SELF LEARNING

MODULE
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Antipolo City National Science and Technology High School

Jasmine Kate L. Esparagoza, RCh

Special Science Teacher 1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LESSON LESSON TITLE Most Essential Learning Competency Pages

1. Use properties of matter to identify substances and to
separate them
2. Recognize the formulas of common chemical substances
Chemistry: The 3. Compare consumer products on the basis of their
LESSON 1
Study of Change components for use, safety, quality and cost
4. Describe various simple separation techniques such as
distillation, chromatography

1. Recognize common isotopes and their uses.

2. Represent compounds using chemical formulas, structural
formulas and models
Atoms, Molecules, 3. Name compounds given their formula and write formula
LESSON 2
and Ions given the name of the compound
4. Calculate the empirical formula from the percent
composition of a compound

1. Calculate molecular formula given molar mass

2. Write and balanced chemical equations
3. Construct mole or mass ratios for a reaction in order to
calculate the amount of reactant needed or amount of
Mass Relationships
product formed in terms of moles or mass
LESSON 3 in Chemical
4. Calculate percent yield and theoretical yield of the reaction
Reactions
5. Explain the concept of limiting reagent in a chemical
reaction; identify the excess reagent(s)
6. (LAB) Determine mass relationship in a chemical reaction

1. Define pressure and give the common units of pressure

2. Use the gas laws to determine pressure, volume, or
temperature of a gas under certain conditions of change
3. Use the ideal gas equation to calculate pressure, volume,
Temperature, or number of moles of a gas
4. Use Daltons law of partial pressures to relate mole fraction
LESSON 4 Gases
and partial pressure of gases in a mixture
5. Apply the principles of stoichiometry to determine the
amounts (volume, number of moles, or mass) of gaseous
reactants and products
6. Relate the rate of gas effusion with molar mass

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How to Learn from this Module

To achieve the objectives, you are to do the following:

• Take your time reading the lessons carefully.

• Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently.

• Answer all the given tests and exercises

What I Need To Know This part contains learning objectives that are set for you
to learn as you go along the module.

What I know This is an assessment as to your level of knowledge to

the subject matter at hand, meant specifically to gauge
prior related knowledge
What’s In This part connects previous lesson with that of the
current one.

What’s New An introduction of the new lesson through various

activities, before it will be presented to you

What is It These are discussions of the activities as a way to

deepen your discovery and understanding of the
concept.
What’s More These are follow-up activities that are intended for you
to practice further in order to master the competencies

What I Have Learned Activities designed to process what you have learned
from the lesson

What I can do These are tasks that are designed to show- case your
skills and knowledge gained, and applied into real-life
concerns and situations

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Lesson 1: Chemistry: The Study of Change

WHAT I NEED TO KNOW?

We defined chemistry at the beginning of the chapter as the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter includes things we can see and touch (such as water,
earth, and trees), as well as things we cannot (such as air). Thus, everything in the universe has a “chemical”
connection. Chemists distinguish among several subcategories of matter based on composition and properties. The
classifications of matter include substances, mixtures, elements, and compounds, as well as atoms and molecules.

A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain their distinct
identities. Some familiar examples are air, soft drinks, milk, and cement. Mixtures do not have constant
composition. Therefore, samples of air collected in different cities would probably differ in composition because of
differences in altitude, pollution, and so on.

A substance is a form of matter that has a definite (constant) composition and distinct properties. Examples
are water, ammonia, table sugar (sucrose), gold, and oxygen. Substances differ from one another in composition
and can be identified by their appearance, smell, taste, and other properties.

Atoms of most elements can interact with one another to form compounds. Hydrogen gas, for example,
burns in oxygen gas to form water, which has properties that are distinctly different from those of the starting
materials. Water is made up of two parts hydrogen and one-part oxygen. Thus, water is a compound, a substance
composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions. Unlike mixtures, compounds
can be separated only by chemical means into their pure components.

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. Use properties of matter to identify substances and to separate them

2. Recognize the formulas of common chemical substances
3. Compare consumer products on the basis of their components for use, safety, quality and cost; see the
connections between Science, Technology and Society by determining the problem in the community
(Society) that was addressed by a certain consumer product (Technology) and the knowledge (Science)
behind the creation of the said consumer product
4. Describe various simple separation techniques such as distillation, chromatography

WHAT’S NEW?

Observe the following pictures below and write your answers on your notebook.

Guide Questions
1. What does the pictures show?

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WHAT I KNOW?
Before proceeding to the lesson, answer this pre-assessment activity

1. Classify the words below as Physical Properties or Chemical Properties and use Intensive property or Extensive
Property if it’s a Physical Property

a. Flammability e. Mass i. Melting point

b. Corrosion f. Density
c. Reactivity with water/acid g. Volume
d. Combustibility h. Boiling point

2. Pick from the box below the appropriate chemical formula given their common name and chemical name

1. Baking Soda – Sodium Bicarbonate a. HCl e. NH3

2. Ammonia – Ammonia
3. Bleach – Sodium Hypochlorite b. CH3COOH f. NaOCl
4. Vinegar – Acetic Acid
c. H2O g. CH3H8O
WHAT IS IT?
d. NaHCO3
PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Substances are identified by their properties as well as by their composition. Color, melting point, and
boiling point are physical properties. A physical property can be measured and observed without changing the
composition or identity of a substance. For example, we can measure the melting point of ice by heating a block of ice
and recording the temperature at which the ice is converted to water. Water differs from ice only in appearance, not in
composition, so this is a physical change; we can freeze the water to recover the original ice. Therefore, the melting point
of a substance is a physical property. Similarly, when we say that helium gas is lighter than air, we are referring to a
physical property.

On the other hand, the statement “Hydrogen gas burns in oxygen gas to form water” describes a chemical
property of hydrogen, because to observe this property we must carry out a chemical change, in this case burning. After
the change, the original chemical substance, the hydrogen gas, will have vanished, and all that will be left is a different
chemical substance—water. We cannot recover the hydrogen from the water by means of a physical change, such as
boiling or freezing. Every time we hard-boil an egg, we bring about a chemical change. When subjected to a temperature
of about 100°C, the yolk and the egg white undergo changes that alter not only their physical appearance but their
chemical makeup as well. When eaten, the egg is changed again, by substances in our bodies called enzymes. This
digestive action is another example of a chemical change. What happens during digestion depends on the chemical
properties of both the enzymes and the food.

All measurable properties of matter fall into one of two additional categories: extensive properties and
intensive properties. The measured value of an extensive property depends on how much matter is being considered.
The measured value of an intensive property does not depend on how much matter is being considered. Temperature is
an example, suppose that we have two beakers of water at the same temperature. If we combine them to make a single
quantity of water in a larger beaker, the temperature of the larger quantity of water will be the same as it was in two
separate beakers. Unlike mass, length, and volume, temperature and other intensive properties are not additive
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 Mass - which is the quantity of matter in a given sample of a substance, is an extensive property
Volume - defined as length cubed, is another extensive property.
Density - defined as the mass of an object divided by its volume, is an intensive property.
Boiling Point - The temperature at which the molecules of a liquid become gas is an intensive property
Melting point - temperature at which a solid is converted to a liquid is an intensive property
Corrosion - involves the deterioration of a material as it reacts with its environment
Flammability - refers to whether a compound will burn when exposed to flame. Again, burning is a chemical
reaction—commonly a high-temperature reaction in the presence of oxygen
Key point that properties of matter are classified into Physical Properties and Chemical Properties. Physical Properties
are either intensive or extensive. Physical property can be measured and observed without changing the composition or
identity of a substance or Physical change is only observed. Chemical property, to observe this property we must carry
out a chemical change in which one or more substances are converted into different substances. Extensive property
depends on how much matter is being considered. Intensive property does not depend on how much matter is being
considered

COMMON CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES

Given below is table of common substances. Familiarize yourself with their common name, chemical name and chemical
formula.

Observe the following chemical formula and how does it represent the chemical name.

The chemical formula of slaked slime based from the table above is Calcium Hydroxide, and its chemical formula is
Ca(OH)2. The chemical formula comes from its chemical name, which is Calcium with the chemical symbol Ca and
Hydroxide which is OH. Remember that chemical formulas can’t interchanged like (OH) 2Ca, because OH is an Anion and
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Ca is a cation. Further explanation about this on the next lessons.Another example is galena and its chemical name is Lead
(II) Sulfide. The chemical symbol of lead is Pb and the chemical symbol of Sulfur is S. That’s why its chemical formula is
PbS.

CONSUMER PRODUCTS

This module was written to enumerate how consumer products we have at home are different from one another
in terms of their usefulness, level of safety and their cost in the market. Understanding the different consumer products
may help us to make informed decisions regarding the use of those products that may affect our health, finances, and the
quality of way of our life. In addition, this module will help us to see the connections between Science, Technology and
Society by determining the problem in the community (Society) that was addressed by a certain consumer product
(Technology) and the knowledge (Science) behind the creation of the said consumer product.

Consumer product is the final good that is bought by individuals or households for personal use. In other words,
consumer products are goods that are bought for consumption by the average consumer. Consumer products were made
possible because of the interactions of Science, Technology and Society. The Knowledge (Science) is being used to come
up with the different consumer products (Technology) that address problems of the community (Society). For example,
Bath soap (Technology) is a consumer product which we usually use to solve a problem of the Society that is skin infection
and poor hygiene. The Science, Technology and Society are interrelated to one another because any change in one aspect
could trigger also a change to other aspects. Meaning if Knowledge (Science) will improve due to new or latest discoveries
made by scientists or even an ordinary person (Society), there will be also a corresponding effect or improvement to the
consumer products (Technology) we use every day. There are many consumer products available in the market because
of their usefulness. However, the same consumer products may post danger to anyone. Now, when is a consumer product
may cause danger if it is very useful to us? A consumer product may cause harm to us for two reasons. First is when we
abuse or misuse such product. A good example of this would be the solvent like rugby that was invented to use as an
adhesive material. But for some instances, the same solvent is being used by drug dependent. And secondly is if a
consumer product was made intended to cause harm such as gun powder and poisons.
Let us analyze the table below that shows information of bath soap in terms of its some chemical components, use,
safeness, and cost.

Consumer Some Chemical Components Use Level of Safeness Cost

Product (Chemical Formula)
Bath Soap -Glycerine (C3H8O3) - Cure skin - Generally safe -Generally very
-Sodium hydroxide infection (External use only affordable price
(NaOH) (nonbranded) but
-Titanium dioxide (TiO2) - Triclosan - Improve some are costly if
(C12H7Cl13O2) personal its branded
hygiene
Based from the table, some of the chemical components used to make bath soap are glycerine, sodium hydroxide
and titanium dioxide. Glycerine is added to soap as emollient and texture enhancer while sodium hydroxide is added to
bath soap to as main ingredient. Titanium dioxide is added to make the bath soap opaque while Triclosan is added as the
active anti-bacterial ingredient.

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SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

a. Filtration - the process of separating the insoluble solid from the liquid substance by allowing the liquid to pass
through a porous material called filtering agent. The solid particles which are
retained in the filter paper is called residue, and the clear liquid which passes
through a filtering agent such as filter paper is called the filtrate. In using a filter
paper, a glass funnel is used as a support. To transfer the mixture (liquid) from
the beaker into the funnel, you have to mix thoroughly the mixture using a
stirring rod so that no solid substance will be left behind. A stirring rod may also
be used to guide the mixture into the funnel to avoid spillage especially if the
said funnel is too small. See to it also that the filter paper is not damaged before using it.
b. Distillation - is an effective method to separate mixtures comprised of two or more pure liquids, a purification
process where the components of a liquid mixture are vaporized and then condensed and isolated. In simple
distillation, a mixture is heated and the most volatile component vaporizes at the lowest temperature. The vapor
passes through a cooled tube (a condenser), where it condenses back into its liquid state. The condensate that is
collected is called distillate. This method uses the difference in boiling points of the components of a mixture. The
more volatile liquid in the mixture boils first, evaporates, then condenses. The distillate is the liquid formed from the
condensation of the vapor. Content of the container should always be checked to avoid drying up of the said
container.

c. Magnetic Separation - When one substance in the mixture has some magnetic properties then this method is quite
useful. Strong magnets are commonly used to separate magnetic elements.

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d. Decantation - is the process of pouring a liquid gently so as to not disturb a solid in the bottom of the container.
separate immiscible liquids that have different densities. This is a
method used to separate the liquid layer known as supernatant
and a heavy insoluble solid known as precipitate by allowing the
said solid to settle at the bottom of the container then the liquid
above the solid is poured off carefully into another container. In
decantation process, the mixture is being set aside and given
enough time the precipitate to settle at the bottom of the
container such as a beaker. Unlike the filtration process where you
can immediately pour the mixture into the funnel, you have to wait
all the precipitate to settle at the bottom of the 6 container before
the actual pouring can be done. A stirring rod may also be used to
guide the liquid into another container to avoid spillage especially if the said container is too small. In checking the
temperature of a container such as beaker, you may use the back part of your hand to determine it hotness. Do not
immediately touch the container.

e. Sublimation - Sublimation is the process of transition of a substance from the solid to the gaseous state without
passing through the liquid state. To separate mixtures that contain a sublimate with volatile component from a non-
sublimate impurity, the sublimation process is used

f. Chromatography – is the separation of a mixture by passing it in solution or

suspension or as a vapor (as in gas chromatography) through a medium in which
the components move at different rates. Thin-layer chromatography is a special
type of chromatography used for separating and identifying mixtures that are or
can be colored, especially pigments. Chromatography Difference in rate of
movement of a solute through a stationary phase. This process uses the
difference in the degrees to which substances are absorbed on the surface of an
inert substance such as a filter paper. A drop of ink 8 or extract will be separated
into different components if it is placed at the end of a filter paper and the tip of
the paper is allowed to barely touch the solvent. Separate bands of colors,
representing the different components will appear on the paper. In doing this
process, the filter paper should ensure the touching of the solvent.

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WHAT’S MORE?

PROPERTIES OF MATTER

1. Now that you know the difference between physical and chemical property, fill in the block diagram and separate
the properties based on the discussion earlier.

2. Answer the application focusing on their learned concepts about properties of matter

Scenario Physical or Evidence

Chemical Change
Umm! A student removes a loaf of bread hot from the oven. Physical No change of substance. No
The student cuts a slice off the loaf and spreads butter on it. unexpected color change,
temperature change or gas given off.
Your friend decides to toast a piece of bread, but leaves it in
the toaster too long. The bread is black and the kitchen if full
of smoke
You forgot to dry the bread knife when you washed it and
reddish brown spots appear on it
You blow dry your wet hair
In baking biscuits and other quick breads, the baking powder
reacts to release carbon dioxide bubbles. The carbon dioxide
bubbles cause the dough to rise
A straight piece of wire is coiled to form a spring
Food color is dropped into water to give it color
Chewing food to break it down into smaller particles
represents a change, but the changing of starch into sugars by
enzymes in the digestive system represents a _______ change
In a fireworks show, the fireworks explode giving off heat and
light

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COMMON CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES

Now that you have recognized the formulas of common chemical substances. Write the chemical formula of common
chemical substances

Common Name Chemical Formula

a) Ammonia NH3
b) Rubbing Alcohol
c) Salt
d) Sugar

e) Milk of Magnesia

CONSUMER PRODUCTS

1. Choose a consumer product that is available in the field of medicine, communication, transportation and agriculture.
2. Fill-in the table with correct information

Area or Field Consumer Some Chemical Use Level of Safeness Cost

Product Components
(Chemical
Formula)
Medicine
Communication
Transportation
Agriculture

QUESTIONS
1. For each field, which problem is being addressed by the consumer product?
2. What are the chemical components of the consumer products?

SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

Mixture
Separating red dye from a mixture of inks
Separating sand from a mixture of sand and water
Separating oil from a mixture of oil, water and ethanol
Separating oil and vinegar
Separating a mixture of iron filings and aluminum
filings

REFERENCES
Raymond Chang 10th Edition Chemistry

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LESSON 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

WHAT I NEED TO KNOW?

Chemistry is a subject that involves a lot of calculations, formulas and 3d models. Some formulas and calculations
in Chemistry are quite difficult for some people because of their unfamiliarity of the said formulas and calculations.
However, these calculations and formulas are very important in making accurate and precise measurements of chemical
materials needed in the preparation or making of solutions of certain product. For a beginner student, studying these
formulas and performing the correct procedure of calculations need a strict focus and patience.

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. Recognize common isotopes and their uses.

2. Represent compounds using chemical formulas, structural formulas and models
3. Name compounds given their formula and write formula given the name of the compound
4. Calculate the empirical formula from the percent composition of a compound

WHAT IS IT?

ISOTOPES

All atoms can be identified by the number of protons and neutrons they contain. The atomic number (Z) is the
number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element. In a neutral atom the number of protons is equal to the
number of electrons, so the atomic number also indicates the number of electrons present in the atom. The chemical
identity of an atom can be determined solely from its atomic number. For example, the atomic number of fluorine is 9.
This means that each fluorine atom has 9 protons and 9 electrons. Or, viewed another way, every atom in the universe
that contains 9 protons is correctly named “fluorine.” The mass number (A) is the total number of neutrons and protons
present in the nucleus of an atom of an element. Except for the most common form of hydrogen, which has one proton
and no neutrons, all atomic nuclei contain both protons and neutrons. In general, the mass number is given by

The number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the difference between the mass number and the atomic number,
or (A - Z). For example, if the mass number of a particular boron atom is 12 and the atomic number is 5 (indicating 5
protons in the nucleus), then the number of neutrons is 12 - 5 = 7. Note that all three quantities (atomic number, number
of neutrons, and mass number) must be positive integers, or whole numbers. Atoms of a given element do not all have
the same mass. Most elements have two or more isotopes, atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers. For example, there are three isotopes of hydrogen. One, simply known as hydrogen, has one proton and no
neutrons. The deuterium isotope contains one proton and one neutron, and tritium has one proton and two neutrons.
The accepted way to denote the atomic number and mass number of an atom of an element (X) is as follows

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 Isotopes are important to help scientist understand the makeup of atoms the unique characteristics isotopes of
certain elements may have. Isotopes can be unstable and provide opportunities for fission like Uranium. Uranium is a very
important element because it provides us with nuclear fuel used to generate electricity in nuclear power stations. It is
also the major material from which other synthetic transuranium elements are made. Isotopes may decay into new
isotopes or elements. They’re also used in our everyday life. Ex. In smoke detectors, used in forensic analysis of food
preparation sites.

Chemical Formulas, Structural Formula and Models

Chemical formula as a symbolic expression of a compound or substance. It is also defined as shorthand of

expressing the types and the number of atoms in a substance. Chemical name is the scientific name given to a chemical
in accordance with the nomenclature system developed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. While
structural formula is a graphical representation of the molecular structure showing how the atoms are possibly arranged
in the real three-dimensional space.

This is a substance which is made up of two or more atoms joined together by a chemical bond. Compounds may be
classified into two based from the nature of the atoms that make up them, and the type of intramolecular bond that exist
between atoms. The two classification of compounds are ionic compound and covalent compound. The ionic compound
is formed between a metal atom and a nonmetal atom, and the type of intramolecular bond exist between atoms is ionic
bond due to the presence of ionic charges. Example of this is sodium chloride which is made up of metal sodium and
nonmetal chlorine.

Na+1 + Cl-1 → NaCl

The covalent compound is formed between two or more nonmetal atoms, and the type of intramolecular bond that exist
between atoms is covalent bond. Example of this is Carbon tetrachloride.

In writing the chemical formula, structural formula as well as the chemical name of a given compound, you must
determine first the intramolecular bond that exists between atoms of compounds.

Molecular Formulas

A molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a substance. In our
discussion of molecules, each example was given with its molecular formula in parentheses. Thus, H2 is the molecular
formula for hydrogen, O2 is oxygen, O3 is ozone, and H2O is water. The subscript numeral indicates the number of atoms
13
of an element present. There is no subscript for O in H2O because there is only one atom of oxygen in a molecule of water,
and so the number “one” is omitted from the formula. Note that oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3) are allotropes of oxygen. An
allotrope is one of two or more distinct forms of an element. Two allotropic forms of the element carbon—diamond and
graphite—are dramatically different not only in properties but also in their relative cost.

Empirical Formulas

The molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide, a substance used as an antiseptic and as a bleaching agent for
textiles and hair, is H2O2. This formula indicates that each hydrogen peroxide molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms
and two oxygen atoms. The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in this molecule is 2:2 or 1:1. The empirical formula of
hydrogen peroxide is HO. Thus, the empirical formula tells us which elements are present and the simplest whole-number
ratio of their atoms, but not necessarily the actual number of atoms in a given molecule. As another example, consider
the compound hydrazine (N2H4), which is used as a rocket fuel. The empirical formula of hydrazine is NH2. Although the
ratio of nitrogen to hydrogen is 1:2 in both the molecular formula (N2H4) and the empirical formula (NH2), only the
molecular formula tells us the actual number of N atoms (two) and H atoms (four) present in a hydrazine molecule.
Empirical formulas are the simplest chemical formulas; they are written by reducing the subscripts in the molecular
formulas to the smallest possible whole numbers. Molecular formulas are the true formulas of molecules. If we know the
molecular formula, we also know the empirical formula, but the reverse is not true. Why, then, do chemists bother with
empirical formulas

For many molecules, the molecular formula and the empirical formula are one and the same. Some examples
are water (H2O), ammonia (NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane (CH4).

Molecular Models

Molecules are too small for us to observe directly. An effective means of visualizing them is by the use of molecular
models. Two standard types of molecular models are currently in use: ball-and-stick models and space-filling models. In
ball and-stick model kits, the atoms are wooden or plastic balls with holes in them. Sticks or springs are used to represent
chemical bonds. In space-filling models, atoms are represented by truncated balls held together by snap. fasteners, so
that the bonds are not visible. The balls are proportional in size to atoms. The fi rst step toward building a molecular
model is writing the structural formula, which shows how atoms are bonded to one another in a molecule. For example,
it is known that each of the two H atoms is bonded to an O atom in the water molecule. Therefore, the structural formula
of water is H-O-H. A line connecting the two atomic symbols represents a chemical bond

Chemical Formula Structural Formula Ball and Stick Model Space Filling Model

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Naming Compounds

Many ionic compounds are binary compounds, or compounds formed from just two elements. For binary
compounds, the first element named is the metal cation, followed by the nonmetallic anion. Thus, NaCl is sodium chloride.
The anion is named by taking the first part of the element name (chlorine) and adding “-ide.” Potassium bromide (KBr),
zinc iodide (ZnI2), and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) are also binary compounds.

The “-ide” ending is also used for certain anion groups containing different elements, such as hydroxide (OH 2) and
cyanide (CN2). Thus, the compounds LiOH and KCN are named lithium hydroxide and potassium cyanide, respectively.
These and a number of other such ionic substances are called ternary compounds, meaning compounds consisting of
three elements.

Certain metals, especially the transition metals can form more than one type of cation. Take iron as an example.
Iron can form two cations: Fe2+ and Fe3+. An older nomenclature system that is still in limited use assigns the ending “-
ous” to the cation with fewer positive charges and the ending “-ic” to the cation with more positive charges:

Fe2+ ferrous ion

Fe3+ ferric ion
This method of naming ions has some distinct limitations. First, the “-ous” and “-ic” suffixes do not provide
information regarding the actual charges of the two cations involved. In addition, the “-ous” and “-ic” designations provide
names for only two different elemental cations. The names of the compounds that these iron ions form with chlorine
would thus be

FeCl2 ferrous chloride or Iron (II) Chloride

FeCl3 ferric chloride or Iron (III) Chloride
Using the Stock system, we denote the ferrous ion and the ferric ion as iron(II) and iron(III), respectively; ferrous
chloride becomes iron(II) chloride; and ferric chloride is called iron(III) chloride

Some metallic elements can assume three or more different positive charges in compounds. Therefore, it has
become increasingly common to designate different cations with Roman numerals. This is called the Stock system. In this
system, the Roman numeral I indicates one positive charge, II means two positive charges, and so on. For example,
manganese (Mn) atoms can assume several different positive charges:

Mn 2+: MnO manganese(II) oxide

Mn 3+: Mn2O3 manganese(III) oxide
Mn 4+: MnO2 manganese(IV) oxide
These names are pronounced “manganese-two oxide,” “manganese-three oxide,” and “manganese-four oxide.”

15
Ionic Compound

Another example is Al2O3, given from the table that Aluminum is a cation and Oxide is an anion, observe the charges of
both ions.

What happens is a criss cross of charges, (note the charges becomes the subscript)

Al3+ O2-
That leads to

Al2O3
For the naming, take the name of the cation and in anion change the last 4, 3 or 2 letters of the name of nonmetal element
into -ide. The name of the compound is

Aluminum Oxide

Covalent Compounds

These compounds mostly consists of non metallic elements. In writing the chemical formula of a covalent compound, do
the following steps below. We will use Carbon Dioxide as an example of a chemical name that needs to be converted into
chemical formula

Step 1 (Atoms involved) - Carbon and Oxygen

Step 2 (Chemical symbol) - C + O
Step 3 (Number of atoms)) - 1 + 2

Note that the carbon has 1 atom while chlorine has 2 atoms. We can determine the number of an atom based from the
Greek prefixes used before each type of atom. In Carbon dioxide, there is no Greek prefix written before the word carbon.
This means that the number of Carbon is 1. In Greek prefix, 1 is mono but there is no prefix mono before the word carbon.
This is because the prefix mono is not allowed to be written at the beginning of the chemical name. From supposedly
Monocarbon dioxide, it is name as carbon dioxide

Greek Prefixes
1- Mono 8- Octa
2- Di 9- Nona
3- Tri 10- Deca
4- Tetra
5- Penta
6- Hexa
7-Hepta

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Step 4 (Combined the chemical Symbol and number of atoms) - C1 + O2
Step 5 (Remove the plus sign to determine the chemical formula) - C1O2 or CO
If you want to reverse the process, let us say naming a covalent compound, do the following steps below. We
will use CO2 as an example of a chemical formula that need to convert to chemical name.

Step 1 (Chemical name involved) - Carbon and Chlorine

Step 2 (Determine the Greek prefix) - none and tetra
Step 3 (Remove the word and then combined Greek prefix and Change the last 4, 3 or 2 Letters of the name of
last nonmetal element into -ide) - Carbon dioxide

Acids and Bases

An acid can be described as a substance that yields hydrogen ions (H +) when dissolved in water. (H+ is
equivalent to one proton, and is often referred to that way.) Formulas for acids contain one or more hydrogen
atoms as well as an anionic group. Anions whose names end in “-ide” form acids with a “hydro-” prefix and an “-
ic” ending. In some cases, two different names seem to be assigned to the same chemical formula.

HCl hydrogen chloride

HCl hydrochloric acid

The names assigned to the compound depends on its physical state. In the gaseous or pure liquid state, HCl is a
molecular compound called hydrogen chloride. When it is dissolved in water, the molecules break up into H + and
Cl- ions; in this state, the substance is called hydrochloric acid.

Oxoacids are acids that contain hydrogen, oxygen, and another element (the central element). The formulas of
oxoacids are usually written with the H first, followed by the central element and then O. We use the following
five common acids as our references in naming oxoacids:
H2CO3 carbonic acid
HClO3 chloric acid
HNO3 nitric acid
H3PO4 phosphoric acid
H2SO4 sulfuric acid

Often two or more oxoacids have the same central atom but a different number of O atoms. Starting with our
reference oxoacids whose names all end with “-ic,” we use the following rules to name these compounds.

1. Addition of one O atom to the “-ic” acid: The acid is called “per . . . -ic” acid. Thus, adding an O atom to HClO3
changes chloric acid to perchloric acid, HClO4.
2. Removal of one O atom from the “-ic” acid: The acid is called “-ous” acid. Thus, nitric acid, HNO3, becomes
nitrous acid, HNO2.
3. Removal of two O atoms from the “-ic” acid: The acid is called “hypo . . . -ous” acid. Thus, when HBrO3 is
converted to HBrO, the acid is called hypobromous acid.

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The rules for naming oxoanions, anions of oxoacids, are as follows:
1. When all the H ions are removed from the “-ic” acid, the anion’s name ends with “-ate.”
For example, the anion CO32- derived from H2CO3 is called carbonate.
2. When all the H ions are removed from the “-ous” acid, the anion’s name ends with “-ite.”
Thus, the anion ClO2- derived from HClO2 is called chlorite.
3. The names of anions in which one or more but not all the hydrogen ions have been removed must indicate
the number of H ions present.

Summary of nomenclature for the oxoacids and oxoanions

For example, consider the anions derived from phosphoric acid:

H3PO4 phosphoric acid
H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate
HPO42- hydrogen phosphate
PO43- phosphate

Note that we usually omit the prefix “mono-” when there is only one H in the anion. Table 2.6 gives the names
of the oxoacids and oxoanions that contain chlorine.

Names of Oxoacids and Oxoanions That Contain Chlorine

Acid Anion
HClO4 ClO4-
HClO3 ClO3-
HClO2 ClO2-
HClO ClO-

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Empirical Formula From The Percent Composition Of A Compound

Empirical Formulas

Empirical formulas are the simplest chemical formulas; they are written by reducing the subscripts in the
molecular formulas to the smallest possible whole numbers. The molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide, a
substance used as an antiseptic and as a bleaching agent for textiles and hair, is H2O2. This formula indicates that
each hydrogen peroxide molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms. The ratio of hydrogen
to oxygen atoms in this molecule is 2:2 or 1:1. The empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide is HO. Thus, the
empirical formula tells us which elements are present and the simplest whole-number ratio of their atoms, but
not necessarily the actual number of atoms in a given molecule. Molecular formulas are the true formulas of
molecules. If we know the molecular formula, we also know the empirical formula, but the reverse is not true.

How to Calculate the Empirical Formula?

In calculating the empirical formula of a compound, do the following steps below. We will refer to the sample
problem below.

SAMPLE PROBLEM:

Determine the empirical formula of a compound whose percentage composition is 50.05% S and 49.95% O by
mass.

Step 1. Use 100 g of the compound as basis of calculation. Meaning there will be 50.05 g would be atoms of
Sulfur and 49.95 g would be atoms of Oxygen.

Step 2. Convert the given mass of each atom into their equivalent mole. To do this, convert the given mass of
atom in the compound by using the mole of the atom as the conversion factor.

Let us use Sulfur to determine the calculation process. First the given mass of sulfur is 50.05 g multiply to 1 mol
of Sulfur atoms. You may refer to the red straight arrow. The answer is 50.05 g mol of S atoms. Then the 50.05
g mol of Sulfur atoms was divided by 32.1 grams of Sulfur. We divide it to 32.1 g because that is the weight of
Sulfur and the unit is gram/mol, to cancel out the grams divided it to get mol in the answer. You may refer to the
red curved arrow. The answer is 1.56 mol of S atoms.

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Step 3. The equivalent value of mole of each atom will be used as the subscript. Therefore, the formula maybe
written as S1.56O3.12, but this formula does not have whole-number subscripts. One way to get a formula with
whole-number subscript is to divide all the subscripts by the smallest subscript.

WHAT’S MORE?

ISOTOPES

1. To apply the concept of isotopes, ask them to complete the following table containing information about
the isotopes of uranium

Isotope Uranium – 238 Uranium - 235

Atomic Number 92 92
Mass number 238 235
Number of protons
Number of electrons
Number of nutrons

2. List at least two of the applications/uses of other isotopes in the industry

Example:
Iodine – 131 – Used in the detection, diagnosis and treatment of thyroid disorders

CHEMICAL FORMULAS, STRUCTURAL FORMULA AND MODELS

1. Write the molecular formula of the compounds, from its model

Blue – Nitrogen; Green – Chlorine; Red - Oxygen

a) . c.

d. .

b) . e.

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2. Draw the structural formula of the following compounds
a) N2O
b) Li3N
c) TiCl4
d) CH4
e) C2H6

Naming Compounds

1. Write the formula of: a. magnesium nitride b. rubidium sulfate and c. barium hydride
2. Name the following compounds: a. Cu(NO3)2, b. NH4ClO3, c. PbO d. Li2SO3 e. CrSO3 f. FeCl2
3. Name the following oxoacid and oxoanion: a. HBrO and b. HSO4
4. Write step by step process of naming of CrSO3 both in Old nomenclature and Stock system

Empirical Formula From The Percent Composition Of A Compound

1. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) cures scurvy is composed of 40.92 percent carbon (C), 4.58 percent hydrogen
(H), and 54.50 percent oxygen (O) by mass. Determine its empirical formula.
2. Determine the empirical formula of a compound having the following percent composition by mass: K:
24.75 percent; Mn: 34.77 percent; O: 40.51 percent.
3. The mineral pyrolusite is a compound of manganese-55 and oxygen-16. If 63% of the mass of pyrolusite
is due to manganese, what is the empirical formula of pyrolusite?

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