SELF LEARNING

MODULE
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Antipolo City National Science and Technology High School

Jasmine Kate L. Esparagoza, RCh

Special Science Teacher 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LESSON Learning Competency Pages

1. Describe the formation and structure of polymers

2. Explain the properties of some polymers in terms of their structure
3. Describe the structure of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates, and
relate them to their function

How to Learn from this Module

To achieve the objectives, you are to do the following:

• Take your time reading the lessons carefully.

• Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently.

• Answer all the given tests and exercises

What I Need To Know This part contains learning objectives that are set
for you to learn as you go along the module.

What I know This is an assessment as to your level of

knowledge to the subject matter at hand, meant
specifically to gauge prior related knowledge
What’s In This part connects previous lesson with that of
the current one.

What’s New An introduction of the new lesson through

various activities, before it will be presented to
you
What is It These are discussions of the activities as a way
to deepen your discovery and understanding of
the concept.
What’s More These are follow-up activities that are intended for
you to practice further in order to master the
competencies
What I Have Learned Activities designed to process what you have
learned from the lesson

What I can do These are tasks that are designed to show- case
your skills and knowledge gained, and applied
into real-life concerns and situations
WHAT I NEED TO KNOW?

Polymers are very large molecules containing hundreds or thousands of atoms. People have been using
polymers since prehistoric time, and chemists have been synthesizing them for the past century. Natural polymers are
the basis of all life processes, and our technological society is largely dependent on synthetic polymers. This chapter
discusses some of the preparation and properties of important synthetic organic polymers in addition to two naturally
occurring polymers that are vital to living systems—proteins and nucleic acids.

WHAT IS IT?

FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE OF POLYMERS

A polymer is a molecular compound distinguished by a high molar mass, ranging into thousands and millions
of grams, and made up of many repeating units. Synthetic polymers are created by joining monomers together, one
at a time, by means of addition reactions and condensation reactions.

ADDITION REACTIONS

Addition reactions involve unsaturated compounds containing double or triple bonds, particularly CPC and
CqC. Hydrogenation and reactions of hydrogen halides and halogens with alkenes and alkynes are examples of addition
reactions. Polyethylene, a very stable polymer used in packaging wraps, is made by joining ethylene monomers via an
addition-reaction mechanism. First an initiator molecule (R2) is heated to produce two radicals:

The reactive radical attacks an ethylene molecule to generate a new radical:

which further reacts with another ethylene molecule, and so on:

Very quickly a long chain of CH2 groups is built. Eventually, this process is terminated by the combination of
two long-chain radicals to give the polymer called polyethylene:

where –(-CH2-CH2-)n- is a convenient shorthand convention for representing the repeating unit in the polymer. The
value of n is understood to be very large, on the order of hundreds.
 Polyethylene is mainly used in films in frozen food packaging and other product wrappings. A specially treated
type of polyethylene called Tyvek is used for home insulation. Polyethylene is an example of a homopolymer, which is
a polymer made up of only one type of monomer. Other homopolymers that are synthesized by the radical mechanism
are Teflon, polytetrafluoroethylene and poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC):

Several geometric isomers can result from an addition reaction of propenes . If the additions occur randomly, we obtain
atactic polypropenes, which do not pack together well. These polymers are rubbery, amorphous, and relatively weak.
Two other possibilities are an isotactic structure, in which the R groups are all on the same side of the asymmetric
carbon atoms, and a syndiotactic form, in which the R groups alternate to the left and right of the asymmetric carbons.
Of these, the isotactic isomer has the highest melting point and greatest crystallinity and is endowed with superior
mechanical properties.

Stereoisomers of polymers. When the R group (green sphere) is CH3, the polymer is polypropene. (a) When the R
groups are all on one side of the chain, the polymer is said to be isotactic. (b) When the R groups alternate from side
to side, the polymer is said to be syndiotactic. (c) When the R groups are disposed at random, the polymer is atactic.
© Table from Chemistry 10th Edition – Raymond Chang
CONDENSATION REACTION

One of the best-known polymer condensation processes is the reaction between hexamethylenediamine and
adipic acid, shown in Figure a. The final product, called nylon 66 (because there are six carbon atoms each in
hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid), was first made by Wallace Carothers† at Du Pont in 1931. The versatility of
nylons is so great that the annual production of nylons and related substances now amounts to several billion pounds.
Figure below shows how nylon 66 is prepared in the laboratory. Condensation reactions are also used in the
manufacture of Dacron (polyester)

PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS

A polymer is a molecular compound distinguished by a high molar mass, ranging into thousands and millions of grams,
and made up of many repeating units. The physical properties of these so-called macromolecules differ greatly from
those of small, ordinary molecules, and special techniques are required to study them.

The atactic material is soft, elastic, somewhat sticky, and rather soluble in solvents such as 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane

Isotactic polypropene is a hard, clear, strong crystalline polymer that melts at 175 °©. It is practically insoluble in all
organic solvents at room temperature, but will dissolve to the extent of a few percent in hot 1,1,2,2-
tetrachloroethane.
Syndiotactic softer than the isotactic polymer, but also tough and clear. It is stable to gamma radiation and will
therefore find applications in medicine.

PROTEINS, NUCLEIC ACIDS, LIPIDS, AND CARBOHYDRATES

PROTEIN

Proteins are polymers of amino acids, with each amino acid residue joined to its neighbor by a specific type of
covalent bond. All the amino acids have trivial or common names, in some cases derived from the source from which
they were first isolated. Asparagine was first found in asparagus, and glutamate in wheat gluten; tyrosine was first
isolated from cheese (its name is derived from the Greek tyros, “cheese”); and glycine (Greek glykos, “sweet”) was so
named because of its sweet taste. Amino acids, as their name implies, are difunctional. They contain both a basic amino
group and an acidic carboxyl group.

The most important element of primary structure is the sequence of amino acid residues. Secondary structure
refers to particularly stable arrangements of amino acid residues giving rise to recurring structural patterns. Tertiary
structure describes all aspects of the three-dimensional folding of a polypeptide. When a protein has two or more
polypeptide subunits, their arrangement in space is referred to as quaternary structure. Protein functions include
structural support, storage, transport, cellular communications, movement, and defense against foreign substances
PROTEIN CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SHAPE
Proteins are usually classified as either fibrous or globular, according to their three-dimensional shape. Fibrous
proteins, such as the collagen in tendons and connective tissue and the myosin in muscle tissue, consist of polypeptide
chains arranged side by side in long filaments. Because these proteins are tough and insoluble in water, they are used
in nature for structural materials. Globular proteins, by contrast, are usually coiled into compact, roughly spherical
shapes. These proteins are generally soluble in water and are mobile within cells. Most of the 3000 or so enzymes that
have been characterized to date are globular proteins. Proteins are so large that the word structure takes on a broader
meaning than it does with simpler organic compounds

PROTEIN CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FUNCTION

1. Enzymatic proteins

Function: Selective acceleration of chemical reactions

Example: Digestive enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of bonds in food molecules.
• Enzymes are a type of protein that acts as a catalyst to speed up chemical reactions
• Enzymes can perform their functions repeatedly, functioning as workhorses that carry out the processes of life
2. Storage proteins

Function: Storage of amino acids Examples: Casein, the protein of milk, is the major source of amino acids for baby
mammals. Plants have storage proteins in their seeds. Ovalbumin is the protein of egg white, used as an amino acid
source for the developing embryo.
3. Hormonal proteins

Function: Coordination of an organismʼs activities

Example: Insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, causes other tissues to take up glucose, thus regulating blood
sugar concentration

4. Contractile and motor proteins

Function: Movement
Examples: Motor proteins are responsible for the undulations of cilia and flagella. Actin and myosin proteins are
responsible for the contraction of muscles.

5. Defensive proteins
Function: Protection against disease
Example: Antibodies inactivate and help destroy viruses and bacteria.

6. Transport proteins

Function: Transport of substances

Examples: Hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein of vertebrate blood, transports oxygen from the lungs to other
parts of the body. Other proteins transport molecules across cell membranes.
7. Receptor proteins

Function: Response of cell to chemical stimuli

Example: Receptors built into the membrane of a nerve cell detect signaling molecules released by other nerve cells.

8. Structural proteins

Function: Support
Examples: Keratin is the protein of hair, horns, feathers, and other skin appendages. Insects and spiders use silk fibers
to make their cocoons and webs, respectively. Collagen and elastin proteins provide a fibrous framework in animal
connective tissues.
CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are the single most abundant class of organic molecules found in nature. Energy from the sun
captured by green plants, algae, and some bacteria during photosynthesis converts more than 250 billion kilograms of
carbon dioxide into carbohydrates every day on earth.

Breakdown of carbohydrates provides the energy that sustains animal life. In addition, carbohydrates are
covalently linked with a variety of other molecules. The name carbohydrate arises from the basic molecular formula
(CH2O) n, where n=3 or more. (CH2O)n can be rewritten (C•H2O)n to show that these substances are hydrates of
carbon.
Carbohydrates are generally classified into three groups: monosaccharides (and their derivatives), oligosaccharides,
and polysaccharides.

The monosaccharides are also called simple sugars and have the formula (CH2O)n. Monosaccharides cannot
be broken down into smaller sugars under mild conditions.
Oligosaccharides derive their name from the Greek word oligo, meaning “few,” and consist of from two to ten
simple sugar residues. Disaccharides are common in nature, and trisaccharides also occur frequently. Four- to six-
sugar-unit oligosaccharides are usually bound covalently to other molecules, including glycoproteins. As their name
suggests, polysaccharides are polymers of the simple sugars and their derivatives. They may be either linear or
branched polymers and may contain hundreds or even thousands of monosaccharide units. Their molecular weights
range up to 1 million or more.

Structural Formula

This is an example of Glucose in Fischer Projection, Carbohydrates consists of an Aldehyde Group and Hydroxyl Groups.

Disaccharides

Disaccharides are comprised of two monosaccharide units joined together via a glycosidic linkage to form a
"double sugar" (the prefix "di" means two). When two monosaccharide molecules react to form a glycosidic bond
(linkage), a water molecule is generated in the process through a chemical reaction known as condensation. Therefore,
condensation is a reaction where water is removed and a polymer is formed. The most well-known disaccharide found
in nature is sucrose, which is also called cane sugar, beet sugar or table sugar. Sucrose is a disaccharide of glucose and
fructose. Lactose or milk sugar is a disaccharide of glucose and galactose and is found in milk.
 Maltose is a disaccharide composed of two glucose units. Invert sugar is created from the hydrolysis of sucrose
into glucose and fructose. Bees use enzymes to create invert sugar to make honey. Taffy and other invert sugar type
candies are made from sucrose using heat and alkaline baking soda. Disaccharides are classified as oligosaccharides
(the prefix "oligo" means few or little). This group includes carbohydrates with 2 – 20 saccharide units joined together.
Carbohydrates containing more than 20 units are classified as polysaccharides.

Polysaccharide

Polysaccharides (the prefix "poly" means many) are formed when many single sugars are joined together
chemically. Carbohydrates were one of the original molecules that led to the discovery of what we call polymers.
Polysaccharides include starch, glycogen (storage starch in animals) and cellulose (found in the cell walls of plants).
Polysaccharides function as storage materials, structural components, or protective substances. Thus, starch, glycogen,
and other storage polysaccharides, as readily metabolizable food, provide energy reserves for cells. Chitin and cellulose
provide strong support for the skeletons of arthropods and green plants, respectively.

Starch is the predominant storage molecule in plants and provides the majority of the food kilojoules
consumed by people worldwide. Most starch granules are composed of a mixture of two polymers: a linear
polysaccharide called amylose and a branched-chain polysaccharide called amylopectin.
 Amylopectin chains branch approximately every 20 – 25 saccharide units. Amylopectin is the more common
form of starch found in plants. Animals store energy in the muscles and liver as glycogen. This molecule is more highly
branched than amylopectin. For longer-term storage, animals convert the food kilojoules from carbohydrates into fat.
In the human and animals, fats are stored in specific parts of the body called adipose tissue.
Cellulose is the main structural component of plant cell walls and is the most abundant carbohydrate on earth.
Cellulose serves as a source of dietary fibre since, as explained below, humans do not have the intestinal enzymes
necessary to digest it.

Starch and cellulose are both homopolymers (“homo” means same) of glucose. The glucose molecules in the
polymer are linked through glycosidic covalent bonds. There are two different stereochemical configurations of
glycosidic bonds – an alpha linkage and a beta linkage. The only difference between the alpha and beta linkages is the
orientation of the linked carbon atoms. Therefore, glucose polymers can exist in two different structures, with either
alpha or beta linkages between the glucose residues.

LIPIDS

Lipids represent a somewhat unique category because they are not defined by the presence or absence of a
particular functional group. Instead, they are defined by a physical property—solubility. Specifically, lipids are naturally
occurring compounds that can be extracted from cells using nonpolar organic solvents. An extremely large number of
biological compounds are considered to be lipids, so it is helpful to classify and categorize them.

fatty acid is composed of a long hydrocarbon chain (“tail”) and a terminal carboxyl group (or “head”). The
carboxyl group is normally ionized under physiological conditions
 Fatty acids are either saturated (all carbon–carbon bonds are single bonds) or unsaturated (with one or more
double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain). If a fatty acid has a single double bond, it is said to be monounsaturated,
and if it has more than one, polyunsaturated. For example, a fatty acid composed of an 18-carbon chain with no double
bonds can be called by its systematic name (octadecanoic acid), its common name (stearic acid), or its shorthand
notation, in which the number of carbons is followed by a colon and the number of double bonds in the molecule (18:0
for stearic acid). The structures of several common fatty acids are given. Stearic acid (18:0) and palmitic acid (16:0) are
the most common saturated fatty acids in nature.

Fats in the modern human diet

Fats vary widely in their fatty acid composition. By contrast, a diet relatively higher in unsaturated fatty acids
(especially polyunsaturated fatty acids) may reduce the risk of heart attacks and strokes. Although vegetable oils
usually contain a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids than do animal oils and fats, several plant oils are
actually high in saturated fats. Palm oil is low in polyunsaturated fatty acids and particularly high in (saturated)
palmitic acid (hence the name palmitic). Coconut oil is particularly high in lauric and myristic acids (both saturated)
and contains little unsaturated fatty acid. Canola oil has been promoted as a healthy dietary oil because it consists
primarily of oleic acid (60%), linoleic acid (20%), and α-linolenic acid (9%) with very low saturated fat content (7%).
Canola oil is actually rapeseed oil, from the seeds of the rape plant Brassica rapa (from the Latin rapa, meaning
“turnip”), a close relative of mustard, kale, cabbage, and broccoli.

NUCLEIC ACIDS

The nucleic acids, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), are the chemical carriers of a cell’s genetic
information. Coded in a cell’s DNA is the information that determines the nature of the cell, controls the cell’s
growth and division, and directs biosynthesis of the enzymes and other proteins required for cellular functions.
A segment of a DNA molecule that contains the information required for the synthesis of a functional biological
product, whether protein or RNA, is referred to as a gene. A cell typically has many thousands of genes, and DNA
molecules, not surprisingly, tend to be very large. The storage and transmission of biological information are the only
known functions of DNA.
Both DNA and RNA contain two major purine bases, adenine (A) and guanine (G), and two major pyrimidines. In both
DNA and RNA one of the pyrimidines is cytosine (C), but the second major pyrimidine is not the same in both: it is
thymine (T) in DNA and uracil (U) in RNA. Only rarely does thymine occur in RNA or uracil in DNA.

The structures of the four deoxyribonucleotides and the four ribonucleotides are shown above. Although similar
chemically, DNA and RNA differ dramatically in size. Molecules of DNA are enormous, containing as many as 245
million nucleotides and having molecular weights as high as 75 billion.
Nucleotides are linked together in DNA and RNA by phosphodiester bonds
WHAT’S MORE?

1 – 3.Teflon is formed by a radical addition reaction involving the monomer tetrafluoroethylene. Show the
mechanism for this reaction.

Description Fibrous or Globular or both?

insoluble in water 4.
cannot move from one place to another 5.
hair, muscle 6.

7. ______ is the major kind of simple sugar. It is the basic source of energy for all living things.
8. ______commonly known as table sugar, beet or cane. It occurs in many fruits and vegetables.
9. ______known as fruit sugar. Most plants contain this sugar, especially fruits and saps.

10 – 13. How is the definition of “lipid” different from the types of definitions used for other biomolecules that we
have considered, such as amino acids, nucleic acids, and proteins?

14. Draw the monomer of nucleic acids:

15. In one sentence based on visual clues, describe the difference between a pyrimidine and a purine.

REFERENCES

Chemistry 10th Edition – Raymond Chang

Lehniger – Principles of Biochemistry
https://tinyurl.com/35wupt2s