The recent surge in activism has largely been driven by whistleblowers within technology companies,

who have disclosed information about secretive projects to journalists.228 These disclosures have
helped educate the public, which is traditionally excluded from such access, and helped external
researchers and advocates provide more informed analysis. By establishing shared ground truth,
whistleblowing has helped build the broad coalitions that characterize these movements. The critical
role of ethical whistleblowing over the last year has also highlighted both its social importance, and the
lack of protections for those who make such disclosures.

The broad coalition of technology worker organizers, researchers, and civil society is playing an
increasing role in the push for accountability in the technology sector. Many engineering employees have
considerable bargaining power and are uniquely positioned to demand change from their employers. 229
Applying this power to push for greater accountability presents a hopeful model for labor organizing in
the public interest, especially given the current lack of government regulation, external oversight, and
other meaningful levers capable of reviewing and steering technology company decision making.

CONCLUSION
This year saw AI systems rapidly introduced into more social domains, leaving increasing numbers of
people at risk. While AI techniques still offer considerable promise, rapid deployment of systems without
appropriate assessment, accountability, and oversight can create serious hazards. We urgently need to
regulate AI systems sector-by-sector, with particular attention paid to facial and affect recognition, and to
inform those policies with rigorous research.

But regulation can only be effective if the legal and technological barriers that prevent auditing,
understanding, and intervening in these systems are removed. Back in 2016, we recommended in the
first AI Now report that the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) and the Digital Millennium Copyright
Act (DMCA) should not be used to restrict research into AI accountability and auditing.230 This
year, we go further: AI companies should waive trade secrecy and other legal claims that would prevent
algorithmic accountability in the public sector. Governments and public institutions must be able to
understand and explain how and why decisions are made, particularly when people’s access to
healthcare, housing, and employment is on the line.

The question is no longer whether there are harms and biases in AI systems. That debate has been
settled: the evidence has mounted beyond doubt in the last year. The next task now is addressing these
harms. This is particularly urgent given the scale at which these systems are deployed, the way they
function to centralize power and insight in the hands of the few, and the increasingly uneven distribution
of costs and benefits that accompanies this centralization. We need deeper analyses of the “full stack
supply chain” behind AI systems, to track their development and deployment across the product life
cycle, and to take into account their true environmental and labor costs.231

Furthermore, it is long overdue for technology companies to directly address the cultures of exclusion
and discrimination in the workplace. The lack of diversity and ongoing tactics of harassment, exclusion,
and unequal pay are not only deeply harmful to employees in these companies but also impacts the AI
products they release, producing tools that perpetuate bias and discrimination.232
The current structure within which AI development and deployment occurs works against meaningfully
addressing these pressing issues. Those in a position to profit are incentivized to accelerate the
development and application of systems without taking the time to build diverse teams, create safety
guardrails, or test for disparate impacts. Those most exposed to harm from these systems commonly lack
the financial means and access to accountability mechanisms that would allow for redress or legal
appeals.233 This is why we are arguing for greater funding for public litigation, labor organizing, and
community participation as more AI and algorithmic systems shift the balance of power across many
institutions and workplaces.

It is imperative that the balance of power shifts back in the public’s favor. This will require significant
structural change that goes well beyond a focus on technical systems, including a willingness to alter the
standard operational assumptions that govern the modern AI industry players. The current focus on
discrete technical fixes to systems should expand to draw on socially-engaged disciplines, histories, and
strategies capable of providing a deeper
understanding of the various social contexts that shape the development and use of AI systems.

As more universities turn their focus to the study of AI’s social implications, computer science and
engineering can no longer be the unquestioned center, but should collaborate more equally with social
and humanistic disciplines, as well as with civil society organizations and affected communities.

Fortunately, we are beginning to see new coalitions form between researchers, activists, lawyers,
concerned technology workers, and civil society organizations to support the oversight, accountability,
and ongoing monitoring of AI systems. For these important connections to grow, more protections are
needed, including a commitment from technology companies to provide protections for conscientious
objectors who do not want to work on military or policing contracts, along with protections for
employees involved in labor organizing and ethical whistleblowers.234

The last year revealed many of the hardest challenges for accountability and justice as AI systems moved
deeper into the social world. Yet there have been extraordinary moments of potential, as well as
significant public debates and hopeful forms of protest, that may ultimately illuminate the pathways for
consequential and positive change.

ENDNOTES
1. As AI pioneers Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig point out, the history of artificial intelligence has not
produced a clear definition of AI, but can be seen as variously emphasizing four possible goals: “systems
that think like humans, systems that act like humans, systems that think rationally, systems that act
rationally.” In this report we use the term AI to refer to a broad assemblage of technologies, from early rule-
based algorithmic systems to deep neural networks, all of which rely on an array of data and computational
infrastructures. These technologies span speech recognition, language translation, image recognition,
predictions, and determinations—tasks that have traditionally relied on human capacities across the four
goals Russell and Norvig identify. While AI is not new, recent developments in the ability to collect and store
large quantities of data, combined with advances in computational power have led to significant
breakthroughs in the field over the last ten years, along with a strong push to commercialize these
technologies and apply them across core social domains. See: Stuart J. Russell and Peter Norvig, A rtificial
Intelligence: A Modern Approach , (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995), 2.

2. Carole Cadwalladr and Emma Graham-Harrison, “Revealed: 50 Million Facebook Profiles Harvested for
Cambridge Analytica in Major Data Breach,” T he Guardian, March 17, 2018,
https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/mar/17/cambridge-analytica-facebook-influence-us-electi on.

2
3. Guy Rosen, “Security Update,” F acebook Newsroom, September 28, 2018,
https://newsroom.fb.com/news/2018/09/security-update/.

4. Josh Eidelson, “Facebook Tools Are Used to Screen Out Older Job Seekers, Lawsuit Claims,” Bloomberg, May
29, 2018,
https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-05-29/facebook-tools-are-used-to-screen-out-older -job-
seekers-lawsuit-claims.

5. Bloomberg Editorial Board, “Think the U.S. Has a Facebook Problem? Look to Asia,” B loomberg, October
22, 2017,
https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2017-10-22/facebook-has-a-bigger-problem-than-was
hington.

6. Andrew Liptak, “The US Government Alleges Facebook Enabled Housing Ad Discrimination,” T he Verge,
August 19, 2018,
https://www.theverge.com/2018/8/19/17757108/us-department-of-housing-and-urban-development -
facebook-complaint-race-gender-discrimination.

7. Elizabeth Weise, “Russian Fake Accounts Showed Posts to 126 Million Facebook Users,” U SA TODAY,
October 30, 2017,
https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2017/10/30/russian-fake-accounts-showed-posts-126-millio n-
facebook-users/815342001/.

8. Hamza Shaban, Craig Timberg, and Elizabeth Dwoskin, “Facebook, Google and Twitter Testified on Capitol
Hill. Here’s What They Said,” W ashington Post, October 31, 2017,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2017/10/31/facebook-google-and-twitter-ar e-set-
to-testify-on-capitol-hill-heres-what-to-expect/; Casey Newton, “Mark Zuckerberg’s Appearance before
European Parliament Yields an Empty Spectacle,” T he Verge, May 22, 2018,
https://www.theverge.com/2018/5/22/17381250/mark-zuckerberg-european-parliament-facebook.

9. Drew Harwell, “AI will solve Facebook’s most vexing problems, Mark Zuckerberg says. Just don’t ask when or
how,” W ashington Post, April 11, 2018,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2018/04/11/ai-will-solve-facebooks-most-ve xing-
problems-mark-zuckerberg-says-just-dont-ask-when-or-how/.

10. Kate Conger and Dell Cameron, “Google Is Helping the Pentagon Build AI for Drones,” G izmodo, March
6, 2018, h ttps://gizmodo.com/google-is-helping-the-pentagon-build-ai-for-drones-1823464533.

11. Rick Paulas, “A New Kind of Labor Movement in Silicon Valley,” T he Atlantic, September 4, 2018,
https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2018/09/tech-labor-movement/567808/.

12. Hamza Shaban, “Amazon Employees Demand Company Cut Ties with ICE,” W ashington Post, June 22, 2018,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2018/06/22/amazon-employees-demand-c
ompany-cut-ties-with-ice/; Jacob Kastrenakes, “Salesforce Employees Ask CEO to ‘Re-Examine’ Contract with
Border Protection Agency,” T he Verge, June 25, 2018,
https://www.theverge.com/2018/6/25/17504154/salesforce-employee-letter-border-protection-ice-i
mmigration-cbp; Colin Lecher, “The Employee Letter Denouncing Microsoft’s ICE Contract Now Has over 300
Signatures,” T he Verge, June 21, 2018,
https://www.theverge.com/2018/6/21/17488328/microsoft-ice-employees-signatures-protest.

13. Nikhil Sonnad, “US Border Agents Hacked Their “Risk Assessment” System to Recommend Detention 100%
of the Time,” Q uartz, June 26, 2018,
https://qz.com/1314749/us-border-agents-hacked-their-risk-assessment-system-to-recommend-im migrant-
detention-every-time/.

14. Daisuke Wakabayashi, “Self-Driving Uber Car Kills Pedestrian in Arizona, Where Robots Roam,” T he New
York Times, July 30, 2018,
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/19/technology/uber-driverless-fatality.html.

3
15. Nikhil Sonnad, “A Flawed Algorithm Led the UK to Deport Thousands of Students,” Q uartz, May 3,
2018, h ttps://qz.com/1268231/a-toeic-test-led-the-uk-to-deport-thousands-of-students/.

16. Casey Ross and Ike Swetlitz, “IBM’s Watson Recommended ‘unsafe and Incorrect’ Cancer Treatments,” S TAT,
July 25, 2018,
https://www.statnews.com/2018/07/25/ibm-watson-recommended-unsafe-incorrect-treatments/.

17. George Joseph and Kenneth Lipp, “IBM Used NYPD Surveillance Footage to Develop Technology That Lets
Police Search by Skin Color,” T he Intercept, September 6, 2018,
https://theintercept.com/2018/09/06/nypd-surveillance-camera-skin-tone-search/.

18. To see a large-scale timeline of events in 2018, see: Kate Crawford and Meredith Whittaker, “AI in 2018: A
Year in Review,” M edium, October 14, 2018,
https://medium.com/@AINowInstitute/ai-in-2018-a-year-in-review-8b161ead2b4e.

19. Jon Evans, “The Techlash,” T echCrunch , June 17, 2018,

20. “Microsoft Calls for Facial Recognition Technology Rules given ‘Potential for Abuse,’” T he Guardian, July 14,
2018,
https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/jul/14/microsoft-facial-recognition-technology-rules
-potential-for-abuse.

21. Natalie Ram, “Innovating Criminal Justice,” N orthwestern University Law Review 112, no. 4 (February 1,
2018): 659–724, h ttps://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/nulr/vol112/iss4/2; Rebecca Wexler,
“Life, Liberty, and Trade Secrets,” S tanford Law Review 70, no. 5 (May 2018): 1343–1429,
https://www.stanfordlawreview.org/print/article/life-liberty-and-trade-secrets/; Danielle Keats Citron and
Frank A. Pasquale, “The Scored Society: Due Process for Automated Predictions,” W ashington Law Review
89, no. 1 (2014): 1–33,
https://digital.law.washington.edu/dspace-law/bitstream/handle/1773.1/1318/89WLR0001.pdf.

22. See: F rank Pasquale, T he Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms That Control Money and Information, (
Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2015).

23. D. Sculley, Jasper Snoek, Alex Wiltschko, and Ali Rahimi, “Winner’s Curse? On Pace, Progress and Empirical
Rigor,” 6 th International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR), (Vancouver, 2018),
https://openreview.net/pdf?id=rJWF0Fywf.

24. Kate Crawford, “The Test We Can—and Should—Run on Facebook,” T he Atlantic, July 2, 2014,
https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/07/the-test-we-canand-shouldrun-on-facebo
ok/373819/; Molly Jackman and Lauri Kanerva, “Evolving the IRB: Building Robust Review for Industry
Research,” W ashington & Lee Law Review Online 72, no. 8 (June 14, 2016): 442–457; Zoltan Boka,
“Facebook’s Research Ethics Board Needs to Stay Far Away from Facebook,” W ired, June 23, 2016,
https://www.wired.com/2016/06/facebooks-research-ethics-board-needs-stay-far-away-facebook/.

25. “Sandvig v. Sessions — Challenge to CFAA Prohibition on Uncovering Racial Discrimination Online,”
September 12, 2017, A merican Civil Liberties Union,
https://www.aclu.org/cases/sandvig-v-sessions-challenge-cfaa-prohibition-uncovering-racial-discrimi nation-
online.

26. See: Simone Browne, D ark Matters: On the Surveillance of Blackness (Durham: Duke University Press,
2015); Alvaro M. Bedoya, “What the FBI’s Surveillance of Martin Luther King Tells Us About the
Modern Spy Era,” S late, January 18, 2016,
https://slate.com/technology/2016/01/what-the-fbis-surveillance-of-martin-luther-king-says-about-m
odern-spying.html; James Ball, Julian Borger, and Glenn Greenwald, “Revealed: How US and UK Spy
Agencies Defeat Internet Privacy and Security,” T he Guardian, September 6, 2013,
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/05/nsa-gchq-encryption-codes-security; Shoshana Zuboff,
“Big Other: Surveillance Capitalism and the Prospects of an Information Civilization,” J ournal of Information
Technology 30, no. 1 (March 1, 2015): 75–89, h ttps://doi.org/10.1057/jit.2015.5.

4
27. Alice Shen, “Facial Recognition Tech Comes to Hong Kong-Shenzhen Border,” S outh China Morning Post,
July 24, 2018,
https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2156510/china-uses-facial-recognition-system-d eter-
tax-free-traders-hong.

28. Stephen Chen, “China’s Robotic Spy Birds Take Surveillance to New Heights,” S outh China Morning Post,
June 24, 2018,
https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2152027/china-takes-surveillance-new-heights-fl ock-
robotic-doves-do-they.

29. David Z. Morris, “China Will Block Travel for Those With Bad ‘Social Credit,’” F ortune, March 18, 2018,
http://fortune.com/2018/03/18/china-travel-ban-social-credit/.

30. Nathan Vanderklippe, “Chinese Blacklist an Early Glimpse of Sweeping New Social-Credit Control,” The
Globe and Mail, January 3, 2018,
https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/chinese-blacklist-an-early-glimpse-of-sweeping-newsocial-
credit-control/article37493300/.

31. “China Has Turned Xinjiang into a Police State like No Other,” The Economist, May 31, 2018,
https://www.economist.com/briefing/2018/05/31/china-has-turned-xinjiang-into-a-police-state-like-n o-
other.

32. Emily Feng and Louise Lucas, “Inside China’s Surveillance State,” F inancial Times, July 20, 2018,
https://www.ft.com/content/2182eebe-8a17-11e8-bf9e-8771d5404543.

33. Angus Berwick, “A New Venezuelan ID, Created with China’s ZTE, Tracks Citizen Behavior,” R euters,
November 14, 2018, h ttps://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/venezuela-zte/.

34. Nafeez Ahmed, “Pentagon Wants to Predict Anti-Trump Protests Using Social Media Surveillance,”
Motherboard, October 30, 2018,
https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/7x3g4x/pentagon-wants-to-predict-anti-trump-protestsusing-
social-media-surveillance.

35. Karen Hao, “Amazon Is the Invisible Backbone behind ICE’s Immigration Crackdown,” M IT Technology
Review, October 22, 2018,
https://www.technologyreview.com/s/612335/amazon-is-the-invisible-backbone-behind-ices-immigr ation-
crackdown/.

36. “Who’s behind Ice?” (Empower LLC, Mijente, The National Immigration Project, and the Immigrant Defense
Project, October 23, 2018),
https://mijente.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/WHO%E2%80%99S-BEHIND-ICE_-The-Tech-and-Da ta-
Companies-Fueling-Deportations_v3-.pdf.

37. Brendan Shillingford et al., “Large-Scale Visual Speech Recognition,” a rXiv preprint [Cs], arXiv:1807.05162,
July 13, 2018.

38. “Machine Vision Algorithm Learns to Recognize Hidden Facial Expressions,” M IT Technology Review,
November 13, 2015,
https://www.technologyreview.com/s/543501/machine-vision-algorithm-learns-to-recognize-hiddenfacial-
expressions/.

39. Richard T. Gray, A bout Face: German Physiognomic Thought from Lavater to Auschwitz (Detroit:
Wayne State University Press, 2004); Sharrona Pearl, A bout Faces: Physiognomy in
Nineteenth-Century Britain (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010).

40. Blaise Aguera y Arcas, Margaret Mitchell, and Alexander Todorov, “Physiognomy’s New Clothes,” Medium,
May 7, 2017, h ttps://medium.com/@blaisea/physiognomys-new-clothes-f2d4b59fdd6a.

41. Ruth Leys, “How Did Fear Become a Scientific Object and What Kind of Object Is It?,” R epresentations 110,
no. 1 (2010): 66–104, h ttps://doi.org/10.1525/rep.2010.110.1.66. Leys has offered a number of critiques of

5
 Ekman’s research program, most recently in Ruth Leys, T he Ascent of Affect: Genealogy and Critique
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017).

42. Alan J. Fridlund, H uman Facial Expression: An Evolutionary View (San Diego: Academic Press, 1994).

43. Lisa Feldman Barrett, “Are Emotions Natural Kinds?,” P erspectives on Psychological Science 1, no. 1 (March
2006): 28–58, h ttps://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00003.x; Erika H. Siegel, Molly K. Sands, Wim Van
den Noortgate, Paul Condon, Yale Chang, Jennifer Dy, Karen S. Quigley, and Lisa Feldman Barrett. 2018.
“Emotion Fingerprints or Emotion Populations? A Meta-Analytic Investigation of Autonomic Features of
Emotion Categories.” P sychological Bulletin 144 (4): 343–93, https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000128.

44. For example, despite criticism by the U.S. Government Accountability Office, the Transportation Security
Administration invested over one billion dollars in its SPOT program, aimed at identifying potential terrorists
based on these behavioral indicators. See: “Aviation Security: TSA Should Limit Future Funding for Behavior
Detection Activities” (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Accountability Office, November 13, 2013), h
ttps://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-14-159.

45. Jonathan Metzl, T he Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease (Boston: Beacon Press,
2009).

46. Mark Lieberman, “Sentiment Analysis Allows Instructors to Shape Course Content around Students’
Emotions,” I nside Higher Education, February 20, 2018,
https://www.insidehighered.com/digital-learning/article/2018/02/20/sentiment-analysis-allows-instr uctors-
shape-course-content.

47. Will Knight, “Emotional Intelligence Might Be a Virtual Assistant’s Secret Weapon,” M IT Technology Review,
June 13, 2016,
https://www.technologyreview.com/s/601654/amazon-working-on-making-alexa-recognize-your-em otions;

48. “Affectiva Automotive AI,” A ffectiva, accessed November 18, 2018, h ttp://go.affectiva.com/auto.

49. Jeff Weiner, “ACLU: Amazon’s Face-Recognition Software Matched Members of Congress with Mugshots,” O
rlando Sentinel, July 26, 2018,
https://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/politics/political-pulse/os-amazon-rekognition-face-matchin g-
software-congress-20180726-story.html; “Amazon Rekognition Announces Real-Time Face Recognition, Text
in Image Recognition, and Improved Face Detection,” A mazon Web Services,
November 21, 2017,
https://aws.amazon.com/about-aws/whats-new/2017/11/amazon-rekognition-announces-real-timeface-
recognition-text-in-image-recognition-and-improved-face-detection/.

50. Chris Adzima, “Using Amazon Rekognition to Identify Persons of Interest for Law Enforcement,” Amazon
Web Services, June 15, 2017,
https://aws.amazon.com/blogs/machine-learning/using-amazon-rekognition-to-identify-persons-of-i nterest-
for-law-enforcement/.

51. Ranju Das, “Image & Video Rekognition Based on AWS” (Amazon Web Services Summit, Seoul, 2018),
https://youtu.be/sUzuJc-xBEE?t=1889.

52. Jacob Snow, “Amazon’s Face Recognition Falsely Matched 28 Members of Congress With Mugshots,”
American Civil Liberties Union, July 26, 2018,
https://www.aclu.org/blog/privacy-technology/surveillance-technologies/amazons-face-recognition-f alsely-
matched-28.

53. Joy Buolamwini and Timnit Gebru, “Gender Shades: Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in
Commercial Gender Classification,” in Co nference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency (New
York, 2018), 77–91, h ttp://proceedings.mlr.press/v81/buolamwini18a.html.

54. Matt Wood, “Thoughts On Machine Learning Accuracy,” A WS News Blog, July 27, 2018,
https://aws.amazon.com/blogs/aws/thoughts-on-machine-learning-accuracy/.

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55. Sidney Fussell, “Amazon Accidentally Makes Rock-Solid Case for Not Giving Its Face Recognition Tech to
Police,” G izmodo, July 27, 2018,
https://gizmodo.com/amazon-accidentally-makes-rock-solid-case-for-not-givin-1827934703.

56. Bryan Menegus, “Amazon Breaks Silence on Aiding Law Enforcement Following Employee Backlash,”
Gizmodo, August 11, 2018,
https://gizmodo.com/amazon-breaks-silence-on-aiding-law-enforcement-followi-1830321057.

57. Joseph and Lipp, “IBM Used NYPD Surveillance Footage to Develop Technology That Lets Police Search by
Skin Color.”

58. Jenna Bitar and Jay Stanley, “Are Stores You Shop at Secretly Using Face Recognition on You?,” American
Civil Liberties Union, March 26, 2018,
https://www.aclu.org/blog/privacy-technology/surveillance-technologies/are-stores-you-shop-secretl y-
using-face.

59. John Brandon, “Walmart Will Scan for Unhappy Shoppers Using Facial Recognition (Cue the Apocalypse),” V
entureBeat, August 9, 2017,
https://venturebeat.com/2017/08/09/walmart-will-scan-for-unhappy-shoppers-using-facial-recogniti on-cue-
the-apocalypse/.

60. AG and Legal Workforce Act, H.R. 6417, 115th Cong. (2017-2018),
https://www.congress.gov/115/bills/hr6417/BILLS-115hr6417ih.pdf; Securing America's Future Act of 2018,
H.R. 4760, 115th Cong. (2017-2018),
https://www.congress.gov/115/bills/hr4760/BILLS-115hr4760ih.pdf; Strong Visa Integrity Secures America
Act,” H.R. 2626, 115th Cong. (2017-2018),
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61. Biometric Information Privacy Act, 740 ILCS 14/1 (Statutes current through the end of the 2018 Regular
Session of the 100th General Assembly),
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62. Brian Hofer, “BART Board Approves Surveillance Ordinance, Lake Merritt Development,” K TVU, September
13, 2018,
http://www.ktvu.com/news/bart-board-approves-surveillance-ordinance-lake-merritt-development.

63. “Letter from Nationwide Coalition to Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos Regarding Rekognition,” A merican Civil
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https://www.aclu.org/letter-nationwide-coalition-amazon-ceo-jeff-bezos-regarding-rekognition.

64. Abrar Al-Heeti, “Congress Still Wants Answers from Amazon about Its Facial Recognition Tech,” CNET,
November 29, 2018,
https://www.cnet.com/news/congress-still-wants-answers-from-amazon-about-its-facial-recognition
-tech/.

65. Woodrow Hartzog and Evan Selinger, “Facial Recognition Is the Perfect Tool for Oppression,” M edium,
August 2, 2018,
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66. Yilun Wang and Michael Kosinski, “Deep Neural Networks Are More Accurate than Humans at Detecting
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71. Lecher, “A Healthcare Algorithm Started Cutting Care, and No One Knew Why.”

72. Ibid.

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76. Brakkton Booker, “White House Budget Calls For Deep Cuts To HUD,” N PR.org, February 13, 2018,
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83. “Litigating Algorithms.”

84. Ibid., 10.

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98. Scharfenberg, “Computers Can Solve Your Problem. You May Not like the Answer.”

99. Ibid.

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168. Ben Green, “Putting the J(ustice) in FAT,” B erkman Klein Center, February 26, 2018,
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169. Kate Crawford, “Just An Engineer: The Politics of AI,” (The Royal Society, London, July 2018),
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170. Paul N. Edwards, Geoffrey C. Bowker, Steven J. Jackson, and Robin Williams. “Introduction: An Agenda for
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171. Susan Leigh Star, “The Ethnography of Infrastructure,” A merican Behavioral Scientist 43, no. 3
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185. Alex Rosenblat, U berland: How Algorithms Are Rewriting the Rules of Work (Berkeley: University of
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186. Ben Chapman, “Uber Eats and Deliveroo Riders Are Going on Strike This Week,” T he Independent, October
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187. Kate Conger, “Google and Facebook’s Security Guards Are Fighting to Earn a Living Wage,” G izmodo, July 27,
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188. Mark Bergen and Josh Eidelson, “Inside Google’s Shadow Workforce,” B loomberg, July 25, 2018,
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189. Thuy Ong, “Amazon Patents Wristbands That Track Warehouse Employees’ Hands in Real Time,” T he Verge,
February 1, 2018,

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mployees; Hayley Peterson, “Missing Wages, Grueling Shifts, and Bottles of Urine: The Disturbing Accounts
of Amazon Delivery Drivers May Reveal the True Human Cost of ‘Free’ Shipping,” B usiness Insider,
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190. Catie Keck, “Amazon Workers Across Europe Protest Black Friday, Citing Grueling Work Conditions,” Gizmodo,
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191. “AI Now 2017 Report.”

192. L. Rafael Reif, “Letter to the MIT Community Regarding the MIT Stephen A. Schwarzman College of
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https://news.mit.edu/2018/letter-mit-community-regarding-mit-stephen-schwarzman-college-compu ting;
Steve Lohr, “M.I.T. Plans College for Artificial Intelligence, Backed by $1 Billion,” T he New York Times,
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193. Lev Manovich, “Can We Think Without Categories?” D igital Culture & Society, 4 , no. 1 (2018): 17-28.

194. AI Now Institute, “Gender, Race and Power: Outlining a New AI Research Agenda,” M edium, N ovember
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195. Kristian Lum, “Statistics, we have a problem,” M edium, D ecember 13, 2017,
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196. Jennings Brown, “‘ NIPS’ AI Conference Changes Name Following Protests Over Gross Acronym,” Gizmodo, N
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Cortes et al., “From the Board: Changing Our Acronym,” N eurIPS November 16, 2018,
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197. “NIPS Name Change,” N eurIPS, October 17, 2018, h ttps://nips.cc/Conferences/2018/News.

198. Meredith Whittaker, one of the co-founders of AI Now, was one of the organizers of the Google Walkout. See
also: Caroline O’Donovan and Ryan Mac, “Google Engineers Are Organizing A Walkout To Protest The
Company’s Protection Of An Alleged Sexual Harasser”, B uzzfeed, O ct. 30, 2018,
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199. Davey Alba and Caroline O’Donovan, “Square, Airbnb, And eBay Just Said They Would End Forced Arbitration
For Sexual Harassment Claims,” B uzzfeed, N ov. 15, 2018,
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200. Sharon Florentine, “Alphabet Dismisses Action on Diversity and Inclusion,” CI O, June 15, 2018,
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n.html; Sara Ashley O’Brien, “Apple’s Board Calls Diversity Proposal ‘Unduly Burdensome and Not
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201. Tom Simonite, “AI Is the Future - But Where Are the Women?,” W ired, August 17, 2018,
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202. Jackie Snow, “‘We’re in a Diversity Crisis:’ Cofounder of Black in AI on What’s Poisoning Algorithms in Our
Lives,” M IT Technology Review, February 14, 2018,
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203. Paula A. Johnson, Sheila E. Widnall, and Frazier F. Benya, eds., S exual Harassment of Women: Climate,

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 Culture, and Consequences in Academic Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (Washington, DC: The National
Academies Press, 2018),
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academic.

204. Caroline Clark Hayes, “Computer Science: The Incredible Shrinking Woman,” in G ender Codes: Why
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206. “Barriers to Equality in Academia: Women in Computer Science at M.I.T.” (Cambridge, MA: The Laboratory of
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208. Stephen Merity, “Bias is not just in our datasets, it’s in our conferences and community,” S merity.com,
December 11, 2017, h ttps://smerity.com/articles/2017/bias_not_just_in_datasets.html.

209. Dastin, “Amazon scraps secret AI recruiting tool that showed bias against women.”

210. Safiya U. Noble, A lgorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism, ( New York: NYU Press,
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211. Clemens Apprich, Wendy Hui Kyong Chun, Florian Cramer, and Hito Steyerl, P attern Discrimination
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212. “Litigating Algorithms.”

213. Reisman et al., “Algorithmic Impact Assessments.”

214. “CPSR History,” Co mputer Professionals for Social Responsibility, June 1, 2005,
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215. “The Never Again Pledge,” accessed November 29, 2018, h ttp://neveragain.tech/

216. Scott Shane and Daisuke Wakabayashi, “‘The Business of War:’ Google Employees Protest Work for the
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217. Lucy Suchman, Lilly Irani, and Peter Asaro, “Google’s March to the Business of War Must Be Stopped,” The
Guardian, May 16, 2018,
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/may/16/google-business-war-project-maven; Mary
Wareham, “Letter to Sergey Brin and Sundar Pichai,” March 13, 2018,
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Daisuke Wakabayashi and Scott Shane, “Google Will Not Renew Pentagon Contract That Upset Employees,” T
he New York Times, November 2, 2018,
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218. Shaban, “Amazon Employees Demand Company Cut Ties with ICE;” “Who’s Behind Ice?;” Caroline
O’Donovan, “Employees Of Another Major Tech Company Are Petitioning Government Contracts,” BuzzFeed
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https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/carolineodonovan/salesforce-employees-push-back-against -company-
contract; Sheera Frenkel, “Microsoft Employees Question C.E.O. Over Company’s Contract
With ICE,” T he New York Times, July 27, 2018,
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Man Protesters Raise Awareness of Palantir, Amazon ICE Ties,” B usiness Insider, August 31,
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219. Greg Sandoval, “Over 100 Amazon Employees Sign Letter Asking Jeff Bezos to Stop Selling Facial-Recognition
Software to Police,” B usiness Insider, June 22, 2018,
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recognition-software-police-2018-6; Kade Crockford, “Over 150,000 People Tell Amazon: Stop Selling Facial
Recognition Tech to Police,” A merican Civil Liberties Union, June 18, 2018,
https://www.aclu.org/blog/privacy-technology/surveillance-technologies/over-150000-people-tell-am azon-
stop-selling-facial; Matt Cagle and Nicole Ozer, “Amazon Teams Up With Government to Deploy Dangerous
New Facial Recognition Technology,” A CLU Free Future, May 22, 2018,
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220. Ryan Gallagher “Google China Prototype Links Searches to Phone Numbers” T he Intercept, September 14,
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221. Bryan Menegus, “Here’s the Letter 1,400 Google Workers Sent Leadership in Protest of Censored Search
Engine for China,” G izmodo, August 16, 2018,
https://gizmodo.com/heres-the-letter-1-400-google-workers-sent-leadership-i-1828393599; Google
Employees Against Dragonfly, “We Are Google Employees. Google Must Drop Dragonfly.,” M edium,
November 27, 2018,
https://medium.com/@googlersagainstdragonfly/we-are-google-employees-google-must-drop-drago nfly-
4c8a30c5e5eb; “Google Must Not Capitulate to China’s Censorship Demands,” A mnesty International,
November 28, 2018,
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222. Co-founder of AI Now, Meredith Whittaker, was one of the eight core organizers of the Google Walkout.

223. Google Walkout for Real Change, “Google Employees and Contractors Participate in ‘Global Walkout for Real
Change,’” M edium, November 2, 2018,
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for-real-change-389c65517843.

224. Richard Waters, “Google Ends Forced Arbitration for Sexual Harassment Claims,” Financial Times, November
8, 2018, h ttps://www.ft.com/content/ce3c11ec-e37e-11e8-a6e5-792428919cee.

225. Kate Gibson, “Tech Signals End of Forced Arbitration for Sexual Misconduct Claims,” CB S MoneyWatch ,
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226. “AI Now 2017 Report.”

227. Google Walkout for Real Change, “#GoogleWalkout Update: Collective Action Works, but We Need to Keep
Working.,” M edium, November 8, 2018,
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keep-working-b17f673ad513; Noam Scheiber, “Google Workers Reject Silicon Valley Individualism in
Walkout,” T he New York Times, November 7, 2018,
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228. For example, Google’s highly secret Dragonfly project to censor search results in China and link Chinese
residents’ phone numbers to search logs. See: “We Are Google Employees. Google Must Drop Dragonfly.,” M
edium, November 27, 2018,
https://medium.com/@googlersagainstdragonfly/we-are-google-employees-google-must-drop-drago nfly-
4c8a30c5e5eb.

229. Cade Metz, “Tech Giants Are Paying Huge Salaries for Scarce A.I. Talent,” T he New York Times, October 22,
2017,
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230. “Recommendations” in “AI Now 2016 Report,” (New York: AI Now Institute, 2016),
https://ainowinstitute.org/AI_Now_2016_Report.pdf.
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231. Crawford and Joler, “Anatomy of an AI System,” h ttps://anatomyof.ai.

232. See, as just one of many examples: Dastin, “Amazon scraps secret AI recruiting tool that showed bias against
women,”
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-amazon-com-jobs-automation-insight/amazon-scraps-secret-
airecruiting-tool-that-showed-bias-against-women-idUSKCN1MK08G.

233. Lecher, “A Healthcare Algorithm Started Cutting Care, and No One Knew Why.”

234. Sonia Katyal, “Private Accountability in the Age of the Algorithm,” U CLA Law Review 66 (forthcoming
2019), h ttps://www.uclalawreview.org/private-accountability-age-algorithm/.

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