Introduction

"The pursuit of limits in calculus is a journey where numbers dance on the edge of
infinity, revealing the elegance of mathematical continuity." - Mary Cartwright
In this chapter, we will explore the concepts of limits and continuity. One of the most important
things to comprehend in order to get ready for calculus is the idea of the limit. Limits are the
backbone of calculus and calculus is called the Mathematics of Change. On the other hand,
continuity is another far- reaching concept in calculus. A function can be either be continuous or
discontinuous. We will discover a better and far more accurate definition of continuity using
limits.
In calculus, a limit is a fundamental concept that describes the behavior of a function as its input
approaches a certain value. Limits are crucial for understanding continuity, derivatives, and
integrals.
All of the fundamental ideas in calculus are based on the idea of limit as a building block. To
fully understand change, the study of limitations is required. The formulation of the derivative
and integral of a function is based on the evaluation of a limit. “Limits describe how a function
behaves near appoint, instead of at the point.” Limiting behavior occurs in a variety of practical
situations. For instance, absolute value, the temperature at which all molecular activity ceases,
can be approached but never actually attained in practice. For a greater knowledge of calculus,
familiarity with the limit idea is a need. Here in this chapter, we will now start our lesson on the
characteristics of limits and the properties of limits.

Module Content
The following are the lessons contained in this chapter:
LESSON 1: Limits: Definition and Properties
LESSON 2: Limit Laws (Algebraic and Trigonometric Limits Needed for Derivative)
LESSON 3: Infinite Limits: Asymptotes
LESSON 4: Continuity

General Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Define and describe the limit of a function and use appropriate notation
2. Distinguish the basic limit laws to use in evaluating the limits of different types of function
3. Apply various methods to estimate the limit of a function or to identify when the limit
does not exist.
4. Evaluate the limit of a function by using the squeeze theorem
5. Determine the infinite limits of functions.
6. Find the asymptotes of a functions.
7. Show the continuity of a function at a certain number

Learning Strategies
 Take your time reading and understanding the lessons in this chapter carefully.
 Observe the guidelines and/or instructions for the activities carefully.
 Answers all the activities and critical thinking.
Lesson 1: Limits: Its Definition and Properties

What is It?
In calculus, limits are the gateway to understanding the infinite. They reveal the profound beauty
hidden in the smallest and largest of mathematical realms.
Limits are a foundational concept in calculus that underpins the study of derivatives, integrals,
continuity, and other essential mathematical concepts. They provide a rigorous framework for
understanding change, rates of change, and various mathematical behaviors.
The limit of a function at a particular point represents the value the function approaches as the
input gets arbitrarily close to that point.

What I Need to Know?

At the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to:
• Define limits
• Understand the properties of limits to simplify and evaluate limit equations.

Note!
Students should already be familiar with finding limits by direct substitution.

What I Already Know? (PRE – TEST)

Direction: Read the following questions comprehensively. Write the letter of your answer.
1.) Which of the following statements is NOT true?
a.) The limit of a constant is zero.
b.) The limit of a sum of functions is the sum of the limits of the individual functions.
c.) The limit of x as x approaches c is equal to c.
d.) The limit of a multiple of a function is simply that multiple of the limit of the function.
2.) What is the lim (3𝑥 2 + 5x − 9)?
𝑥→−2

a.) 7 b.) -2 c.) 2 d.)-7

3.) What is the lim (𝑥 3 − 4x)?
𝑥→3

a.) 15 b.) 14 c.)0 d.)3

4.) What is the lim (𝑥 2 − 3x + 5)
𝑥→−1

a.) 10 b.) 9 c.) -9 d.) 12

5.) What is the lim (5𝑥 − 3)
𝑥→−2

a.) 13 b.) 12 c.) -13 d.) -12

LIMITS: ITS DEFINITION
Prior to the study of calculus, mathematics analyzed how the function relationship behaved
when the input value was equal to a constant number. In calculus, this behavior analysis is
expanded upon by analyzing how the function behaves as the input approaches the same
constant value from both sides of the graph. This is done by taking values from either side that
get closer and closer to the constant value, without having to use the given constant value. This
is called taking the limit of a function. The limit of a function is defined by the following notation:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐

This is read as '"the limit of the function as x approaches a."' Having said that, limits deal with
what is going on around the value of a, rather than what is happening at the value of a. It is
important to analyze and become acquainted with the concept of limits because many of the
concepts in the study of calculus and other scientific branches of study use the limit of a function
to analyze behaviors around certain phenomena, for example, later in calculus, the topic of
continuity will emerge and it uses the limit of functions and its differing variations (one-sided
limits) to determine the continuity of a function at a certain value.

Limits: An Informal Definition

The limit is taken as the input, x, approaches a specific value from either side. In this case, x is
approaching c.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐

The limit itself is a value of the function. (its y value)

In this case, the limit is L.
So, If f(x) becomes arbitrarily close to a single number, l, as x approaches c from either side,
then the limit of f(x) as x approaches to c is L.

When you see “limit”, always think of the term “approaching”.

INTUITIVE DEFINITION
We can think of the limit of a function at a number a as being the one real number L that the
functional values approach as the x-values approach , a provided such a real number L exists.

Let f(x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval containing, a with the possible
exception of a itself, and let be a real number.
If all values of the function f(x) approach the real number L as the values of x≠a approach the
number a , then we say that the limit of f(x) as approaches a is L. (Meaning, as x gets closer
to a , f(x) gets closer and stays close to L.)
Symbolically, we express this idea as:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

The LIMIT FORMULA

The limit formula is the representation of the behavior of the function at a specific point
and the formula analyzes that function.

Limit describes the behavior of some quantity that depends on an independent variable, as that
independent variable approaches or comes close to a particular value.
Symbolically, this idea is:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

IMPORTANCE OF LIMITS:
 Limits are needed to define differential calculus. Every application of differential equation
assumes that the limits defining the terms in the equations exist.
 Limits are needed in integral calculus because an integral is defined over a range of
variables, and this form the limits in the integrations.

LIMITS: ITS PROPERTIES

EXISTENCE OF A LIMIT
It is possible for the limit of a function to exist at a point, and for the function to be defined at
this point, but the limit of the function and the value of the function at the point may be different.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

Together with the use of tables and graphs, limit laws provide alternative methods for calculating
many limits.
Keep in mind that for the limit of a function to exist at a point, the functional values must
approach a single real-number value at that point.
If the functional values do not approach a single value, then the limit does not exist.
The limit of f(x) as x approaches a may not exist:

If f(x) becomes infinitely large in magnitude (positive or negative) as x approaches from either
side, we write lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ± ∞ In either case, the limit does not exist.
𝑥→𝑎

 If f(x) becomes infinitely large in magnitude (positive) as x approaches a from one side
and infinitely large in magnitude (negative) as x approaches a from the other side, then:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.
𝑥→𝑎
  If lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, wherein, the notation 𝑎− means x approaches a from the left and
𝑥→𝑎
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑀, wherein, the 𝑎+ means x approaches a from the right; and that , L≠ M
𝑥→𝑎
then the lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.
𝑥→𝑎

A limit failed to exist if the two one-sided limits are unequal. That is, if:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥), then lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.
𝑥→𝑎 − 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Note that direct substitution is not always applicable, especially for rational functions. Limits
by direct substitution means that:
If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of f, then:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎

LIMITS THAT FAIL TO EXISTS

IMPORTANT NOTE!
The existence of limit as x→ 𝑐 never depends on how the function may or may not be defined at
c.

BASIC LIMITS
Let b and c be real numbers and let n be a positive integer.
LIMIT OF A CONSTANT FUNCTION lim 𝑏 = 𝑏
𝑥→𝑐
LIMIT OF THE IDENTITY FUNCTION lim 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
LIMIT OF A POWER FUNCTION lim 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑐𝑛
𝑥→𝑐
𝑛 𝑛
LIMIT OF A RADICAL FUNCTION lim √𝑥 = √𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
PROPERTIES OF LIMITS

LIMITS OF POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

LIMITS OF A TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Let c be a real number in the domain of the given trigonometric function.
1. lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑐
𝑥 →𝑐
2. lim tan 𝑥 = tan 𝑐
𝑥 →𝑐
3. lim sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑐
𝑥 →𝑐
4. lim cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑐
𝑥 →𝑐
5. Lim cot 𝑥 = cot 𝑐
𝑥 →𝑐
6. lim csc 𝑥 = csc 𝑐

Sample Problems Involving Properties of Limits

Example 1: Evaluating Limits Involving Sums and Differences of Functions
Given that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3, lim 𝑔(𝑥) = − 7, and lim ℎ(𝑥) = − 1, find lim [(f(x) + g(x) − h(x))]
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

Solution:
lim [(f(x) + g(x) − h(x))]
𝑥→2

= [lim f(x) + lim g(x) − lim h(x)]

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= 3 + (−7) − (−1)
= −3
Example 2: Evaluating Limits Products and Differences of Functions
Assume that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5, lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 8, and lim ℎ(𝑥) = 9, find lim [(f(x) ∙ g(x) − h(x))]
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→2

Solution:
lim [(f(x) ∙ g(x) − h(x))]
𝑥→3

= [lim f(x) ∙ lim g(x) − lim h(x)]

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

The question stakes that lim ℎ(𝑥) = 9, which implies that lim [(f(x) ∙ g(x) − h(x)] is just equal
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
to [lim f(x) ∙ lim g(x) − lim h(x)]
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

Now all that remains is to evaluate the remaining

= lim (f(x) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) − 9) expression involving the limits. For this, we can
𝑥→3 recall that the limit of the product is the product of
the limits. Which allows us to write.

We already know that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5, and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 8, which means the we can already
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
evaluate.
= lim (f(x) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) − 9)
𝑥→3

= (lim 𝑓(𝑥)) − (lim 𝑔(𝑥)) − 9

𝑥→3 𝑥→3

= (5)(8) − 9
= 31
Example 3: Evaluating Limits Involving Quotients and Constant Multiple of Functions
f(x)
Given that lim = = −3, determine lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→−2 3𝑥 2 𝑥→−2

Solution:
we will begin by creating an auxilliary function 𝑔 (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 2, which allows us to write the original
expression in the following form:
f(x)
lim = = −3
𝑥→−2 𝑔(𝑥)
Evaluate the limit of 𝑔 (𝑥 ) as 𝑥 → −2
lim = 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 = 3(−2)2 = 𝟏𝟐
𝑥→−2

So, 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟏𝟐
Recall that the limits of the quotient is the quotient of the limit. This means that, providing that
the limit of the denominator term is not equal to zero, we can rewrite equation (1) as:
lim f(x)
𝑥→−2
lim = = −3
𝑥→−2 lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→−2

Re-arranging this expression gives

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −3 ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2

Given equation (2), we can now give the final result

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −3 ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2

=(-3)(12) = -36
Example 4
Given lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = −3
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Evaluate the following using Properties of Limits

a. lim 4 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 ∙ (lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

= (4)(4)
= 16
b. lim [3𝑓(𝑥) + 5𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑎

= 3 ∙ lim 𝑓(𝑥) + 5 ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

= 3 (4) + 5 (-3)
= 12 – 15
= -3

c. lim [𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)]

𝑥→𝑎

= lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

= 4 (-3)
= -12

d. lim [𝑔(𝑥)]4 ∙ √𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎
4
= [lim 𝑔(𝑥)] ∙ √ lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

= (−3)4 ∙ √4

= 81 ∙ 2
= 162

𝑓(𝑥)
e. lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

1
= lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)

1
= 4(−3)

−4
=
3
LESSON 2: LIMIT LAWS (ALGEBRAIC AND TRIGONOMETRIC LIMITS NEEDED FOR
DERIVATIVES)
What is It?
What are laws and why are they made? There will undoubtedly be many justifications for it, one
of which is that it is a rule that should be observed for the benefit of society as a whole. The limit
lesson was developed due to the advantages it can offer in resolving the limits of various
functions. It also includes its own set of laws.

What I Need To Know?

At the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to:
 Illustrate the limit laws
 Apply the limit laws in evaluating the limit of algebraic and trigonometric functions

What I Already Know

Direction: Calculate the limits of the following functions. Write the letter of the correct answer.
𝑥+1 2 3 5 2
1. lim (𝑥−2) a. 3 b. 2 c. 2 d. 5
𝑥→4

2. . lim (√𝑥 + 3) a. 3 b. 5 c. 2 d. 4
𝑥→1

𝑥−4
3. lim ( ) a. 6 b. 4 c. 3 d. 5
𝑥→4 √𝑥−2

2𝑥 2 +7𝑥−15
4. lim ( 𝑥+5
) a. 0 b. 7 c. 6 d. 5
𝑥→−5

5. lim (𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 3 + 1) a. 0 b. -1 c. -2 d. 3
𝑥→1

LIMIT LAWS
 are the different laws or properties we can apply to manipulate functions and eventually
find their limits.
 are used as alternative ways in solving the limit of a function without using table of
values and graphs.
In solving limits, especially in more complex functions, knowing this set of limit laws are
advantageous. These simple formulas help us evaluate limits precisely and easily.

DIFFERENT LAWS THAT CAN APPLIED IN VARIOUS SITUATIONS IN ORDER TO SOLVE

FOR THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

 CONSTANT LAW: 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒄) = 𝒄

𝒙→𝒂

This limit law states that the limit of a constant c,as x approaches a, is just equal to the constant
itself.
Examples:
1. lim(5) = 5 3.lim(4) = 4
𝑋 →𝐶 𝑋 →5
2. lim(−6) = −6 4. lim(27) = 27
𝑋 →1 𝑋 →6

 IDENTITY LAW: 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒙) = 𝒄

𝒙→𝒂

The identity law is true for all values of x. As x approaches a, the value will of y will depend on
the value of x, so as x approaches a, y will also approach

Examples

lim (𝑥) = 10 lim (𝑥) = 6 lim (𝑥) = √2

𝑥→10 𝑥→6 𝑥→√2

• CONSTANT COEFFICIENT LAW: lim 𝑘 ∙ lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

The limit of the product of a constant(k) and a function (f(x)) is equal to the constant times the
limits of the function. If a function has a coefficient, evaluate the limit of the function first, and
then multiply the result by the coefficient.
Example:
lim (6𝑥 − 7)
𝑥→4

Solution
lim (6𝑥 − 7)
𝑥→4

= 6 lim 𝑥 − lim 7
𝑥→4 𝑥→4

= 6 (4) – 7
= 24 – 7
= 17

ADDITION LAW: lim 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

The limits of a sum of functions (f(x) and g(x)) is the sum of the limits of individual functions.
This means, the limit of each term individually is evaluated first, then the results are added to
come up with the limits of the sum of functions.
Example:
lim (𝑥 + 5)
𝑥→2

Solution:
lim (𝑥 + 5)
𝑥→2

=lim (𝑥) + lim (5)

𝑥→2 𝑥→2

=2+5
=7

SUBTRACTION LAW: lim 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Almost similar with the addition law, the limits of a difference of functions (f(x) and g(x)) is the
difference of the limits of individual functions. This means, the limit of each term individually is
evaluated first, then the results are subtracted to come up with the limits of the difference of
functions.
Example:
lim (15 − 2𝑥)
𝑥→−3

Solution: lim (15 − 2𝑥) = lim (15) − lim (2𝑥)

𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3

= 15 – 2(-3)
= 21

MULTIPLICATION LAW: lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

The limits of a product of (two or more) functions is equal to the product of all the limits of the
individual functions. To evaluate the limits of a product of functions, find the limit of each factor
first, then multiply the products together.
Example:
lim (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→2

Solution: lim (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→2

= lim [(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)]

𝑥→2

=[ lim (𝑥 + 1)] ∙ [ lim (𝑥 + 1)]

𝑥→2 𝑥→2

= (2 + 1)(2 + 1)
=9

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)

DIVISION LAW: lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑔(𝑥)
; 𝑖𝑓 lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

The limit of a quotient of functions is equal to the quotient of the limits of each function provide
that the limit of the denominator is not zero. Evaluate the limit of the numerator and the
denominator separately then solve for its quotient.

Example:
3𝑥
lim
𝑥→2 2 +1
𝑥
 3𝑥
Solution: lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 +1

lim 3𝑥
𝑥→2
= lim 𝑥 2 +1
𝑥→2

3(2)
=(2)2 +1

6
=
5

POWER LAW: lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = : lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 ; provided lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 < 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

The limit of power(n) of the function (f(x)) is the power of the limit of the function. That is if the
exponent is positive. To evaluate limits with positive exponent, solve for the limit of the function,
and then apply the exponent.
Example:
lim (𝑥 + 1)4
𝑥→1

Solution: lim (𝑥 + 1)4

𝑥→1
4
= [lim (1) + lim (1)]
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

= (1 + 1)4
= 24
= 16

𝑛 𝑛
ROOT LAW: lim √𝑓(𝑥) = √𝐿 ; provided L>0 when n is even
𝑥→𝑎

The limit of the nth root of a function (f(x)) is equal to the nth root of the limit of the function,
provided that the nth root of the limit of the function is positive, real number. Evaluate the limit of
the inside function and then take its root.

3
Example: lim √9𝑥
𝑥→3

3
Solution: lim √9𝑥 = lim 3√9(lim 𝑥)
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3

3
= lim √9(3)
𝑥→3
3
= lim √27
𝑥→3

=3
Limit in Polynomial and Rational Functions

𝑓(𝑥)
Problem-solving strategy for calculating the limit of 𝑔(𝑥) which has no indeterminate
0
form 0

For polynomials: [lim 𝑝(𝑥) = p(a)] and some (but not all) rational functions
𝑥→𝑎
 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑝(𝑎)
[lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑎) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑞(𝑎) ≠ 0], the limit can be determined by direct substitution.
𝑥→𝑎

 This method is used to find the limit only when the value of the function is not
indeterminate after substituting the value of the variable at which the limit of a function
is defined.

𝑓(𝑥) 0
Problem-solving strategy for calculating the limit of 𝑔(𝑥) which has the indeterminate form 0

𝑓(𝑥)
For the limit of some rational function lim 𝑔(𝑥) which has the following conditions:
𝑥→𝑎

 If for all x ≠ a, f(x) = g(x) over some open interval containing 𝒂 , then the
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥). The limit can be obtained using the factoring and cancellation
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
technique.
𝑓(𝑥)
 If lim 𝑔(𝑥), where lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 , then the function has the
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
indeterminate form 0/0. Additional problem solving strategy should be employed.

For other complex functions, the limit can be obtained by:

 multiplying a conjugate
 by simplifying a complex fraction.

Squeeze Theorem – allows you to find the limit of a function if the function is always greater
than one function and less than another function with limits that are known.

Sample Problems
Example #1

lim (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5)
𝑥→4

Using direct Substitution:

𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟓)
𝒙→𝟒

= (𝟒)𝟐 + 𝟑(𝟒) − 𝟓
= 16 + 12 – 5
= 23

Example #2
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3
lim ( 2 )
𝑥→−1 3𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 2

Using direct Substitution:

𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟑
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐 )
𝒙→−𝟏 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟐

𝟐(−𝟏)𝟐 −(−𝟏)−𝟑
= 𝟑(−𝟏)𝟐+𝟓(−𝟏)+𝟐
 𝟐+𝟏−𝟑
=
𝟑−𝟓+𝟐

=𝟎
𝟎 The substitution method is not applicable because the function has
indeterminate form.

Using Factoring

𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟑
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐 )
𝒙→−𝟏 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟐

(𝟐𝒙−𝟑)(𝒙+𝟏)
= (𝟑𝒙−𝟐)(𝒙+𝟏) hole

𝟐(−𝟏)−𝟑
=
𝟑(−𝟏)+𝟐

−𝟓
= −𝟏

=5

Example #3

𝟏 − √𝒙 + 𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→−𝟏 𝒙+𝟏
Multiplying by a conjugate
Applying difference of 2 squares:
a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b)

𝟏 − √𝒙 + 𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→−𝟏 𝒙+𝟏
𝟏−√𝒙+𝟐 𝟏+√𝒙+𝟐
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙+𝟏
(𝟏+√𝒙+𝟐)
𝒙→−𝟏

𝟏−(𝒙+𝟐)
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→−𝟏 (𝒙+𝟏)(𝟏+√𝒙+𝟐)

−𝒙−𝟏 −𝒙−𝟏
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→−𝟏 (𝒙+𝟏)(𝟏+√𝒙+𝟐) 𝒙→−𝟏 (𝒙+𝟏)(𝟏+√𝒙+𝟐)

−𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟏
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = = 𝟏+√𝟏 = 𝟐
𝒙→−𝟏 (𝟏+√𝒙+𝟐) (𝟏+√−𝟏+𝟐)

Special Trig and Exponential Limits

Trig Limit
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
lim 𝑥
=1 lim 𝑥
=0 lim 𝑥
=1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Exponential Limit
𝑒 𝑥 −1
lim 𝑥
=1
𝑥→0

Calculating the limit of using the Squeeze Theorem.

Squeeze Theorem - allows you to find the limit of a function if the function is always greater
than one function and less than another function with limits that are known.
- This is also known as the sandwich theorem or the pinching theorem...
 - This is used for calculating the limits of given trigonometric functions.
- This theorem establishes the limit of a function by comparing two other functions whose
limits are known.

These are the Squeeze Theorem formulas used for calculating trig limits
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
𝐋𝐢𝐦 =𝟏 𝐋𝐢𝐦 =𝟏 𝐋𝐢𝐦 =𝟏
𝜽→𝟎 𝜽 𝜽→𝟎 𝜽 𝜽→𝟎 𝜽

Sample Problems
Example #1
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙
𝐋𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟎 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐(𝟎)
= 𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟎

𝟎
=𝟎 Direct substitution is not applicable.

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙
𝐋𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟎 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 (𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙)
= 𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙

𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
= 𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙

𝟐 (𝟏− 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙

= 𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙

𝟐 (𝟏− 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙)(𝟏+𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙)𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙

= 𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙

= 2(1 + cos 𝑥) cos 𝑥

= 2(1 + cos 0) cos 0
= 2(1 + 1)1
=4

Example #2
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝒙
𝐋𝐢𝐦 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
𝒙→𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙−𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙−
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝒙
= 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 −𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
2
cos 𝑥 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝒙
=𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙−𝟏)

cos 𝑥 (𝟏− 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙)

=
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙−𝟏

cos 𝑥 (𝟏+𝐜𝐨 𝐬 𝒙)(𝟏− 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙)

= −(𝟏− 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙)

= − cos 𝑥 (1 + cos 𝑥)
= − cos 0 (1 + cos 0)
= −1 (1 + 1)
= -2

Example #3
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙
𝐋𝐢𝐦
𝒙→
𝝅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙
𝟐
𝝅
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐( )
𝟐
= 𝝅
(𝒄𝒐𝒔 )𝟐
𝟐

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝅
=
(𝟎)𝟐

𝟎
= Direct substitution is not applicable.
0

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙
𝐋𝐢𝐦
𝒙→
𝝅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙
𝟐
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
=
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
= 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
𝝅
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( )
𝟐
= 𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( )
𝟐

𝟐 (𝟏)
= 𝟎
=∞

Example #4
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
𝐋𝐢𝐦 = = = 2 tan 𝑥 = 2 tan 0 = 2(0) = 0
𝒙→𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙

Example #5
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟐
= 𝒙 𝒙
=1
𝒙→𝟎

Example #6
𝝅 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝟒𝟓 𝟏𝟔 (
√𝟐
) 𝟏𝟔( ) 8
𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟐
= 𝝅
𝟒
= 𝝅𝟐
= 𝛑𝟐
= 𝛑𝟐
𝟐
= 𝜋2
𝒙→
𝝅 ( )𝟐
𝟒 𝟒 𝟏𝟔

Example #7
𝜽𝟑 𝜽𝟑 𝜽𝟑
𝐋𝐢𝐦 = 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝜽𝒆 = =𝜃=0
𝜽→𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟐 𝜽→𝟎 ( 𝟐) 𝜽𝟐
𝜽

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
Applying 𝐋𝐢𝐦 =𝟏
𝜽→𝟎 𝜽
One and Two – Sided Limits

One Sided Limits

A one-sided limit can be a:

 Left-hand limit notated as: lim− 𝑓(𝑥), which means it is approaching x=a from the left
𝑥→𝑎
(negative) side

 Right-hand limit notated as: lim 𝑓(𝑥), which means it is approaching x=a from the right
𝑥→𝑎
(positive) side.

Two Sided Limits

The two-sided limits define conditions under which we say a function does not have a limiting y –
value at a given x – value:

 Some functions do not have a limiting 𝒚 −𝒗 𝒂 𝒍 𝒖 𝒆 because as they approach the

𝒙 −𝒗 𝒂 𝒍 𝒖 𝒆 from right and left, they do not have the same limiting 𝒚 −𝒗 𝒂 𝒍 𝒖 𝒆
 Hence, we can say, if: lim− 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑥). Then: lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

KEY TAKEAWAYS
LESSON 3: INFINITE LIMITS: ASYMPTOTES
What Is It?
In evaluating limits, the limit laws, guidelines on one- sided limits and techniques in evaluating
limits are essential. But what if these typical guidelines or techniques cannot be used because
the boundaries of the supplied function are approaching a specific value of x? The infinite limits
that approach α particular value of x will be covered in these lessons.

What I Need To Know?

At the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to:
 Define infinite limits
 Determine the infinite limits of functions
 Determine vertical, horizontal and slant asymptotes

What I Already Know

Direction: Evaluate each of the following. Write the letter of the correct answer.
4
1. lim (𝑥 2 ) a.0 b.-1 c. 1 d. 2
𝑥→∞

4𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 −6
2. . lim ( 2𝑥 3 +5𝑥+3 ) a. -2 b. 0 c. 2 d. 1
𝑥→∞

8𝑥−5
3. lim ( ) a. -4 b. 0 c. 2 d. 4
𝑥→∞ √4𝑥 2 +3

(𝑥+2)3 −(𝑥−2)3
4. lim 𝑥2
a. 12 b. 0 c. -12 d. ∞
𝑥→∞

1
5. lim ( 1 ) a. 0 b. 1 c. -1 d. undefined
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 ⁄4

Infinite Limits
The notation lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ means that the values of f(x) can be made arbitrarily large (as large
𝑥→∞
as we please) by taking x sufficiently close to α but not equal to α.
The notation lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ means that the values of f(x) can be made arbitrarily large
𝑥→∞
negative by taking x sufficiently close to α but not equal to α.
Example:

We define three types of infinite limits.

INFINITE LIMITS FROM THE LEFT: Let f(x) be a function defined at all values in an open
interval of the form (b, α).
1. If the values of f(x) increase without bound as the values of x (where x < α) approach the
number α, then we say that the limit as x approaches α from the left is positive infinity and we
write lim−𝑓(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎
2. If the values decrease without bound as the values of x (where x < α) approach the number α,
then we say that the limit as x approaches α from the left is negative infinity and we write
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎 −

.
INFINITE LIMITS FROM THE RIGHT: Let f(x) be a function defined at all values in an open
interval of the form (α, c).
1. If the values of f(x) increase without bound as the values of x (where x > α) approach the
number α, then we say that the limit as x approaches α from the left is positive infinity and we
write lim+𝑓(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎

.
2. If the values of f(x) decrease without bound as the values of x (where x > α) approach the
number α, then we say that the limit as x approaches α from the left is negative infinity and we
write lim+𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎

TWO- SIDED INFINITE LIMIT: Let f(x) be defined for x ≠ 𝑎 in an open interval containing α.
1. If the values of f(x) increase without bound as the values of x (where x ≠ α) approach the
number α, then we say that the limit as x approache1s α from the left is positive infinity and we
writelim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎

.
2. If the values of f(x) decrease without bound as the values of x (where x ≠ α) approach the
number α, then we say that the limit as x approaches α from the left is negative infinity and we
write lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎

Example:
Evaluate each of the following limits.
2
lim+
𝑥→3 𝑥−3
SOLUTION:
𝑥 4 3.7 3.1 3.01 3.00 3.0001 3.0000
1 1
𝑓(𝑥) 2 2.8571 5 20 200 2000 200000
4

Notice that the value of 𝑥 becomes smaller and approaches 𝑥 , the value of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) becomes
larger and larger.
2 2 2
lim+ 𝑥−3 = 4.3 = 1 = 2
𝑥→3

2
lim+ = +∞
𝑥→3 𝑥−3

2
lim−
𝑥→3 𝑥−3
Solution:
 𝑥 2 2.1 2.3 2.6 2.9 2.99 2.999 2.9999
f(x) -2 -2.2222 -2.8571 -5 -20 -200 -2000 -20000
Notice that as 𝑥 approaches 3 from the left, or as the value of 𝑥 gets closer the 3, the value of
𝑓 (𝑥 ) becomes smaller and smaller.
2 2 2
lim = 2−3 = −1 = -2
𝑥→3− 𝑥−3

2
lim = −∞
𝑥→3− 𝑥 −3
Infinity
Let f(x) be a function. If we can make f(x) as a large as we please by making x close enough, but
not equal, to a real number α, the we describe this situation by writing

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ (where the symbol ∞ is read “infinity” )

𝑥→𝑎

1
In particular, consider the function f(x) = . The table below shows that as x takes on values
𝑥
1
successively approaching the number 0, the value of 𝑥 grows larger and larger. We say that
1
𝑥
becomes infinite as x approaches 0 and indicate this by writing

1
→ ∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 0
𝑥
1
In more compact form, we write lim = ∞
𝑥→0 𝑥

x 0.1000 0.0100 0.0010 0.000 →0

1
1
f(x) = 10 100 1,000 10,00 →∞
𝑥
0

Remember: ∞ is not a number which results from division by zero. Recall that in the real
number system, division by zero is not permissible. In fact, it can be argued that the statement
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ is not an equation at all since ∞ does not represent a number. It is merely used
𝑥→𝑎
as a symbol to imply that the value of f(x) increases numerically without bound as x approaches
α.

Limit At Infinity

A function f(x) may have a finite limit even when the independent variable x becomes infinite.
This statement “x becomes infinite” is customarily expressed in symbolism by “x→ ∞”.
1 1
Consider again the function f(x) = 𝑥 can be shown (intuitively or formally) that 𝑥 approaches a
1
finite limit (the number zero) as x increases without bound. That is 𝑥 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞.
1
Consider also this fact as an additional theorem on limits and in symbol, we write lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

NOTE: The symbol ∞ is used for infinity if no particular reference to sign is made. The symbol
+∞ (read as “plus infinity”) and −∞ (read “minus infinity”) are used in some books in connection
with statements about limits. The symbol +∞ is used to indicate that f(x) becomes positively
infinite (increases without bound) while −∞ is to used to mean that f(x) becomes negatively
infinite (decreases without bound).
Examples 1: Example 2
4 1
lim lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 1
𝑥→∞
1
𝑥4
= 4 lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 1 4
= lim (𝑥)
1 1 𝑥→∞
= 4 lim ( ∙ )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥 1
1 4
1 1 = [ lim 𝑥]
= 4 lim 𝑥 ∙ lim 𝑥→∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
=0
=0
From the examples above, we intuitively feel that if n is any positive number, then
1
lim 𝑛 = 0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

Practice Exercise:
𝑥3 1 8𝑥−5
1. lim 2 2. lim 3. lim
𝑥→∞ (2𝑥−1) 𝑥→∞ 3
𝑥 𝑥→∞ √4𝑥 2 +3

ASYMPTOTES
An asymptote is a line that a graph approaches, but does not intersect. In these lessons, we will
learn how to find vertical asymptotes, horizontal asymptotes and oblique (slant) asymptotes of
rational function.

VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE - A vertical asymptote of a graph is a vertical line x= 𝑎 where the

graph tends toward positive or negative infinity as the inputs approach α.
HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE - A horizontal asymptote of a graph is a horizontal y= 𝑏 where the
graph approaches the line as the inputs approach ∞ 𝑜 𝑟 − ∞.
HOW TO FIND HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE
To recall that an asymptote is a line that the graph of a function approaches but never touches.
In the following example, a Rational function consists of asymptotes.

In the above example, we have a vertical asymptote at x = 3 and a horizontal asymptote at y =

1. The curves approach these asymptotes but never visit them. The method to identify the
horizontal asymptote changes based on how the degrees of the polynomial in the function’s
numerator and denominator are compared. Below are the points to remember to find the
horizontal asymptotes:
 If the degree of the polynomials both in numerator and denominator is equal, then divide
the coefficients of highest degree terms to get the horizontal asymptotes.
 If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, then the
horizontal asymptotes will be y = 0.
 If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, then there
are no horizontal asymptotes.

ASYMPTOTES OF A HYPERBOLA
Hyperbola contains two asymptotes. Two bisecting lines that are passing by the center of the
hyperbola that doesn’t touch the curve are known as the Asymptotes. These can be observed in
the below figure.

If the centre of a hyperbola is (x0, y0), then the equation of asymptotes is given as:
If the center of the hyperbola is located at the origin, then the pair of asymptotes is given as:
y = ± (b/a) x
That means, y = (b/a) x
y = - (b/a) x

FINDING VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES OF A RATIONAL FUNCTION

To find the vertical asymptote of a rational function, we simplify it first to lowest terms, set its
denominator equal to zero, and then solve for x values.

Example: Let us simplify the function f(x) = (3x2 + 6x) / (x2 + x). f(x) = 3x (x + 2) / x (x +

1) = 3(x+2) / (x+1).

When we set denominator = 0, x + 1 = 0. From this, x = -1. So its VA is x = -1.

Note that, since x is canceled while simplification, x = 0 is a hole on the graph. It means, no
point on the graphs corresponds to x = 0.

We can see both HA and VA of this function in the graph below. Also, observe the hole at x =
0.

3𝑥 2 +6𝑥
Graph of f(x) =
𝑥 2 +𝑥

EXAMPLE:
2𝑥
Find the vertical asymptote of f(x) = 𝑥−4

In the definition of vertical asymptotes we need a certain limit to be +∞. Candidates would be
consider values not in the domain of f(x), such as α= 4. As 𝑥 approaches 4 but is larger than 4
then 𝑥 -4 is a small positive number of 2𝑥 is close to 8, so the quotient 2𝑥 ⁄(𝑥 − 4) is a large
positive number. Thus, we see that
2𝑥
lim+4 =∞
𝑥→𝑥 𝑥 − 4

Thus, at least one of the conditions in the definition above is satisfied. Therefore 𝒙 = 𝟒 is a
vertical asymptote, as shown below
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE

Horizontal Asymptote Vertical Asymptote

It is of the form y = k. It is of the form x = k.

It is obtained by taking the limit as It is obtained by taking the limit as

x→∞ or x→ -∞. y→∞ or y→ -∞.

It may cross the curve sometimes. It will never cross the curve.

How to Find Slant Asymptote?

The slant asymptote of a rational function is obtained by dividing its numerator by denominator
using the long division. The quotient of the division (irrespective of the remainder) preceded by
"y =" gives the equation of the slant asymptote. Here is an example.
Example: Find the slant asymptote of y = (3x3 - 1) / (x2 + 2x). Let us divide 3x3 - 1 by x2 + 2x
using the long division.

Therefore, y = 3x - 6 is the slant/oblique asymptote of the given function.

Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the functions given below.
 −4
Example 1: f(x) =
(𝑥 2 −3𝑥)

Solution:
Vertical asymptotes:
x2 - 3x = 0
x (x-3) = 0
x = 0 and x =3
So, the vertical asymptotes are x = 0 and x = 3.

Horizontal asymptotes:
Comparing highest exponents,
denominator > numerator
So, horizontal asymptote is at y = 0.

(𝑥−4)
Example 2: f(x) = (−4𝑥−16)

Solution :
Vertical asymptotes:
-4x-16 = 0
-4(x+4) = 0
x=-4
So, vertical asymptote is x = -4.

Horizontal asymptotes:
Comparing highest exponents,
Denominator = numerator

Horizontal asymptote = Coefficient of x of numerator/Coefficient of x in the denominator

y = -1/4
So, horizontal asymptote is y = -1/4.
 (𝑥 3 −9𝑥)
Example 3: f(x) = (3𝑥2 −6𝑥−9)

Solution:
Vertical asymptotes:
3x2- 6x - 9 = 0
3(x2-2x-3) = 0
(x-3)(x+1) = 0
x = 3 and x = -1 So, vertical asymptotes are x = 3 and x = -1.

Horizontal asymptotes:
Comparing highest exponents,
numerator = denominator
coefficient of x from the numerator/coefficient of x in the denominator
y = 3/1
y=3
So, the horizontal asymptote is y = 3.

Key Takeaways
LIMIT AT INFINITY AND INFINITE LIMIT
Limits at infinity tells us the end behavior of a function on an infinite interval.
These limits are expressed as follows:
𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝒙→±∞

The line y=L is the horizontal asymptote of the given function f(x)

Shortcuts for finding limits at infinity:

 Divide each term of the given function by the term with the highest power in the
denominator.
 Find the limit at infinity in the new form
Note:
However, please bear in mind that prior to applying these suggested steps, express your function
first in its simplest form especially for rational functions (free from common factors, etc...)

Basic algorithms for finding limits at infinity:

 If the degree (n) of the numerator is less than that of the denominator (m), then the
limit of the rational function is
 If the degrees of both numerator and denominator are equal, then the limit of the
rational function is the ratio of the leading coefficients
 If the degree (n) of the numerator is greater than that of the denominator (m), then
the limit of the rational function does not exist.
 𝑝 (𝑥) The numerator (n)
𝐋𝐢𝐦𝒇(𝒙) =
𝒙→∞ 𝑞 (𝑥) The denominator (m)

Looking at the degree of the numerator and denominator: If the degree of:
𝒏 > 𝒎, 𝑳=∞ find the asymptote by division
𝒂𝒏
𝒏 = 𝒎, 𝑳= Leading coefficient of n find the asymptote by calculating
𝒃𝒏
Leading coefficient of m
INFINITE LIMITS
𝐋𝐢𝐦𝒇(𝒙) = ±∞ 𝒇(𝒙) = ±∞ as x → a
𝒙→𝒂

LIMITS AT INFINITY
𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝒙→±∞

𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = ∞ 𝐋𝐢𝐦𝒇(𝒙) = −∞ 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = −∞

𝒙→−∞ 𝒙→∞ 𝒙→−∞

Asymptote
- a line that a curve approaches, as it heads towards infinity.
- The distance between the curve and the asymptote tends to zero as they head to ∞ (or
−∞)
The curve can approach
 from any side (such as from above or below for a horizontal asymptote)
 or may actually cross over (possibly many times), and even move away and back again.
Its types are:
 Horizontal asymptote
 Vertical asymptote
 Oblique/Slant asymptote
Vertical Asymptote (VA) - are vertical lines perpendicular to the x - axis or parallel to the y – axis.

Horizontal Asymptote (HA) - are horizontal lines perpendicular to the y – axis or parallel to the
x – axis.

Oblique/Slant Asymptote (OA) - not erect or perpendicular; neither parallel to, nor at right angles
from, the base. It is a slanting line or inclined.

Note!
 If a function has a horizontal asymptote, then it cannot have a slant asymptote and vice
versa.
 Polynomial functions, sine, and cosine functions have no horizontal or vertical
asymptotes.
 Trigonometric functions csc, sec, tan, and cot have vertical asymptotes but no horizontal
asymptotes.
 Exponential functions have horizontal asymptotes but no vertical asymptotes.
 The slant asymptote is obtained by using the long division of polynomials.
Lesson 4: Continuity

What Is It?
If you can draw a function's graph on an interval without removing your pencil from the paper,
the interval is considered to be continuous for that function. In the formal definition of continuity,
continuity at a point is first defined, and then continuity on an interval is added. The idea of
sketching a graph without taking your pencil out of the paper may not seem to have much in
connection with the formal definition, however after looking into a few examples, there should be
a clearer relationship between the formal and informal definitions.

What I Need to Know?

At the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to:
 Define continuity
 Show the continuity of a function at a certain number.
 Solve problems involving continuity of a function.

What I Already Know

DIRECTIONS: Read each statement carefully. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. A polynomial function is continuous everywhere.
A. True B. False C. Sometimes true D. Sometimes false
2. What are the conditions for the given function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) to be continuous at the number α?
A. (α) exists B. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists C. . lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑎 ) D. All of the above
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(𝑥 2 −4)
3. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥+2)
is continuous except for what value of x?

A. 𝑥 =2 B. 𝑥 = −2 C. 𝑥 = -3 D. 𝑥 = 3
4. If a function 𝑓 is not defined at x= 𝛼 , then it is not continuous at x=α.
A. True B. False C. Maybe D. I don’t know
5. It occurs when the discontinuity has a hole in the graph of the function.
A. Infinite B. Jump C. Removable D. Indeterminate

What’s New
Practice Task
Take a look at the following figure.
  Which of the following figures has remained continuous? discontinuous?
 How did you know that the given figure is a continuous or not?
 Suppose we don't get a graph of functions, but only the function itself. What are the
parameters to determine if that function is continuous on a given number?

CONTINUITY AT A NUMBER
In mathematical terms, a function's graph is continuous as long as there are no gap or breaks.
That is a function f is continuous at a point where x = a if its graph passes through the point with
coordinates (a, f(a)) without a break in the line or curve.
A function (𝑥 ) is said to be continuous at 𝑥 =𝑐 if the following three conditions are satisfied:
a. (𝑐 ) 𝑒 𝑥 𝑖 𝑠 𝑡 𝑠 ;
b. lim 𝑓(𝑥) e𝑥 𝑖 𝑠 𝑡 𝑠 ;
𝑥→𝑐

c. (𝑐 )= lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐

If at least one of these conditions is not met, 𝑓 is said to be discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐 .

Example
𝑥 2 −𝑥−2
Determine if f(x) = 𝑥−2
is continuous or not at:

a. x = 0 b. x = 2

Solution:
a. Check the three conditions for continuity of a function, if x = 0.
𝑥 2 −𝑥−2
1. f(x) = 𝑥−2

02 −0−2
f(0) = 0−2
=1

𝑥 2 −𝑥−2 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+1)
2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim = lim 𝑥 + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥−2 𝑥→0 𝑥−2 𝑥→0

3. 𝑓(0) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→0

The three conditions are satisfied. Therefore, the function is continuous at x= 0.

b. Check the three conditions for continuity of a function, if x = 2.
𝑥 2 −𝑥−2
1. f(x) = 𝑥−2

22 −2−2 0
f(2) = = Indeterminate
2−2 0

𝑥 2 −𝑥−2 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+1)
2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim = lim 𝑥 + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2

3. 𝑓(2) ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→2

The three conditions are not satisfied. Therefore, the function is discontinuous at x= 2.

WHAT IS CONTINUITY?
In calculus, a function is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if and only if all three of the following conditions
are met:

• The function is defined 𝑥 = 𝑎 , that is, f(a) equals a real number.

1.

• The limit of a function as 𝑥 𝑎 𝑝 𝑝 𝑟 𝑜 𝑎 𝑐 ℎ𝑒 𝑠 𝑎 exists.

2.
• The limit of a function as 𝑥 𝑎 𝑝 𝑝 𝑟 𝑜 𝑎 𝑐 ℎ𝑒 𝑠 𝑎 is equal to the function value
at 𝑥 = 𝑎
3.

CONTINUITY ON AN OPEN INTERVAL

A function f(x) is continuous on an open interval (a,b) if it is continuous at every point on the
interval (a,b).

CONTINUITY AT A CLOSED INTERVAL

A function f(x) is continuous on a closed interval [𝑎 , 𝑏 ] if
1. It is continuous on the open interval (a, b)
2. It is continuous from the right at α
a. f(a) exists
b. lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) exists; and
𝑥→𝑎

c. 𝑓(𝑎) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎

3. It is continuous from the right at 𝑏

 a. f(b) exists
b. lim− 𝑓(𝑥) exists; and
𝑥→𝑏

c. 𝑓(𝑏) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑏

Continuity of a Polynomial, Rational, and Square Root Functions

1. A polynomial function is continuous at every real number, that is, it is continuous everywhere.
2. A rational function is continuous at every number in its domain
3. A square root function is continuous at every number in its domain.

Discontinuity at a Point
If you apply the definition of continuity to functions with discontinuities, it might make more
sense. If any of the three conditions in the definition of continuity fails when x = a, the function is
sin 𝑥
discontinuous at that point. Examine the continuity of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥
when x= 0

Checking Conditions for Continuity

sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
1. The limit of the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥
as x approaches 0 shown that lim 𝑥
= 1. Therefore, the
𝑥→0
first condition for continuity is satisfied.
sin 𝑥
2. The function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥
is not defined at x = 0 because division by 0 is undefined. The
function fails the second condition for continuity because 0 is not in the domain of f.
3. There is no need to verify the third condition because the second condition failed.

sin 𝑥
By the definition of continuity, you can conclude that 𝑓 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥
is not continuous at x = 0.

Example 1:
Example 2:

Example 3:
Continuity Over an Interval
Continuity from the Right and from the Left

A function is continuous over an open interval if it is continuous at every point in the interval. A
function f(x)is continuous over a closed interval of the form [a,b] if it is continuous at every point
in (a,b) and is continuous from the right at a and is continuous from the left at b. Analogously, a
function f(x) is continuous over an interval of the form (a,b) if it is continuous over (a,b)and is
continuous from the left at b. Continuity over other types of intervals are defined in a similar
fashion.

Requiring that lim+(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) and lim−(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏) ensures that we can trace the graph of the
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑏
function from the point (a, f(a)) to the point (b, f(b)) without lifting the pencil. If, for example,
lim+𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎), we would need to lift our pencil to jump from f(a) to the graph of the rest of the
𝑥→𝑎
function over (a, b].

Key Takeaways
 For a function to be continuous at a point, it must be defined at that point, its limit must
exist at the point, and the value of the function at that point must equal the value of the
limit at that point.
 Discontinuities may be classified as removable, jump, or infinite.
 A function is continuous over an open interval if it is continuous at every point in the
interval. It is continuous over a closed interval if it is continuous at every point in its
interior and is continuous at its endpoints.

Critical Thinking
A. TRUE or FALSE. Write NA if the statement is true. If false write NO.
1. A function can have a discontinuity at a singular point.
2. If a function f is not defined at x=a then the limit lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 never exist.
3. The graph of a rational function may cross it’s vertical asymptote.
4. A polynomial function is continuous everywhere.
5. If a function is not defined at x, then it is not continuous at x=α.