARAMETERS Spearpoint M. FireBaseXML database. Version 1.34. New Zealand,
Curtains α Heat of combustion University of Canterbury, 2007. Visit http://www.civil.canterbury.
(kW/s2) (J/kg) ac.nz/spearpoint/HRR_Database/HRR_Database.xml
1 0.027 for 0 < t ≤ 415 s 13000
2 0.042 for 0 < t ≤ 540 s 12000

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA








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7LPH V

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Total heat release rate of pairs of curtains

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 51 24/11/2010 14:45:50


52 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

7.9 Flight luggage

FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description
no.
1 Air-side airport design fire consisting of two carry-on bags burning simultaneously
2 Land-side airport design fire consisting of bags on a piled-high luggage trolley
The bags were filled with clothing and other representative materials

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN REFERENCES


Heat release rate (total) Morgan H & De Smedt J-C. Prescription in flight. Fire Engineers
Journal and Fire Prevention 2002: July

Spearpoint M. FireBaseXML database. Version 1.34. New Zealand,


FIRE DESIGN PARAMETERS University of Canterbury, 2007. Visit http://www.civil.canterbury.
Luggage α ac.nz/spearpoint/HRR_Database/HRR_Database.xml
(kW/s2)
1 0.006 for 128 < t ≤ 419 s
2 0.003 for 94 < t ≤ 1218 s

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA






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7LPH V

/XJJDJH /XJJDJH


Total heat release rate of flight luggage

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 52 01/12/2010 13:52:28


7 COMMODITIES 53

7.10 Hand cart


TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)

SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.

FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Synthetic flowers constructed of manmade fibres, mainly polyester petals 13.1 100+
with polypropylene covered wire stems. Handcart was constructed of MDF
with a polycotton canopy

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total & convective), temperatures,
optical density, radiant heat, CO2 and CO concentrations

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETER


Optical density CO2 CO
(OD/m) (ppm) (ppm)
Unsprinklered (Test terminated at 600 s) 3.52 (268) 48939 (423) 630 (413)
Sprinklered (First sprinkler activated at 1300 s, 1.91 (1290) 17965 (1305) 403 (1300)
Test terminated at 1500 s)
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


α = 0.038 kW/s2 (unsprinklered time to peak
heat release rate = 276 s)

REFERENCE
Clarke P & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design purposes:
a database for fire safety engineers. Interflam 2001. Proceedings of
9th Conference, Volume 1. London, Interscience Communications,
2001. p 1157

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54 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA






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Heat release rate of an unsprinklered hand cart








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Heat release rate of an sprinklered hand cart

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7 COMMODITIES 55

7.11 Pallets

TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)

SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.

FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Wooden pallets 1200 mm × 1200 mm stacked between 1.15 m and 1.17 m high 500+ 40
Moisture content between 10 to 20%

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO
concentrations

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


Optical density Mass flow rate CO2 CO
(OD/m) (kg/s) (ppm) (ppm)
Unsprinklered (Test terminated at 480 s) 1.48 (870) 3.22 (830) 22850 (690) 4344 (535)
Sprinklered (First sprinkler activated at 240 s, 1.91 (475) 3.93 (448) 84103 (475) 701 (270)
Test terminated at 1200 s)
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


For 0 < t ≤ 240 s, α = 0.0104 kW/s2 (unsprinklered)

REFERENCE
Garrad G & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design.
Interflam 1999. Proceedings of 8th Conference, Volume 1.
London, Interscience Communications, 1999. p 555

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 55 24/11/2010 14:45:52


56 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA








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Heat release rate of sprinklered pallets

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 56 24/11/2010 14:45:52


7 COMMODITIES 57

7.12 Pool fires

TEST TYPE
Twelve free-burn experiments incorporating industrial
methylated spirit (IMS) and kerosene fuel

FIRE LOAD
Test Location Fuel Tray size Mass of Nominal
(Length × width × height) fuel fire size
(m) (kg) (kW)
1 Centre of a room IMS99 0.75 × 0.75 × 0.15 24 400
2 Centre of a room IMS99 0.75 × 0.75 × 0.15 24 400
3 Against a wall IMS99 0.75 × 0.75 × 0.15 24 400
4 Against a wall IMS99 0.75 × 0.75 × 0.15 24 400
5 In a corner IMS99 0.75 × 0.75 × 0.15 24 400
6 In a corner IMS99 0.75 × 0.75 × 0.15 24 400
7 In a corner IMS99 1.55 × 1.55 × 0.15 128 2000
8 In a corner IMS99 1.55 × 1.55 × 0.15 128 2000
9 In a corner Kerosine 1.1 × 1.1 × 0.15 60 2000
10 In a corner Kerosine 1.1 × 1.1 × 0.15 60 2000
11 In a corner Kerosine 1.55 × 1.55 × 0.15 160 5000
12 In a corner Kerosine 1.55 × 1.55 × 0.15 160 5000

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total), flame height, temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, oxygen
depletion, CO2 and CO concentrations

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETERS


Test Maximum Average Total Peak Peak Peak rate of Flame
HRR HRR at SS HR CO CO2 smoke production height
(kW) (kW) (MJ) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m2/s) (m)
1/2 560 461.5 611 – 0.0219 (1323) – 2.2
3/4 497 401.1 591 – 0.0194 (1341) – 2.2
5/6 512 403.9 620 – 0.0196 (1467) – 2.2
7/8 2685 2093.8 3089 – 0.0971 (1313) – 4.2
9/10 2806 2165.0 2408 0.00201 (684) 0.0891 (1011) 140.6 (1030) 4.2
11/12 6961 5510.0 6659 0.00391 (1026) 0.2073 (639) – 5.9
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

REFERENCE
Marshall N. Evaluation of fire models for fire hazard assessment
in buildings. Part 1: Experimental programme. Private
communication, 1999

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 57 24/11/2010 14:45:53


58 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA





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FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 58 24/11/2010 14:45:53


7 COMMODITIES 59






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FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 59 24/11/2010 14:45:54


60 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

7.13 Soft toys

TEST TYPE
Two free-burn experiments (with and without sprinklers)

SPRINKLER SPECIFICATION
Four standard-response sprinklers (unless stated) operated
manually. Total combined flow rate of 270 l/min and with
a pressure of 0.6 bar at the sprinkler heads. This gave
at least a 12 m2 coverage per head and 5 mm/min/m2
delivered water density.

FIRE LOAD
Description Mass No. of
(kg) items
Toys: mainly manmade fibres, described as hollow-fibre fillings with plush coverings. 62 383
Wall-mounted items were made of an undetermined plastic and were contained in
blister packs with a cardboard backing.

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total and convective), temperatures,
optical density, mass flow rate, radiant heat, CO2 and CO
concentrations

PEAK MEASURED PARAMETERS


Optical density Mass flow rate CO2 CO
(OD/m) (kg/s) (ppm) (ppm)
Unsprinklered (Test terminated at 1380 s) 2.40 (285) 4.34 (965) 27092 (540) 739 (1140)
Sprinklered (First sprinkler activated at 300 s, 1.84 (265) 3.70 (300) 22320 (315) 400 (310)
Test terminated at 420 s)
Numbers in parentheses = time to peak parameters in seconds

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETER


For 0 < t ≤ 535 s, α = 0.006 kW/s2 (unsprinklered)

REFERENCE
Garrad G & Smith DA. Characterisation of fires for design.
Interflam 1999. Proceedings of 8th Conference, Volume 1.
London, Interscience Communications, 1999. p 555

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 60 24/11/2010 14:45:54


7 COMMODITIES 61

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA







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FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 61 24/11/2010 14:45:55


62 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

7.14 Televisions

FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description Mass No. of
no. (kg) items
1 28 inch TV in a plastic case. Ignition with a 1 kW propane gas flame 31.83 1
2 25 inch TV in a plastic case. Ignition with a 1 kW propane gas flame 24.42 1
3 28 inch TV in a plastic case. Ignition with a 1 kW propane gas flame 30.53 1

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN REFERENCES


Heat release rate (total) Hietaniemi J, Mangs J & Hakkarainen T. Burning of electrical
household appliances. VTT Research Note 2084. Espoo, VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland, 2001
FIRE DESIGN PARAMETERS Spearpoint M. FireBaseXML database. Version 1.34. New Zealand,
Television α Heat of combustion University of Canterbury, 2007. Visit http://www.civil.canterbury.
(kW/s2) (J/kg) ac.nz/spearpoint/HRR_Database/HRR_Database.xml
1 0.057 for 77 < t ≤ 147 s 31900
2 0.009 for 0 < t ≤ 162 s 28200
3 0.0087 for 84 < t ≤ 238 s 28600

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA






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FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 62 24/11/2010 14:45:55


7 COMMODITIES 63

7.15 Upholstered furniture

FIRE LOAD
Experiment
Description
no.Design Filling Wrap Cover
1 Fully upholstered 3-seater Polyether foam seat/ Polyester fibre to seat 100% polyester ground cloth/
sofa with loose seat and polyester interior back cushion polyacrylic pile
back cushions
2 Fully upholstered 3-seater CMHR foam seat/ – FR-treated cotton
sofa with loose seat and shredded foam
back cushions interior back
3 As for Experiment 1 but 2-seater sofa
4 As for Experiment 2 but single-seat chair
5 Fully upholstered chair CMHR foam seat/ FR polyester fibre 100% Polyacrylic pile fabric/
with loose seat and FR polyester interior FR back coated/cellulosic
back cushions and back ground
6 Fully upholstered chair HR foam – Leather
with loose seat and
back cushions
FR = fire retardant, HR = high resilient, CMHR = combustion-modified high resilient

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN
Heat release rate (total), smoke production rate, HCN,
HCI, HBr and CO concentrations

FIRE DESIGN PARAMETERS


Experiment
Peak Total Peak smoke Peak Peak Peak
HRR HR production HCN HCL CO
rate
(kW) (MJ) (m2/s) (g/s) (g/s) (g/s)
1 2154 704.4 33 – – –
2 1346 520.4 14 0.31 0.28 1.96
3 2285 658.4 28 – – –
4 784 368.4 4 0.14 0.3 0.83
5 742 463.3 12 0.18 0.26 1.7
6 1158 412.8 8 0.02 0.07 0.56

REFERENCE
Sundström B (Ed). Fire safety of upholstered furniture: the final
report on the CBUF research programme. Report EUR 16477 EN.
Brussels, European Commission Measurements and Testing. For
information, visit http://www.sp.se/en/index/research/cbuf/sidor/
default.aspx

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 63 24/11/2010 14:45:55


64 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

7.16 Wardrobe

FIRE LOAD
Experiment Description Mass No. of
no. (kg) items
1 12.7 mm thick Douglas-fir plywood. Two hinged doors on front. 68 1
Unfinished surfaces. Contained 1.93 kg of clothing and paper
2 3.2 mm mahogany veneer plywood and hardboard on 19 × 40 mm 36 1
hardwood frame. Top, bottom and back were hardboard with plywood
sides and doors. Two rolling doors provided access to the interior.
A 384 mm deep shelf extended across the width. Contained 1.93 kg
clothing and paper

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN REFERENCES


Heat release rate (total) Lawson JR, Walton WD & Twilley WH. Fire performance of
furnishings as measured in the NBS furniture calorimeter. Part I.
NBSIR 83-2787. 1984. Available at http://fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/
FIRE DESIGN PARAMETERS fire84/art002.html

Wardrobe α Heat of combustion Spearpoint M. FireBaseXML database. Version 1.34. New Zealand,
(kW/s2) (J/kg) University of Canterbury, 2007. Visit http://www.civil.canterbury.
1 0.29 for 0 < t ≤ 110 s 14900 ac.nz/spearpoint/HRR_Database/HRR_Database.xml
2 0.28 for 0 < t ≤ 150 s 16900

HEAT RELEASE RATE DATA






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Total heat release rate of a wardobe

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 64 01/12/2010 13:48:14


7 COMMODITIES 65

7 Notes

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 65 24/11/2010 14:45:55


66 DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

8 REFERENCES
[1] HMSO. Regulatory Reform England and Wales: Regulatory [10] BSI. 06/30133753 DC: ISO 24473. Fire tests. Open
Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005. Statutory Instruments 2005 No. calorimetry. Measurement of the rate of production of heat and
1541. Available at www.legislation.gov.uk/ combustion products for fires of up to 20MW

[2] Morgan HP, Ghosh BK, Garrad G et al. Design methodologies [11] International Organization for Standardization. ISO 834-
for smoke and heat exhaust ventilation. BRE Report BR 368. 1:1999 Fire-resistance tests – Elements of building construction –
Bracknell, IHS BRE Press, 1999 Part 1: General requirements. Geneva, ISO, 1999

[3] BSI. BS 7974: 2001 Application of fire safety engineering [12] BSI. BS 476-21: 1987 Fire tests on building materials and
principles to the design of buildings. Code of practice structures. Methods for determination of the fire resistance of
loadbearing elements of construction
[4] BSI. BS 7346-4: 2003 Components for smoke and heat
control systems. Functional recommendations and calculation [13] BSI. BS EN 1363-1: 1999. Fire resistance tests. General
methods for smoke and heat exhaust ventilation systems, requirements
employing steady-state design fires. Code of practice
[14] Lennon T, Rupasinghe R, Waleed N et al. Concrete structures
[5] BSI. PD 7974 Application of fire safety engineering principles in fire: performance, design and analysis. BRE Report BR 490.
to the design of buildings Bracknell, IHS BRE Press, 2007
Part 1: 2003 Initiation and development of fire within the
[15] BSI. BS EN 1991-1-2: 2002 Eurocode 1. Actions on
enclosure of origin (Sub-system 1)
structures. General actions. Actions on structures exposed to fire
[6] BSI. PD 7974 Application of fire safety engineering principles
to the design of buildings [16] Wickström U. Application of the standard fire curve for
Part 2: 2002 Spread of smoke and toxic gases within and expressing natural fires for design purposes. In: Harmathy TZ
beyond the enclosure of origin (Sub-system 2) (Ed) Fire safety, science and engineering: a symposium. ASTM
Committee E-5 on Fire Standards, Society of Fire Protection
[7] Drysdale D. An introduction to fire dynamics. 2nd edition.
Engineers. STP 882. Philadelphia, American Society for Testing and
p 323. Chichester, Wiley, 1998
Materials, 1985
[8] National Fire Protection Association. Guide for smoke
[17] BSI. NA to BS EN 1991-1-2: 2002. UK National Annex to
management systems in malls, atria and large areas. 2000 edition.
Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions. Actions on
NFPA 92B. NFPA, Quincy, Massachusetts, 2000. Available at www.
structures exposed to fire
minhbao.vn/userfiles/file/A_NFPA92B.pdf
[18] BRE. Design fires database. Watford, BRE, 2003. Available
[9] Chitty R & Fraser-Mitchell J. Fire safety engineering: a
from www.brebookshop.com
reference guide. BRE Report BR 459. Bracknell, IHS BRE Press,
2003

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 66 24/11/2010 14:45:56


OTHER REPORTS FROM BRE TRUST 67

OTHER REPORTS FROM BRE TRUST


FB 1 Subsidence damage to domestic buildings: FB 15 Putting a price on sustainable schools
lessons learned and questions remaining A Surgenor and I Butterss. May 2008
R M C Driscoll and M S Crilly. September 2000
FB 16 Knock it down or do it up?
FB 2 Potential implications of climate change in the built F Plimmer, G Pottinger, S Harris, M Waters and Y Pocock.
environment June 2008
H M Graves and M C Phillipson. December 2000
FB 17 Micro-wind turbines in urban environments:
FB 3 Behaviour of concrete repair patches under propped an assessment
and unpropped conditions: critical review of R Phillips, P Blackmore, J Anderson, M Clift,
current knowledge and practices A Aguiló-Rullán and S Pester. December 2007
T D G Canisius and N Waleed. March 2000 FB 18 Siting micro-wind turbines on house roofs
FB 4 Construction site security and safety: the P Blackmore. May 2008
forgotten costs!
FB 19 Automatic fire sprinkler systems: a guide to good
R Knights, T Pascoe and A Henchley. December 2002 practice
FB 5 New fire design method for steel frames with C Williams. June 2009
composite floor slabs
FB 20 Complying with the Code for Sustainable
C Bailey. January 2003
Homes: lessons learnt on the BRE Innovation Park
FB 6 Lessons from UK PFI and real estate partnerships: C Gaze. November 2009
drivers, barriers and critical success factors
FB 21 The move to low-carbon design: are designers
T Dixon, A Jordan, A Marston, J Pinder and G Pottinger.
November 2003
taking the needs of building users into account?
M Hadi and C Halfhide. December 2009
FB 7 An audit of UK social housing innovation
K Ross, J Honour and F Nowak. February 2004
FB 22 Building-mounted micro-wind turbines on high-rise
and commercial buildings
FB 8 Effective use of fibre reinforced polymer materials P Blackmore. March 2010
in construction
S M Halliwell and T Reynolds. March 2004
FB 23 The real cost of poor housing
M Roys, M Davidson, S Nicol, D Ormandy and P Ambrose.
FB 9 Summertime solar performance of windows with February 2010
shading devices
FB 24 A guide to the simplified building energy model
P Littlefair. February 2005
(SBEM): what it does and how it works
FB 10 Putting a price on sustainability R Hitchin. April 2010
BRE Centre for Sustainable Construction
and Cyril Sweett. May 2005
FB 25 Vacant dwellings in England: the challenges and
costs of bringing them back into use
FB 11 Modern methods of house construction: M Davidson and K White. April 2010
a surveyor’s guide
K Ross. June 2005
FB 26 Energy efficiency in new and existing buildings:
comparative costs and CO2 savings
FB 12 Crime opportunity profiling of streets (COPS): F MacKenzie, C Pout, L Shorrock, A Matthews
a quick crime analysis – rapid implementation and J Henderson. September 2010
approach
FB 27 Health and productivity benefits of sustainable
J Oxley, P Reijnhoudt, P van Soomeren and C Beckford.
November 2005
schools: a review
C Murphy and A Thorne. September 2010
FB 13 Subsidence damage to domestic buildings:
a guide to good technical practice FB 28 Integrating BREEAM throughout the design process:
R Driscoll and H Skinner. June 2007
a guide to achieving higher BREEAM and Code for
Sustainable Homes ratings through incorporation
FB 14 Sustainable refurbishment of Victorian housing: with the RIBA Outline Plan of Work and other
guidance, assessment method and case studies procurement
T Yates. September 2006 V Cinquemani and J Prior. November 2010

FB29.Design fires.3.Commodities7.indd 67 24/11/2010 14:45:56


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DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING


This publication provides technical data and guidance on defining a robust and
appropriate design fire for use in the fire safety engineering design of a building.
It explains:
• what a design fire is
• how it can be determined
• the limitations of current methodologies DESIGN FIRES FOR USE IN
FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING
• experimental data
• calculation methods used to define a design fire.
Current approaches to defining an appropriate design fire, ranging from the
quantification of fuel load based on surveys of real buildings to experimental
measurements, are described in detail.
Aimed at professionals involved in the fire safety engineering design process, Christopher Mayfield and Danny Hopkin
either as designers fulfilling a brief or as regulators/approvers of the design, this
guidance provides data that originate from a range of sources including fire tests
undertaken by BRE Global. It can be used to source quantifiable parameters
such as heat release rates and fire growth rates that are proportionate to the fire
hazard foreseen.

Mayfield and Hopkin


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FIRE SAFETY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES
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FB29.DesignFires.Cover.5.5mmSpine.indd 1 25/11/2010 11:19:20

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