Quarter 1

I. Particulate Nature of Matter

Matter - anything that occupies space and has no mass

⤷ Greek philosophers believed that matter are made up of elements in our surroundings
★ Anaximenes - element is air
★ Thales of Miletus - element is water
★ Heraclitus - element is fire
★ Empedocles - air, fire, water, and earth

Democritus (460 BCE - 370 BCE) - “atomos” which means uncatable/indestructible/indivisible

Leucippus (5th Century BCE) - proposed theory of atomism
⤷matter is made up of tiny particles
Plato and Aristotle - opposed the theory of atomism

Main Principles of Leucippus and Democritus:

● All matter is made up of atoms that are too tiny to be seen by the naked eyes.
● Atoms are in constant motion around an empty space called void.
● Atoms are completely solid.
● Atoms are uniform, with no internal structure.
● Atoms come in different shapes and sizes.

John Dalton (1766 - 1844)

● Published his atomic theory in 1808 which states that atoms of a given element have the
same size and weight.

Dmitri Mendeleev (1834 - 1907)

● Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic weight which will show periodic
physical and chemical properties later known as Periodic Law.

Henry Moseley (1887 - 1915)

● In 1913, using X-ray spectra, he found that elements must be arranged in increasing
atomic numbers instead of increasing atomic weight.

States of Matter
⤷ 2 levels: Macroscopic and Microscopic
Solids Liquids Gas

● Definite shape and ● No definite shape and ● No definite shape and

definite volume. assumes the shape of volume, thus
the container but has assuming the shape
a definite volume. of the container.
 ● Rigid or metallic ● Can move/slide past ● Can move at a very
particles locked into one another. high speed past one
place. another.

● Particles are difficult ● Particles are not easy ● Particles are highly
to compress. to compress. compressible.

● Very minimal space ● Very small space ● Large space between

between particles. between particles. particles.

● Particles do not easily ● Particles have the ● Particles move/flow

flow. ability to flow or move easily at high speed
● The rigid particles do past one another. past one another.
not move nor slide
one another.

Plasma
● Formed by heating and ionizing a gas.
● Made up of groups of negative and positive charged particles.
● No definite volume, nor definite shape.
● Observed in ionized gasses, aurora borealis, lightning, and comet tails.

Bose-Einstein condensate
● Produced when a cloud of bosons is cooled to temperatures very close to absolute zero
(T= 0K) such as large fractions of bosons condense.
● Includes superfluids like cold liquid helium and superconductors like the nucleons inside
a neutron star.

Phase Change
● Melting
● Evaporation
● Condensation
● Freezing
● Sublimation
● Deposition

4 Fundamental Elements
1. Air
2. Fire
3. Earth
4. Water

Proton - Ernest Rutherford

Neutron - James Chadwick
Electron - Joseph John Thomson
II. Properties of Matter

Matter
● Anything that occupies space.
● Composed of particles called "atoms"
● Different types of matter can be distinguished through two components:
❖ Composition - Different components of matter along with their relative
proportions.
❖ Properties - Qualities/attributes that distinguish one sample of matter from
another.
➔ Physical Properties
★ Observed or measured without change in composition of matter.
★ Color, texture, odor, taste, etc.
★ Described as intensive and extensive.
Table 1-1
Physical properties of Some Substances

Substance State Color Melting Boiling

Point (°C) Point (°C)

Bromine Gas Brownish -7 59

red

Oxygen Gas Colorless -219 -183

Mercury Liquid Silvery -39 357

white

Water Liquid Colorless 0 100

Gold Solid Yellow 1064 2856

Sodium Solid White 801 1413

chloride
➔ Extensive Properties
★ Physical property that will change if the amount of matter changes.
➢ Mass - How much matter.
➢ Volume - How much space.
➢ Length - How long.
➔ Intensive Properties
★ "Bulk property"
★ Physical property does not depend on the size or amount of
materials.
★ Temperature, density, and the hardness of an object.

A property that will be the same regardless of the amount of matter.

● Density
 ● Color
● Conductivity
● Malleability
● Volatility
● Boiling Point
● Melting Point
● Luster

Physical and Chemical Change

● Physical Change
❖ No change in molecular composition.
❖ Involves the three main states of matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas.
❖ Examples:
➔ Rain to sleet
➔ Wood to sawdust
➔ Paper to shredded paper
➔ Wax to melted wax
➔ Potato to grated potato
➔ Gemstone to carved gemstone
➔ Copper to hammered copper
● Chemical Change
❖ Elements, electrons, and bonding are involved.
❖ Alters the composition of the original matter.
❖ Different elements and compounds are present after the change.
❖ Rearranged atoms to make a new and different one.
❖ One or more substances entirely different from the original substances.
❖ Examples:
➔ Fireworks
➔ Frying eggs
➔ Photosynthesis
➔ Burning wood
➔ Combustion of propane
➔ Digestion

Classification of Matter
● Pure Substances
❖ Unchanging or specific composition.
❖ 2 Types
➔ Element
★ Simplest type of matter with only one kind of atom.
Table 1-2
Most Abundant Elements in the Human Body
 Element Symbol Percent Functions
(by mass)

Oxygen O 65.0 Used for cellular

respiration.

Carbon C 18.0 Basic building block of

most cells in the body.

Hydrogen H 10.0 Mainly found in the body

as water, which comprises
the body fluids.

Nitrogen N 3.0 Makes up the proteins and

nucleic acids (including
DNA and RNA)

Calcium Ca 1.5 Found in compounds that

make up the bones, teeth,
and body fluids.

Phosphorus P 1.0 Present in the Adenosine

Triphosphate (ATP)
molecules, the energy
currency of the body.

Potassium K 0.25 Major component of

cellular fluids; involved in
transmission of nerve
impulses.

Sulfur S 0.25 Found in amino acids that

make up proteins.
➔ Compound
★ Two or more elements combined chemically in definite
proportions.
● Mixtures
❖ Two or more substances that are only physically combined. Can be separated
through physical means.
❖ 2 Types:
➔ Homogeneous Mixture
★ Single phase, meaning the appearance, properties, and
composition are uniform.
➔ Heterogeneous Mixture
★ Not evenly distributed in the sample and can be physically
identified.
III. Methods of Separating Mixtures

“If elements cannot be decomposed by ordinary chemical means, while the components of a
compound can be separated by chemical means, the components of mixture can be separated
by mechanical means.”

Methods of Separating Components of Mixture:

1. Winnowing - A traditional way of separating the palay seeds from the hay by utilizing
wind or blowing air.
2. Magnetism - Separating components of a mixture of metallic and non-metallic
substances by using a magnet.
3. Evaporation - Separate soluble solids from liquid utilizing heat.
4. Coagulation - Remove impurities of an unclean or unclear solution. Uses aluminum
sulfate.
5. Flocculation - One of the easiest ways to make the turbid solution clean. Floc cluster.
6. Sedimentation - Physical water treatment using gravity to separate the suspended solid
from the liquid portion. Sludge.
7. Decantation - Removing a layer of liquid, generally one from the settled solid particles.
Produce clean decant or to remove undesired liquid from the precipitate. Clean water is
called decant.
8. Filtration - Good insoluble solid from a liquid. (Sand and water). Resultant water is called
filtrate.
9. Distillation - Widely used for separating mixtures based on differences in boiling point.
10. Chromatography - Separating mixtures in gas or liquid form using differences in
solubility, the appropriate solvent is the mobile phase while the medium used to hold the
sample is the stationary phase.
IV. Accuracy and Precision, Mass, Volume, Density

Measurement
● Collection of quantitative or numerical data that describes a property of an object or
event.
● Comparing a quantity with a standard unit.
● Fundamental component of good science.
● The International System of Units, known as SI Units standardizes measurements
across all scientific disciplines.

Seven base units in the SI System:

1. Kilogram (kg)
2. Second (s)
3. Kelvin (K)
4. Ampere (A)
5. Mole (mol)
6. Candela (cd)
7. Meter (m)

Measurements
● Accuracy
❖ Closeness of a measurement value to a standard or known value.
❖ How close a measurement is to the true and accepted value.
● Precision
❖ How close two or more measurements are to each other, regardless of whether
those measurements are accurate or not.
❖ Closeness of measurements within a set of data.
● Directly Measured
❖ Mass
➔ Amount of matter in an object. Fixed quantity that is independent of the
object's location.
❖ Weight
➔ Pull of gravity of an object depends on the object's location.
❖ Volume
➔ Scalar Quantity
➔ The amount of space that a substance occupies.
➔ Graduated cylinder - Laboratory ware commonly used to measure the
volume of a liquid.
➔ Volume of Common Shapes:
★ Cube
3
➢ 𝑉 =𝑠
2
➢ 𝑆𝐴 = 6𝑠
★ Rectangular Prism
➢ 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ
 ➢ 𝑆𝐴 = 2𝑙ℎ + 2𝑙𝑤 + 2𝑤ℎ
★ Cylinder
➢ 𝑉 = 𝐵ℎ
2
➢ 𝑆𝐴 = 2π𝑟ℎ + 2π𝑟
★ Cone
1
➢ 𝑉= 3
𝐵ℎ
2
➢ 𝑆𝐴 = π𝑟𝑠 + π𝑟
★ Square Pyramid
1
➢ 𝑉= 3
𝐵ℎ
➢ 𝑆𝐴 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
★ Sphere
4 2
➢ 𝑉= 3
π𝑟
2
➢ 𝑆𝐴 = 4π𝑟
❖ Temperature
➔ Measure of hotness or coldness of matter.
➔ Fahrenheit to Celsius: − 32 − 1. 8
➔ Celsius to Fahrenheit: × 1. 8 + 32
● Derived
❖ Density
➔ Intrinsic property.
➔ mass (m) per unit of volume (v) it occupies.
➔ Solids and liquids unit: grams per milliliter (g/ml), gram per cubic
centimeter (g/cm3 or g/cc).
➔ Gasses are in grams per liter (g/L)
❖ Specific Gravity

Irregularly shaped solid's volume can be measured through the Water Displacement Method.
V. Dalton's Atomic Theory and Inside the Atom

John Dalton
● English Chemist
● Published his book "A New System of Chemical Philosophy".
● Proposed an atomic theory of matter.

Dalton's Atomic Theory

1. Matter is made of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms Of the same element are identical and are different from those of other elements.
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in whole-number
ratios.
4. Atoms rearrange only during a chemical reaction to form new compounds.

Basic Law of Matter

● Law of Conservation of Mass (Antoine Lavoisier) - "In a chemical reaction, the mass of
the substance produced is equal to the mass of the substance reacted.
● Law of Definite Proportions (Joseph Proust) - "Any sample of a given compound will
always be composed of the same elements in the same proportion by mass."
● Law of Multiple Proportions (John Dalton) - "Elements can form different compounds, the
masses of the second element that can be combined with a fixed mass of the first
element are in the ratio of small whole numbers."

Inside the Atom (Subatomic Particles)

● Electron
❖ Joseph John Thomson (1856 - 1940) - Observed cathode rays in cathode ray
tube (CRT)

❖ Robert Millikan (1868 - 1953) - Oil-drop experiment - Charge of an electron

(1.592 x 10-19 coulomb) based on Millikan's experiment.
 ● Proton
❖ Ernest Rutherford (1871 - 1937)
❖ Gold foil experiment (1909)
❖ Charge of a proton (1.602 x 10-19 coulomb)
● Neutron
❖ James Chadwick (1891 - 1974)
❖ Protons and neutrons are collectively known as nucleons.
❖ J.J. Thomson (1897) - Plum Pudding Model
❖ E. Rutherford (1911) - Nuclear Model
❖ N. Bohr (1913) - Planetary Model
●
Table 3-1
Characteristics of Subatomic Particles

Subatomic Symbols Mass Unit Charge

Particles (coulomb)
Grams Atomic Mass

Electron e 1.67×10-24 5.486×10-4 1.602×10-19

Proton p 1.67×10-24 1.007276 1.602×10-19

Neutron n 9.11×10-28 1.008665 0

Isotopes
● Same atomic number, but different mass numbers.

Isotopic Abundance
● Uranium (Naturally occurring)
❖ Uranium-238 - 99.3%
❖ Uranium-235 - 0.711%
❖ Uranium-234 - 0.006%
❖ Uranium isotopes are principal fuels for nuclear reactors.
● Carbon
❖ Carbon-12 - 98.93%
❖ Carbon-13 - 1.07%
❖ Carbon-14 is used in carbon dating of archeological materials.
● Iodine
❖ Iodine-131 is taken orally to treat thyroid cancer.
● Technetium
❖ Technetium-99 is used to produce images of specific organs in the body for
medical diagnosis and treatment.
VI. Ions and Molecules: Naming Compound

Ions - Charge-carrying atoms or molecules.

● Cation - Metals tend to lose electrons and become positively charged.
● Anion - Nonmetals gain electrons and become negatively charged.

Monatomic Ion
● Ion that consists of only one atom.
● Examples: Na+, Mg2+, Fe3+, S2-, Cl-
● Has the suffix -ide to the nonmetal name's first letters (root).

Polyatomic Ion (Non-metal + Oxygen)

● Different atoms that are combined.
● Example MnO4-, PO43-, HCO3-, SCN-
● Anions with lesser oxygen atoms end with -ite.
● Anion with more oxygen atoms ends with -ate.

Ternary Polyatomic Ions

● Consist of three different elements.
● Hydrogen atom + binary polyatomic ions.
● One type of ternary ion = prefix is bi-.
● If there are several types of ions formed with hydrogen, Greek prefixes are used to
indicate the number of hydrogen atoms present.
○ Carbonate + H - Bicarbonate
○ Phosphate + H - Hydrogen Phosphate
○ Phosphate + 2H - Dihydrogen Phosphate
Molecules
● Atoms of nonmetals share electrons.
○ Diatomic Molecules
■ 2 atoms of the same or different elements that are chemically bonded
together.

Compounds
● From the chemical reaction of two or more different atoms.
○ Ionic Compound
■ Attraction between a cation and an anion.
● Criss Cross Rule - Setting the charge number of one ion as the
subscript of another ion.
○ Covalent Compound
■ Nonmetals share electrons.
● Acids
○ Compounds that can give off hydrogen ions when dissolved in water.
○ Gaseous binary acid is formed when a monatomic anion combines with
hydrogen.
○ To name a binary acid in its aqueous form, the anion name is prefixed with
hydro-, suffixed with -ic, and added with the term acid.
○ A ternary acid forms a polyatomic ion. The suffix -ite is replaced with -ous, and
the -ate with -ic.

In naming ionic compounds, the cation is named first followed by the anions.
(Greek prefixes are not used in naming ionic compounds.)
● NaCl - sodium chloride
● Fe2S3 - ferric sulfide; iron (III) sulfide
 ● Ca3(PO4)2 - calcium phosphate
● NaHCO3 - sodium bicarbonate

Covalent Compound - First element is prefixed and named in full; the second element is named
using its first few syllables and suffixed with -ide.
●
Table 3-5
Greek Prefixes

Number Prefix

1 mono-

2 di-

3 tri-

4 tetra-

5 penta-

6 hexa-

7 hepta-

8 octa-

9 nona-

10 deca-

● CO2 - carbon dioxide

● N2O4 - dinitrogen tetraoxide (or tetroxide)

Some binary compounds are not named systematically but rather take trivial names:
● Water (H2O)
● Ammonia (NH3)
VII. Chemical Reaction and Balancing Chemical Equations
Quarter 2
I. Atomic Mass, Mole concept, Avogadro's Number

Atomic Mass
● Mass of an atom in atomic mass units (amu).
● Average mass of an element and molecules to solve stoichiometric problems.
−23
○ mass of 1 atom C-12 = 12. 00 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 1. 992657𝑥10 𝑔
−24
○ 1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 1. 6605475 × 10 𝑔
● Dividing the mass of an atom with the atomic mass unit gives the relative atomic mass of
an element.

Average Atomic mass of Carbon

● = (12. 00 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 0. 9893) + (13. 0034 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 0. 0107)
= 11. 8716 𝑎𝑚𝑢 + 0. 13913638 𝑎𝑚𝑢
= 12. 01073638 𝑎𝑚𝑢 ≈ 12. 01 𝑎𝑚𝑢

Sample Problem for Potassium

●
Isotopes Atomic Mass (amu) Percent Abundance
39
K 38.9637 93.2581%
40
K 39.9640 0.0117%
41
K 40.9618 6.7302%
● = (38. 9637 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 0. 932581) + (39. 9640 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 0. 000117) + (40. 9618 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 0. 067302)
= 36. 3368 𝑎𝑚𝑢 + 0. 0047 𝑎𝑚𝑢 + 2. 7568 𝑎𝑚𝑢
= 39. 0983 𝑎𝑚𝑢 ≈ 39. 10 𝑎𝑚𝑢

Amedeo Avogadro (1776 - 1856)

● Italian Scientist.
● Known for Avogadro's law that is one of those that governs principles for gasses.

Avogadro's Number
● Number of particles of an element (atoms, ions) or compound (molecules, formula units)
23
● 6. 022 × 10
23
● 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 6. 022 × 10 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Molecules - Particle unit of a covalent compound.

Formula Units - Ionic compounds.
Mole - Mol is the term used to refer to the quantity of particles of a substance (atoms, ions,
molecules, or formula units) that is equal to Avogadro's number.
 23
1 mole = 6. 022 × 10 particles (atoms, molecules, ions, or formula units)
23
1 mol of Au = 6. 022 × 10 Au atoms.
23
1 mol of Au3+ = 6. 022 × 10 Au3+ ions.
23
1 mol of CO2 = 6. 022 × 10 CO2 molecules.
23
1 mol of NaCl = 6. 022 × 10 NaCl formula units

Formula Mass (Formula Weight)

● The sum of the atomic weight of atoms in its empirical formula.
● Simplest positive integer ratio of atoms present in a compound.
● Used in ionic compounds.
● Example:
○ C4H5O

Molecular Mass (Molecular Weight)

● Average mass.
● Used in Covalent.
● Adding together the atomic weight of the atoms in the molecular formula.
○ Molecular formula - Chemical formula that gives the total no. of atoms of a
substance.
● Example:
○ (C5H4O)3 → C15H12O3

How to Find Molecular Mass

1. Determine molecular formula of the molecule.
2. Determine the number of atoms of each element in the molecule.
3. Use a periodic table to determine the atomic mass of each element.
4. Multiply the number of atoms of each element with the atomic mass.
5. Add the values to get the molecular mass.

Sample Problem:
1. Calculate the molar mass of sodium phosphate (Na3PO4). What will be the mass in
grams of one mole of Na3PO4?
- Formula mass Na3PO4 =
= (22. 99 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 3) + (30. 97 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 1) + (16. 00 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 4)
= 68. 9 𝑎𝑚𝑢 + 30. 97 𝑎𝑚𝑢 + 64. 00 𝑎𝑚𝑢)
= 163. 94 𝑎𝑚𝑢 - FINAL ANSWER
Molecular mass is the same except different in scale.
● Molecular Mass of Na3PO4 = 163. 94 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
● Formula Mass of Na3PO4 = 163. 94 𝑎𝑚𝑢
2. What is the molar mass of Carbon Dioxide?
- Molecular mass of CO2 =
= (12. 01 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 1) + (16 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 2)
= 12. 01 𝑎𝑚𝑢 + 32. 00 𝑎𝑚𝑢
= 44. 01 𝑎𝑚𝑢
Molar mass of CO2 is 44.01 g/mol. - FINAL ANSWER
II. Mole Concept and Avogadro’s Number
III. Empirical & Molecular Formula, Percent Composition

Empirical Formula
● Simplest positive integer ratio of atoms present in a compound.

Molecular Formula
● Chemical formula that gives the total no. of atoms of each element in each molecule of a
substance.

Step by step:
1. Determine the mass.
2. Convert mass to mole.
3. Choose the lowest mole. Divide the number of moles by the lowest number of moles.
4. Empirical Formula.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
5. Derive the formula using: 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 = 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
IV. Gaw Law (Part 1)
IV. Gaw Law (Part 2)

Combined Gas Law

● Combines the three gas laws: Boyle's Law, Charles' Law, and Gay-Lussac's Law.
● Ratio between pressure, volume, and absolute temperature of a gas equals some
constant.
● The amount or number of moles of gas is held constant.
●