Chapter 8 Cell: The Unit of Life

Introduction
● Cell is the structural and functional unit of life
● Capable of independent existence

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Scientific Discoveries
Scientist Discovery

G N Ramachandra Triple helix structure of collagen protein

Robert Hooke Dead cell of cork

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek Observed first living cell

Robert Brown (1831) Nucleus observe

Purkinje Protoplasm observe

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Cell Theory
● In 1838, Matthias Schlieden (German Botanist) observed plants have
different types of cells
● In 1839, Theodore Schwann (British zoologist) observed the same in
animals and found out about the plasma membrane
● NCERT Line: On the basis of this, Schwann proposed the hypothesis that the
bodies of animals and plants are composed of cells and products of cells.
● Schlieden and Schwann together proposed the cell theory
● Rudolf Virchow (1855) that new cells arise from preexisting cells (omnis
cellula e cellula). He modified the theory and gave the new modern cell
theory

Features:
1. All living organism are made up of cells and products of cells
2. All cells arise from pre existing cells
3. Viruses are an exception as they are acellular

Exceptions:
- Virus
- Aseptate fungal hyphae

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 - Blood cells, muscle cells
- Large algae
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Some Introductory Points

● Cytoplasm is the main site of all cellular chemical activities
● Ribosome is also called as ‘an organelle within an organelle’
● Certain cell shapes:
- RBC: round and biconcave
- Mesophyll: round and oval
- Epithelial: long and narrow
- Nerve cell: long and branched
- Tracheid: elongated
- WBC: amoeboid
● Sizes of certain cells to remember:
Virus 0.02-0.2 µm

Bacteria 1-2 µm

Eukaryotic cell 10 - 20 µm

PPLO 0.1 µm

Largest cell Ostrich egg

- Mycoplasma: 0.3 µm
- RBC: 7 µm
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Prokaryotic Cell

● Genetic material is naked and no nucleus present

● They have single, circular DNA without histones proteins
● Also have some extra circular DNA called a plasmid to give it resistance to
antibiotics
● The cell envelope has 3 layers
- Glycocalyx (loose sheath called slime layer or thick one called as capsule)
- Cell wall
- Cell membrane
● Cell membrane has two special extensions into the cell:
- Mesosomes:
1. In the forms of vesicles, tubules or lamellae

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 2. Help in cell wall formation, DNA replication and distribution to offspring,,
respiration by increasing surface and area

- Chromatophores
1. Present in cyanobacteria which contains chlorophyll a

● Motile bacteria have flagella (extensions of the cell wall). It is composed of

filament, Hook, and Basal Body. Flagella helps in motility.
● Pilli help in conjugation
● Fimbriae are bristle like and help in attachment to rocks in streams/host
tissue

● Ribosomes are of 70s (50s+30s)

● Several ribosomes may attach to single mRNA and form polysomes. They
translate the mRNA to produce a single type of protein
● Reserve material is stored in inclusion bodies (membrane less) such as
phosphate, cyanophycean and glycogen granules.
● Gas vacuoles are present in in blue green and purple photosynthetic bacteria

Classified by Gram viz:

● Gram Positive: cell envelope take up the gram stain
● Gram Negative: cell envelope does not take up the gram stain
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Cell Membrane
● Common/universal feature of all cells
● Detailed structure observed after electron microscope found in 1950

Composition of Plasma membrane:

● It is a phospholipid bilayer
● Phospholipids have a polar head and nonpolar tail of fatty acid
● Lipids arranged parallel with the polar heads facing outwards and the
hydrophobic tails inside
● The ratio of protein and lipid varies considerably in different cell types.
● In human beings, the membrane of the erythrocyte has approximately 52%
protein and 40% lipids.
● Proteins are of two types:
1. Intrinsic/Integral: totally buried in membrane and difficult to extract
2. Extrinsic/Peripheral: lies on surface and easy to extract

Discoveries of Plasma membrane:

1. Davson Danielli Model: 4 layers (2 phospholipids and 2 protein)
2. Robertson Model: lipid bilayer sandwiched between 2 protein layers

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Fluid Mosaic Model:
● Given by Singer and Nicholson in 1972
● Protein icebergs in a sea of lipids

Important property of Plasma membrane:

● Quasi like fluid nature of lipids enables the lateral movement of proteins within
the overall bilayer
● Ability to move within the membrane is termed as fluidity

Functions of Plasma membrane:

- Cell growth, formation of intercellular junctions, secretion,

endocytosis, cell division

Movement across plasma membrane:

● Using passive transport, fats, non-polar substance and water can move
across the membrane using osmosis, simple/facilitated diffusion
● Polar molecules like ions require carrier protein to move across the
membrane. This requires ATP and is termed as active transport. Na/K pump

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Cell wall
● It is a non-living rigid structure present in bacteria, plants and fungi
● Protects the entry of unwanted macromolecules and infections
● It aids in cell to cell interaction
● Bacteria have cell wall of peptidoglycan
● Algae have cell wall made up of cellulose, galactans, mannans and
calcium carbonate
● Plants have the same of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins
● Structure of cell wall:
1. Primary cell wall: formed during the young phase and capable of growth. It
slowly diminishes as the cell matures
2. Secondary cell wall: formed between pcw and plasma membrane on the
inner side and has lignin deposits.
3. Middle Lamella: made up of calcium pectate and glues neighbouring plant
cells
4. Plasmodesmata: connects the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells. It
transverses the cell wall and middle lamella

Order of layers

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Cell membrane - SCW - PCW - ML

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Endomembrane System (4 members)

● Consists only of ER, golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles
● Their functions are coordinated

Endoplasmic Reticulum
● From observation of electron microscope, a membrane that is long, branched,
scattered and tubular
● It divided the cytoplasm into
- Luminal (inside and lined by ER)
- Extra luminal (cytoplasmic compartments)
● Sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium ions in muscles
● Rough ER: aids in enzyme production and secretion
● Smooth ER: used in lipid synthesis and steroidal hormones

Golgi Apparatus
● In 1898, Camillo Golgi, first observed dense reticular structures near
nucleus
● Formed of cisternae
● Cis face is towards the nucleus and is convex
● Trans face is where the packaged body leaves after maturation and is
concave
● Important site of of formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids
● Forms lysosomes

Lysosome
● Formed by golgi body

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 ● Rich is hydrolases (lipase, protease, carbohydrase)
● Active at acidic pH and digests lipids, carbs, proteins and nucleic acids
● Present more in phagocytes

Vacuoles
● Bound by single membrane called as tonoplast
● Food Vacuole: present in protists for engulfing food
● Gas Vacuole: present in photosynthetic bacteria like blue, green and purple
● Contractile Vacuole: present in amoeba and euglenoids to aid in removing
excess water (osmoregulation)
● Sap Vacuole: 90% occupy volume and aid in turgidity of the cell
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Mitochondria
● Cylindrical and sausage shape
● Size, shape and number viable
● Diameter 02.-1µm and length 1-4 µm
● Present more in physiological active cells
● Have double membrane, 70 s ribosome, single circular DNA and divide
by fission
● Inner membrane is filled with a homogeneous mixture called as matrix
● It is a semi-autonomous organelle

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 Plastids
● Found in all plant cell and euglenoids
● Easily observed in microscope
● Have pigments present in them

Chloroplast Have chlorophyll and carotenoid help in trapping light

Chromoplas Have fat soluble carotenoids like carotene and

t xanthophylls and is responsible for giving plants orange,
red and yellow colours

Leucoplast Colourless plastids which store nutrients

Amyloplast Store carbs like starch (found in potato)

Elaioplast Stores oils and fats

Aleuroplast Stores proteins

● Have double membrane, 70 s ribosome, single circular DNA and divide by

fission
● Length (5-10 µm) and width (2-4µm)
● In Clamydomonas 1 per cell whereas in algae 20-40 per cell
● Disc, round, ribbon, lens and discoid and spherical in shape
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Ribosomes
● Discovered by George Palade in 1953
● Not membrane bound and combosomed of RNA
● 80s (40s+60s); 70s (50+30s)
● S is the Svedberg’s unit (sedimentation coefficient)m which is a measure of
density and size
● Both the 70s and 80s are composed of 2 subunits
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Cytoskeleton
● Helps in motility, mechanical support, and maintenance of cell shape
● Network of filamentous, proteinaceous structure consisting of microtubules,
microfilaments and intermediate filaments

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Cilia and Flagella

● Outgrowths of the cell membrane
● Flagella are longer and responsible for cell movement
● Prokaryotic flagella are structurally different from the eukaryotic
● They emerge from centriole like structure called as basal bodies

● Structure:
- In the core, there is number of microtubules called as axenome
- Axoneme has 9 pairs of doublets radially arranged and a pair of
microtubules in the centre (9+2)
- There are 9 radial spokes
- Linkers connect the peripheral doublets

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Centrosome and Centriole

● Centrosome contains 2 cylindrical like structure called as centrioles which are

perpendicular to each other
● Present only in animal cells and is non-membrane bound
● Have cartwheel like organisation and have 9 peripheral fibril made up of
tubulin protein
● Central part is called hub and is proteinaceous which is connected by radial
spikes to the triplet

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 ● They form the basal body of cilia , flagella and spindle fibres used in cell
division
- Microtubules are formed from cilia, centrioles and spindle fibres.
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Nucleus

● Fleming first observed chromatin through staining

● Largest cell organelle having double membrane
● Cells can be unucleated ( erythrocyte, RBC, Sieve tube) and are considered
living
● Paramecium is binucleate

● In interphase, it has chromatin, nuclear matrix and one or more nucleoli

● Nuclear envelope has two parallel membranes with a space of 10-50 nm
called the perinuclear space
● Outer membrane is associated with the ER and has ribosomes
● Nuclear pores are formed by fusion of the two membranes. There is two
way movement of proteins and RNA molecules across it.

● Nucleolus (membrane less) is the site of rRNA synthesis and more nucleoli
are present in cells actively synthesising proteins
● Chromatin has DNA, RNA, histone and non-histone proteins
● 2m long chromatin per cell is present in humans
● Each chromosome has a primary constriction called centromere and
kinetochores are present on the sides of centromeres
● Sometimes, there is non-staining secondary constrictions giving the
appearance of a small fragment called as the satellite

Chromosome Type Position of centromere

Telocentric Terminal area of telomere

Acrocentric Inner to telomere forming extremely

short and one long arm

Sub-metacentric Slightly away from middle of

chromosome

Metacentric Middle of chromosome

- Short arm is the p arm and the long arm is the q arm.

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Microbodies
● Membrane bound minute vesicles present in both plant and animals cells
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NCERT Intext Points:

- Mitochondria, Peroxisomes and Chloroplasts are not part of

endomembrane system as their functions are not coordinated

- Flagella in bacteria are extension of cell wall but in eukaryotes are

extension of plasma membrane only

- Non membrane bound organelles: ribosomes, inclusion bodies and

centrosomes

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Data to Remember:

Virus 0.02-0.2 µm

Bacteria 1-2 µm

Eukaryotic cell 10 - 20 µm

PPLO 0.1 µm

Largest cell Ostrich egg

- RBC (7 µm) and Mycoplasma (0.3µm)

- Plasma membrane is 40% lipids and 52% proteins
- 80s (40s+60s); 70s (50+30s)
- Microtubules are formed from cilia, centrioles and spindle fibres

Robert Hooke Dead cells of cork

Ramachandran Triple helix structure of collagen

Schileden - 1838 Plants cells

Schwann - 1839 Animal cells

Virchow - 1855 Omnis cellula e cellula

Singer and Nicholson - 1972 Fluid mosaic model

Camillo Golgi - 1898 Golgi apparatus

George Palade - 1953 Ribosome discovery

Fleming Chromatin using staining method

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