Disforming scalar–tensor cosmology

Valerio Faraoni1, ∗ and Carla Zeyn2, 1, †

1
Department of Physics & Astronomy, Bishop’s University,
2600 College Street, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada J1M 1Z7
2
Department of Physics, Technical University of Munich, Boltzmannstr. 10, 85748 Garching, Germany
Disformal transformations of Friedmann–Lemaı̂tre–Robertson–Walker and Bianchi geometries are
analyzed in the context of scalar–tensor gravity. Novel aspects discussed explicitly are the 3 + 1
splitting, the effective fluid equivalent of the gravitational scalar, Bianchi models, stealth solutions,
and de Sitter solutions with non–constant scalar field (which are signatures of scalar–tensor gravity).
Both pure disformal transformations and more general ones are discussed, including those containing
higher derivatives of the scalar field recently introduced in the literature.
arXiv:2401.00091v2 [gr-qc] 8 May 2024

I. INTRODUCTION which includes the Starobinski action and is ultimately

reduced to a scalar–tensor gravity.
Einstein’s theory of gravity, General Relativity (GR), Scalar–tensor gravity introduces the simplest degree of
is plagued by spacetime singularities, such as those in- freedom in addition to the two massless spin two modes
side black holes or the Big Bang singularity in cosmology of GR: a massive propagating scalar field which has grav-
[1]. There is hope that quantum mechanics and the un- itational nature. The prototype of the alternative to GR
certainty principle on which it is based will some day was Brans–Dicke theory, in which the gravitational scalar
cure these singularities. However, as soon as one tries to field φ essentially plays the role of the inverse of the effec-
quantum–correct GR, deviations from it are introduced tive gravitational coupling strength Geff ≃ 1/φ replacing
in the form of extra degrees of freedom [2–6], quadratic Newton’s constant G. This effective coupling strength
terms in the curvature invariants appearing in the ac- becomes a dynamical field sourced by the trace of the
tion [7, 8], and higher–order equations of motion. For matter stress–energy tensor [2]. Brans–Dicke theory was
example, the first scenario of early universe inflation, later generalized to other “first–generation” scalar–tensor
and the one currently favoured by observations [9], i.e., gravities. In the last decade, the search for scalar–tensor
Starobinski inflation [10], is due to quadratic corrections theories containing field equations with order not higher
to the Einstein–Hilbert action. The low–energy limit of than second, led to the rediscovery of Horndeski gravity
the bosonic string theory, the simplest of string theories, [19], which has been the subject of an extensive literature
does not reproduce GR but gives ω = −1 Brans–Dicke (e.g., [20–25] and references therein). More recently, it
gravity instead [11, 12]. Therefore, it is not a matter of was found that certain higher–order scalar–tensor theo-
if, but of where, GR fails and the study of alternative ries, when subject to a degeneracy condition, lead to even
theories of gravity is motivated by fundamental physics. more general second order equations of motion. These
From a completely different point of view, astronomers are the so–called Degenerate Higher Order Scalar–Tensor
are also invoking modified gravity. The 1998 discovery (DHOST) theories [26–37], see [38, 39] for reviews.
that the cosmic expansion accelerates today left us in The field equations of DHOST and Horndeski theo-
the need of an explanation. Dark energy, in the form of ries are complicated and it is very difficult to find non–
a fine–tuned cosmological constant, quintessence scalar trivial analytic solutions. Many of the known exact so-
fields, or a plethora of other models, was invoked to ex- lutions of Horndeski and DHOST gravity have been ob-
plain the cosmic acceleration (see [13] for a review). The tained by direct integration of the field equations (e.g.,
standard model of cosmology based on GR, the Lambda– [41–43]). Others, instead, have been obtained by dis-
Cold Dark Matter (ΛCDM) model is now suffering se- formal transformations of the metric tensor gµν , some-
vere tensions and was never satisfactory because approx- times with the disformal transformation reducing to a
imately 70% of the energy content of the universe is conformal one. A disformal transformation takes a seed
postulated to be dark energy, which was introduced in metric and scalar field solution (gµν , φ) of a Horndeski
a completely ad hoc manner and whose nature is un- theory and maps it into a DHOST solution. Here we
known. Dissatisfied with this state of affairs, theorists are interested in the disformal transformation of cosmo-
and astronomers alike have resorted to modifying Ein- logical metrics. The transformation of a spatially homo-
stein gravity as an alternative to introducing dark energy geneous and isotropic Friedmann–Lemaı̂tre–Robertson–
[14, 15]. The most popular class of theories for this pur- Walker (FLRW) metric has been discussed in Ref. [40],
pose is probably f (R) gravity (see [16–18] for reviews), see also [44, 45] and references therein. Here we extend
that analysis and consider several aspects not previously
discussed in relation with disformal transformations, in-
cluding the explicit 3 + 1 splitting, Bianchi cosmologies,
∗ [email protected] and the effective fluid equivalent of the scalar degree of
† [email protected] freedom φ. We also discuss certain exact solutions typi-
 2

cal of scalar–tensor gravity which are impossible in GR, quantities under disformal transformations). In the case
namely stealth solutions, as well as de Sitter solutions Ω = 1, one obtains a pure disformal transformation, to
with non–constant scalar field which, in a sense explained which we restrict for most of this paper until Sec. VIII:
below, generalize stealth solutions.
There is further motivation for studying the disfor- gµν → ḡµν = gµν + F (φ, X)∇µ φ∇ν φ . (2.3)
mal transformation of cosmological spacetimes. Black
Assuming that ∇µ φ is timelike, one can always use the
holes interacting with their environment are dynamical
“uniform–φ slicing” of spacetime in which φ = φ(t),
and their horizons are not event horizons, but apparent
where t is the time coordinate. In this gauge, the line
horizons isntead, which makes them much more compli-
element assumes the familiar form
cated from the point of view of black hole mechanics and
thermodynamics [46, 47]. Similarly, dynamical cosmo- ds2 = gµν dxµ dxν
logical horizons have thermodynamics that is far from
trivial [46]. One way to make black holes dynamical is to
= −N 2 dt2 + gij dxi + N i dt dxj + N j dt (2.4)



embed them in a non–static cosmological “background”. ,
This possibility is of great astrophysical interest since the
interaction of black holes with the FLRW space in which where N and N i are the lapse and the shift vector, re-
they are embedded, over cosmological time scales, has spectively. The disformed line element is
been tentatively reported in recent observations [48, 50].
ds̄2 = ḡµν dxµ dxν
If supermassive black holes at the centres of galaxies are
taken to be non–singular objects with an extended de Sit-
= −N̄ 2 dt2 + ḡij dxi + N̄ i dt dxj + N̄ j dt ,



ter core, as in most models of regular black holes, then
the possiblity arises that dark energy could be effectively (2.5)
segregated inside these black hole horizons [48, 50–54].
Aside from its cosmological implications, the possibility where N̄ 2 = N 2 α2 , N̄ i = N i , ḡij = gij in the disformed
of cosmological coupling tentatively reported in [48] has (or barred) world, and [40]
already been the subject of a lively theoretical and obser-
vational debate in the literature [55–75]. Problem is, the α2 ≡ 1 − 2F (φ, X)X . (2.6)
theory behind this cosmological coupling of black holes is
underdeveloped and exact solutions of the relevant field In order to preserve the metric signature, it must be
F < 1/2 everywhere throughout the spacetime manifold,
equations could help understanding the basic physical
principles behind this phenomenon. The scarcity of rel- which we assume in the following.
Equation (2.5) is easily proved. Using the notation
evant solutions in GR [46] prompts the search for new
solutions in more general scalar–tensor and Horndeski φ̇ ≡ dφ/dt, we have
theories. The easiest way to generate new solutions is by
ds̄2 = (gµν + F ∇µ φ∇ν φ) dxµ dxν
using disformal transformations of GR “seeds”. The first
step in this program consists of understanding the trans-
2
formation properties under disformal transformations of = ds2 + F (φ, X) (∇µ φ dxµ )
the FLRW or Bianchi “backgrounds” in which such black
holes are embedded. The present work addresses this first
= −N 2 dt2 + gij dxi + N i dt dxj + N j dt + F φ̇2 dt2



step.
We adopt the notations of Ref. [1]. The metric signa-  
ture is −+++, units are used in which the speed of light = − N 2 − F φ̇2 dt2 + gij dxi + N i dt dxj + N j dt .



c and Newton’s constant G are unity, and  ≡ g µν ∇µ ∇ν
is the curved space d’Alembert operator. Greek indices (2.7)
run from 0 to 3 and Latin indices from 1 to 3. Since
g 00 2 φ̇2
II. DISFORMAL TRANSFORMATIONS X=− φ̇ = , (2.8)
2 2N 2

The general form of a disformal transformation with it is

first order derivatives of the scalar field [76] is N 2 − F (φ, X) φ̇2 = N 2 [1 − 2F (φ, X)X] ≡ N 2 α2 . (2.9)
2
gµν → ḡµν = Ω (φ, X) gµν + F (φ, X)∇µ φ∇ν φ , (2.1)
From
where
1 ds̄2 = −(N 2 α2 )dt2 + gij (dxi + N i dt)(dxj + N j dt) (2.10)
X ≡ − g µν ∇µ φ∇ν φ (2.2)
2
it then follows that
and φ denotes the scalar field (see [77] for a summary
of the transformation properties of various geometrical N̄ 2 = N 2 α2 , ḡij = gij , N̄ i = N i . (2.11)
 3

The inverse of the disformed metric ḡµν is [40, 77] or

Z q
µν µν F τ (t) = dt 1 − φ̇2 (t)F (t) , (3.5)
ḡ =g − 2 ∇µ φ∇ν φ : (2.12)
α
to wit, we rewrite the disformed line element as

F
 ds̄2 = −dτ 2 + gij dxi dxj (3.6)
ḡ µν ḡνγ = g µν − 2 ∇µ φ∇ν φ (gνγ + F ∇ν φ∇γ φ)
α
and φ̄(τ ) = φ (t(τ )). Therefore, a pure disformal trans-

1
 formation of a FLRW metric written in the uniform–φ
= g µν gνγ + F g µν ∇ν φ∇γ φ − 2 gνγ ∇µ φ∇ν φ gauge always generates another FLRW geometry, in ad-
α
dition to preserving the uniform–φ slicing.1 In essence,
F2 a pure disformal transformation of a FLRW metric is
− (∇ν φ∇ν φ) ∇µ φ∇γ φ equivalent to a rescaling of the comoving time [40]. For
α2
example, for spatially flat FLRW metrics
∇µ φ∇γ φ
 
= δγ + F (φ, X) ∇µ φ∇γ φ −
µ
ds2 = −dt2 +a2 (t) dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ≡ −dt2 +a2 (t)d~x 2 ,


1 − 2F (φ, X)X
(3.7)
F 2 (φ, X) for which
− (∇ν φ∇ν φ) ∇µ φ∇γ φ
1 − 2F (φ, X)X
ds̄2 = (gµν + F ∇µ φ∇ν φ)dxµ dxν
2
F (1 − 2F X − 1) − F (−2X) µ
= δγµ + ∇ φ∇γ φ
1 − 2F X = gµν dxµ dxν + F φ̇2 dt2

= δγµ . (2.13)  
= − 1 − F φ̇2 dt2 + a2 (t)d~x 2
Let us proceed to adapt these transformations to FLRW
geometries.
= −dτ 2 + ā2 (τ )d~x 2 . (3.8)

The pure disformal transformation yields another spa-

III. FLRW UNIVERSE AND DISFORMAL tially flat FLRW line element with comoving time (3.5)
TRANSFORMATIONS and scale factor ā(τ ) = a (t(τ )).
Both in GR with a minimally coupled scalar field φ [79–
The FLRW line element in comoving coordinates 82] and in “first–generation” scalar–tensor gravity [83]
(t, r, ϑ, ϕ) is (including f (R) gravity [84]), spatially flat FLRW uni-
verses are described by the dynamical variables H ≡ ȧ/a
dr2
 
2 2 2
ds = −dt + a (t) 2 2
+ r dΩ(2) and φ. That is, for these K = 0 FLRW universes, the
1 − Kr2 scale factor a(t) enters the Einstein–Friedmann equa-
tions only through the Hubble function ȧ/a, which is a
≡ −dt2 + gij dxi dxj , (3.1) cosmological
  observable. Hence, the phase space is the
H, φ, φ̇ space but the Friedmann equation
where the constant K is the curvature index, N = 1,
N i = 0, and dΩ2(2) ≡ dϑ2 + sin2 ϑ dϕ2 is the line element
8π (φ)
on the unit 2–sphere. The pure disformal transforma- H2 = ρ (3.9)
3
tion (2.3) changes the FLRW line element into
constitutes a first order constraint on the dynamics. As
ds̄2 = − (1 − 2F X) dt2 + gij dxi dxj . (3.2) a consequence, the region of the phase space accessible
to the orbits of the solutions is a 2–dimensional sub-
The uniform–φ slicing corresponds to the comoving set of this 3–dimensional space. Effectively, these or-
FLRW slicing in which φ = φ(t). In this gauge X = φ̇2 /2 bits move
 on a curved 2–dimensional subset of the 3–
and space H, φ, φ̇ , which may consist of multiple sheets
and possibly have “holes” inaccessible to these orbits, as
 
ds̄2 = − 1 − φ̇2 F dt2 + gij dxi dxj (3.3)
explained in Refs. [83, 84]. This phase space structure
after the disformal transformation. By redefining the
time coordinate according to
h i 1 If (gµν , φ) is a GR solution with minimally coupled scalar φ, then
dt2 → dτ 2 ≡ 1 − φ̇2 (t)F (t) dt2 , (3.4) (ḡµν , φ) is a solution of “class Ia” DHOST gravity [78].
 4

extends to spatially flat FLRW cosmology in Horndeski is the effective isotropic pressure,
gravity [85].
In both GR and scalar–tensor gravity, if fixed points πµν = Tγδ hµ γ hν δ − P hµν (4.6)
exist, with this choice of dynamical variables they are
unavoidably de Sitter spaces with is the effective anisotropic stress tensor, and

(H, φ) = (H0 = const., φ0 = const.) . (3.10) qα = −Tγδ uγ hα δ (4.7)

The values of H0 and φ0 are related by the field equations is the effective heat flux density [86–89]. Here,
[83, 84]. A disformal transformation of a K = 0 FLRW
metric maps these fixed points into FLRW universes with hµν = gµν + uµ uν (4.8)
(FLRW)
ḡµν = gµν + F ∇µ φ∇ν φ , φ̄(τ ) = φ (t(τ )) , (3.11) is the Riemannian metric in the 3–space orthogonal to uα
and the pressure P is the sum of non–viscous and viscous
√
where dτ = 1 − 2F X dt but, since for fixed points contributions,
(FLRW)
∇α φ = ∇α φ0 = 0, it is simply ḡµν = gµν . Therefore,
P = P0 + Pvis . (4.9)
a pure disformal transformation (2.3) maps de Sitter
fixed points into de Sitter fixed points of the phase space hµν , πµν , and qµ are purely spatial:
of K = 0 FLRW cosmology.
hµν uµ = hµν uν = πµν uµ = πµν uν = qµ uµ = 0 . (4.10)
de Sitter spaces with non–constant scalar fields do not
exist in GR with minimally coupled scalar, but are a Let us adapt this effective fluid analogy to FLRW ge-
signature of scalar–tensor gravity. They are not mapped ometries.
into de Sitter spaces, as discussed in Sec. VII. Since a FLRW universe is spatially homogeneous and
isotropic, the shear tensor π i j and the heat flux density
q i (which would introduce a preferred spatial direction if
IV. EFFECTIVE IMPERFECT FLUID OF it were non–vanishing), are identically zero and the only
SCALAR–TENSOR GRAVITY AND DISFORMAL dissipative quantity that can remain is the viscous pres-
TRANSFORMATIONS sure Pvis . In Eckart’s thermodynamics, viscous pressure
arises because of bulk viscosity, according to the consti-
It is well known that the scalar field φ of scalar–tensor tutive relation Pvis = −ζ ∇ρ uρ [90, 91], where ζ is a bulk
gravity can be seen as an imperfect fluid when its gradi- viscosity coefficient. When one applies Eckart’s first or-
ent ∇µ φ is timelike and future–oriented, i.e., tα ∇α φ < 0, der thermodynamics to the effective fluid of the scalar
µ
where tµ = (∂/∂t) is the time direction of observers co- field φ, this relation is satisfied in the context of “old”
moving with this effective fluid [86–89]. As is custom- scalar–tensor gravity [2–6]), but is usually invalid in more
ary, we write the vacuum field equations of scalar–tensor general Horndeski gravity [89, 92].
gravity in the form of effective Einstein equations, Next, one wonders how the effective φ–fluid quantities
transform under disformal transformations, but does this
(φ)
Gµν = Tµν ; (4.1) question make sense? In general spacetimes, it does not,
as explained in the following. In general, solutions of a
then, we assume ∇µ φ to be timelike and future–oriented. theory of gravity (say, “theory A”) are mapped into so-
One can then define the effective fluid four–velocity lutions of a new theory (say, “theory B”) by a disformal
∇µ φ transformation. Then, the effective stress–energy tensor
uµ = √ , (4.2) of φ obtained by recasting the field equations of theory A
2X as effective Einstein equations, will have a different form
which satisfies the usual normalization condition for in the new theory B. For example, solutions of GR with
timelike fluids uα uα = −1. The effective stress–energy a minimally coupled scalar field, or of “first–generation”
tensor of the gravitational scalar field φ has the form scalar–tensor gravity (theory A), are mapped into solu-
tions of a Horndeski or a DHOST theory (theory B) [78].
(φ)
Tµν = ρuµ uν + P hµν + πµν + qµ uν + qν uµ , (4.3) In this case, it no longer makes sense to consider the
(φ)
original Tµν , which is replaced by a more complicated
where expression [78]. However, if one restricts one’s attention
to FLRW metrics in the uniform–φ gauge, the disformal
ρ = Tµν uµ uν (4.4) transformation amounts to a mere time rescaling and it
(φ)
still makes sense to consider the same Tµν . Here we re-
is the effective energy density,
strict to the “old” scalar–tensor theories for simplicity,
1 µν however, the extension of this analysis to the effective
P = h Tµν (4.5) dissipative stress–energy tensor of Horndeski gravity is
3
 5

straightforward. The derivation of this effective stress– the spatial 3–metric is not affected by the disformal trans-
energy tensor of φ is rather laborious and is performed in formation (2.3).
Refs. [88, 89]. A similar situation occurs with purely con- (φ)
Next, we determine how Tµν transforms under pure
formal transformations. In this case, starting with a solu- disformal transformations:
tion (gµν , φ) of the coupled Einstein–Klein–Gordon equa-
tions, a conformally transformed metric g̃µν = Ω2 (φ)gµν (φ)
Tµν = ρuµ uν + P hµν
is no longer a solution of the Einstein equations with the
same matter content.2 However, for FLRW metrics and ρ
φ = φ(t) dependent only on time, the conformal trans- = ūµ ūν + P h̄µν
α2
formation amounts again to a rescaling of the comoving
time and a perfect fluid is mapped again into a perfect (φ)
≡ ρ̄ ūµ ūν + P̄ h̄µν = T̄µν , (4.15)
fluid with the same equation of state [94].
With this caveat, let us proceed to derive the transfor- where the individual fluid quantities transform as
mation of the various effective fluid quantities in FLRW
spaces, which are the subject of interest in this article. ρ ρ
ρ̄ = = , P̄ = P . (4.16)
The contravariant four–velocity is α2 1 − 2F X
 µ  µ
∂ 1 ∂ uµ Clearly, the scaling of the energy density with α is a con-
ūµ = = = . (4.11) sequence solely of the scaling of time, which appears twice
∂τ α ∂t α
(φ)
because ρ̄ = Tµν ūµ ūν is quadratic in the four–velocity,
The covariant four–velocity is computed as which transforms according to Eq. (4.12). This scaling of
uα is responsible for the factor α2 . Purely spatial quan-
uν tities, including the pressure P , are left unchanged by
ūµ = ḡµν ūν = (gµν + F ∇µ φ∇ν φ)
α time rescalings. Equations (4.16) are analogous to the
well–known transformation relations for energy density
uν F
= gµν + uµ uν (−∇γ φ∇γ φ) uν and pressure under a purely conformal transformation of
α α a perfect fluid in FLRW spaces
uµ F uµ (1 − 2F X)
= + (∇γ φ∇γ φ) uµ = gµν → g̃µν = Ω2 (φ)gµν . (4.17)
α α α

= αuµ . (4.12) These transformation relations are P̃ = Ω4 P , ρ̃ = Ω4 ρ

[94].
Using the 3+1 splittings The effective equation of state parameter of the φ–fluid
in the barred world is
gµν = −uµ uν + hµν , ḡµν = −ūµ ūν + h̄µν , (4.13)
P̄ P
w̄ ≡ = α2 ≡ α2 w . (4.18)
the disformal transformation (2.3) gives ρ̄ ρ

ḡµν = gµν + F ∇µ φ∇ν φ Therefore, w̄ has the same sign of w and scales only be-
cause of the scaling of ρ with α. If α > 1 a quintessence
scalar field, which by definition has −1 < w < −1/3,
= −uµ uν + hµν + 2XF uµuν can be mapped into an effective phantom field which has
instead an equation of state parameter w̄ < −1.
= −(1 − 2F X)uµ uν + hµν To summarize, we have

ūµ ūν uµ
= −α2 + hµν ūµ = , uµ = α ūµ , (4.19)
α α α
ūµ
= −ūµ ūν + hµν ; (4.14) ūµ = α uµ , uµ = , (4.20)
α

h̄µν = hµν , (4.21)

2 Indeed, the new metric and scalar field obtained in this way are ρ ρ
solutions of a different theory of gravity. Given an electrovacuum ρ̄ = = , P̄ = P . (4.22)
solution gµν of GR and an arbitrary scalar field ψ > 0, one can√al- α2 1 − 2F X
ways perform a conformal transformation so that g̃µν = gµν / ψ
is a solution of an ω = −3/2 Brans–Dicke theory with that scalar As an example, consider a free, minimally coupled
ψ as its Brans-Dicke scalar [93]. This theory is pathological since scalar field in GR (which is well–known to behave as a
ψ is not dynamical. stiff fluid [95]) in a spatially flat FLRW universe. The
 6

effective energy density and isotropic pressure of this φ– As for FLRW geometries, a disformal transforma-
fluid tion (2.3) of a Bianchi metric is equivalent to a time
rescaling, produces another Bianchi metric, and preserves
φ̇2 φ̇2 the uniform–φ gauge.
ρ= +V , P = −V (4.23)
2 2 As an example, consider the spatially flat Bianchi I
geometry with line element
coincide when V (φ) = 0, giving the effective equation of
state parameter w ≡ P/ρ = 1 and ds2(I) = −dt2 + a21 (t) dx2 + a22 (t) dy 2 + a23 (t) dz 2 (5.4)
ρ0
ρ= 6, a(t) = a0 t1/3 , (4.24) in comoving Cartesian coordinates (t, x, y, z), where ai (t)
a
(i = 1, 2, 3) are the scale factors corresponding to the
where ρ0 and a0 are constants. The Klein–Gordon equa- three spatial directions, and φ = φ(t). The disformal
tion satisfied by this minimally coupled scalar field transformation of the metric (2.3) then yields
 
φ = − φ̈ + 3H φ̇ = 0 (4.25) ds̄2 = −(1 − F φ̇2 )dt2 + a21 (t) dx2 + a22 (t) dy 2 + a23 (t) dz 2

has the solution φ(t) = φ0 ln (t/t0 ) + φ1 , where φ0,1 and

= −dτ 2 + ā21 (τ ) dx2 + ā22 (τ ) dy 2 + ā23 (τ ) dz 2
t0 are constants. Moreover, we have
(5.5)
φ2 φ2 F
X = 02 , F (φ, X) = F (t) , α = 1 − 02
2
(4.26) q
2t t
R
with τ (t) = dt 1 − F φ̇2 and āi (τ ) = ai (t(τ )). Since
and F and φ̇ depend only on t, the q
new time coordinate τ (t)
φ20 F (t) is well–defined, because dτ = 1 − F φ̇2 dt is an exact
w̄(t) = α2 w = 1 − . (4.27) differential.
t2
For example, the choice
VI. STEALTH SOLUTIONS OF
F0 2F0 t2 SCALAR–TENSOR GRAVITY
F (X) = = , (4.28)
X φ20
Stealth solutions [97–107] cannot occur in GR but are
where F0 is a constant, gives another constant equation of
typical of scalar–tensor gravity.3 They have gµν = ηµν ,
state parameter w̄ = 1−2F0 6= w = 1. In GR, a disformal
where ηµν denotes the Minkowski metric, but φ 6= con-
transformation can create any constant equation of state
stant. In other words, the gravitational scalar field φ
with w̄ > 0 starting from a stiff fluid with w = 1.
does not gravitate.
Two types of stealth solutions are most commonly en-
V. BIANCHI UNIVERSES AND DISFORMAL countered in the literature. They have the form
TRANSFORMATIONS
1. gµν = ηµν and φ(t) = φ0 eα0 t , or
Although not mentioned explicitly in the literature, 2. gµν = ηµν and φ(t) = φ0 |t|β ,
the previous discussion applies almost without changes to
spatially homogenous but anisotropic Bianchi cosmolo- where φ0 , α0 , and β are constants. Since stealth solutions
gies [96]. The line element can be written in the form are special cases of FLRW geometries in which the scale
factor reduces to a constant, they belong to our study.
ds2 = −dt2 + γij dxi dxj (5.1) We discuss these two cases separately.
in the uniform–φ gauge, which is possible because
Bianchi cosmological models are spatially homogenous. A. Stealth solutions φ(t) = φ0 eα0 t
In this gauge φ = φ(t), we have

ds̄2 = ḡµν dxµ dxν = (gµν + F ∇µ φ∇ν φ)dxµ dxν In this case X = α20 φ2 /2, yielding

ḡµν = ηµν + F ∇µ φ∇ν φ = ηµν + α20 F φ2 δµ0 δν0 (6.1)

2 2 2 2 2 i j
= ds + F φ̇ dt = −(1 − F φ̇ )dt + γij dx dx
(5.2)
3
where, again, F (φ(t), X(t)) = F (t), so Somehow similar solutions, i.e., hairy Schwarzschild black holes
in which the scalar field does not gravitate, are known in more
ds̄2 = −dτ 2 + γij dxi dxj . (5.3) general Horndeski gravities [108–116].
 7

and or
ds̄2 = − 1 − α20 F 2 φ2 dt2 + d~x 2


(6.2) ds̄2 = −dτ 2 + a20 e2H0 t(τ ) d~x 2 (7.3)
where F (φ, X) = F φ, α20 φ2 /2 = F (t), which produces


with
ds̄2 = −dτ 2 + d~x 2 . (6.3) Z q
τ (t) = dt 1 − F φ̇2 (7.4)
This is another Minkowski line element with time
reparametrized. We need 1 > α20 φ2 F (φ, X), or
which, in general, constitutes a non–linear relation be-
1 e−2α0 t tween t and τ . A disformal transformation maps a
F (t) < 2 2 = 2 2 . (6.4) stealth–de Sitter geometry into a less symmetric FLRW
α0 φ α0 φ0
geometry with

ds̄2 = −dτ 2 + ā2 (τ ) d~x 2 , ā(τ ) = a0 eH0 t(τ ) . (7.5)

B. The case φ(t) = φ0 |t|β

This solution is a de Sitter geometry only if F φ̇2 is con-

In this second case we have φ̇ = β φ/t, with stant, i.e., F = const./X.
β 2 φ2 β 2 φ20 2(β−1) In the literature there are also stealth solutions with
X= = t , (6.5) a inhomogenous scalar field φ = φ (t, ~x) and gµν = ηµν
2 t2 2
(e.g., [98]), leading to
and the disformed line element reads
∇µ φ = φ̇ δµ0 + φi δµi (7.6)
ds̄2 = (ηµν + F ∇µ φ∇ν φ) dxµ dxν
and
2 2
 
F β φ
= −dt2 + d~x 2 + F φ̇2 dt2 = − 1 − dt2 + d~x 2
  
t2 ∇µ φ∇ν φ = φ̇ δµ0 + φi δµi φ̇ δν0 + φj δνj

= −dτ 2 + d~x 2 , (6.6)

= φ̇2 δµ0 δν0 + φ̇ φj δµ0 δνj + φi δν0 δµi + φi φj δµi δνj ,

yielding another Minkowski metric with reparametrized (7.7)

time τ (t).
where φi ≡ ∂φ/∂xi . Additionally, the disformed line
element is
VII. DE SITTER SOLUTIONS WITH
NON–CONSTANT SCALAR FIELD ds̄2 = (ηµν + F ∇µ φ∇ν φ) dxµ dxν

Typical of scalar–tensor gravity is the “stealth–de Sit-  

ter” metric = −dt2 + d~x 2 + F φ̇2 dt2 + 2φ̇φi dtdxi + φi φj dxi dxj
(7.8)
ds2 = −dt2 + a20 e2H0 t d~x 2 (7.1)
with a0 , H0 constants, while the scalar field depends on or
the comoving time, φ = φ(t).  
In GR with a minimally coupled scalar field, de Sit- ds̄2 = − 1 − F φ̇2 dt2 + 2F φ̇ φi dtdxi
ter solutions are obtained only for a constant scalar field
φ = φ0 , and they are equilibrium points of the dynami- + (δij + F φi φj ) dxi dxj . (7.9)
cal system formed by the Einstein–Friedmann equations
describing FLRW cosmology [79–82]. In scalar–tensor Now
gravity, where the scalar φ has gravitational nature and
couples explicitly to the Ricci scalar, de Sitter solutions 1 2  φ̇2 ~ 2
(∇φ)
with non–constant φ(t) are possible, but they are not X=− −φ̇ + δ ij φi φj = − (7.10)
2 2 2
fixed points of the phase space of FLRW cosmology.
For de Sitter spacetimes with non–constant scalar φ(t) depends on the spatial coordinates xi . Since F (φ, X) φ̇2
in scalar–tensor gravity, the disformed line element is now depends on xi as well, it is not possible to re-
defineqthe time coordinate τ as we did before because
ds̄2 = −dt2 + a20 e2H0 t d~x 2 + F φ̇2 dt2
dτ = 1 − F φ̇2 dt is no longer an exact differential. The
  disformal transformation then sends the Minkowski met-
= − 1 − F φ̇2 dt2 + a20 e2H0 t d~x 2 , (7.2) ric into an inhomogenous non–stationary geometry.
 8

VIII. MORE GENERAL DISFORMAL The fixed points (H0 , φ0 ) of the phase space are mapped
TRANSFORMATIONS into new fixed points of the disformed phase space
 
Instead of pure disformal transformations (2.3), one H0
(H0 , φ0 ) → H̄0 = √ , φ0 (8.9)
can allow for disformal transformations of the more gen- A0
eral form [78]
since X0 = 0 and A(φ, X) = A(φ0 , 0) ≡ A0 .
gµν → ḡµν = A(φ, X)gµν + B(φ, X)∇µ φ∇ν φ , (8.1) Setting

which we discuss in this section for FLRW and Bianchi γ 2 ≡ A − B φ̇2 > 0 , (8.10)
geometries. Several, but not all, of the results valid for we have X̄ = X/γ 2 ,
pure disformal transformations still hold.
The inverse of the disformed metric (8.1) is [77, 78] ḡ µν ∇ν φ uµ
ūµ = √ = , (8.11)
  2X̄ γ
1 B
ḡ µν = g µν − ∇µ φ∇ν φ (8.2)
A A − 2BX while

and the invertibility condition is [77, 78] ūµ = ḡµν ūν = γ uµ . (8.12)

A 6= 0 , A + 2XAx − 4X 2 Bx 6= 0 , The Riemannian 3–metric hµν on the 3–spaces or-

thogonal to uµ changes under disformal mappings of the
type (8.1) according to
A − 2BX 6= 0 , (8.3)
h̄µν ≡ ḡµν + ūµ ūν = Agµν + 2XBuµ uν + γ 2 uµ uν
where the last equation is needed to guarantee that
X = −Auµ uν + Ahµν + 2XBuµ uν + (A − 2BX) uµ uν
X̄ = (8.4)
A − 2BX
remains well–defined. For a line element of the form = Ahµν . (8.13)

ds2 = −dt2 + gij dxi dxj (8.5) When ∇µ φ is timelike and future–oriented, the stress-
energy tensor of the effective fluid equivalent of φ in
in the uniform–φ gauge, we have X = φ˙2 /2, A(φ, X) = FLRW universes is
A(t), B(φ, X) = B(t) and the disformed line element is (φ)
Tµν = ρ uµ uν + P hµν
ds̄2 = ḡµν dxµ dxν = (Agµν + B ∇µ φ∇ν φ) dxµ dxν
ūµ ūν P
= ρ + h̄µν
  γ γ A
= − A − B φ̇2 dt2 + Agij dxi dxj
= ρ̄ ūµ ūν + P̄ h̄µν , (8.14)
≡ −dτ 2 + ḡij dxi dxj , (8.6)
where
where ḡij = A(t) gij and ρ P
ρ̄ = , P̄ = . (8.15)
Z q γ2 A
τ (t) = A(t) − B(t)φ̇2 dt . (8.7)
The equation of state parameter of the effective φ–fluid
in the disformed world is now
This integral is well defined as long as A − B φ̇2 > 0 since
the integrand depends only on time and dτ is an exact P̄ γ2
w̄ ≡ = w. (8.16)
differential, and ḡij = A(t) gij . For FLRW metrics with ρ̄ A
gij = a2 (t)γij (xk ), the Hubble function in the disformed
On the lines of what was already done in Sec. V, con-
world is
sider a Bianchi universe with line element ds2 = −dt2 +
√ 
d A a dt gij dxi dxj in the uniform–φ gauge in which φ = φ(t).
1 dā 1 This universe is mapped into another Bianchi universe
H̄ ≡ =√
ā dτ Aa dt dτ with line element
!
1 Ȧ ds̄2 = −dτ 2 + ḡij dxi dxj , (8.17)
= q +H . (8.8)
2A
A − B φ̇2 where dτ = γ dt and ḡij = A(t)gij .
 9

Unless A = const., stealth solutions where [120]

XA − D Y 2 − XZ


(gµν , φ) = (ηµν , φ(t)) (8.18) µν
X̄ ≡ ḡ ∇µ φ∇ν φ = , (9.8)
F
are not mapped into stealth solutions because now the
disformal transformation maps the Minkowski line ele- Y A + C Y 2 − XZ


µν
ment ds2 = −dt2 + d~x2 into the spatially flat FLRW Ȳ ≡ ḡ ∇µ φ∇ν X = X̄X + X̄φ X̄ ,
F
geometry
(9.9)
ds̄2 = −dτ 2 + ā2 (τ ) d~x2 . 2


(8.19) 2 ZA − B Y − XZ
Z̄ ≡ ḡ µν ∇µ X∇ν X = X̄X + 2X̄φ Ȳ
F
with rescaled comoving time defined by dτ = γ dt and
p
scale factor ā(τ ) = A (φ(t), X(t)) . −X̄φ2 X̄ , (9.10)
t=t(τ )

where X̄φ ≡ ∂ X̄/∂φ , X̄X ≡ ∂ X̄/∂X . The inverse of the

IX. HIGHER–ORDER DISFORMAL disformed metric (9.1) is
TRANSFORMATIONS (
AB − Z C 2 − BD


µν 1 µν
ḡ = g − ∇µ φ∇ν φ
Yet more general disformal transformations have been A F
introduced recently, which contain second order deriva-
AC + Y C 2 − BD


tives of the scalar field instead of first order one [120], and −2 ∇(µ φ∇ν) X
even more general ones, containing derivatives of higher F
order than second, are contemplated [121]. To extend the )
AD − X C 2 − BD


scope of the previous discussion, and of the future search − µ ν
∇ X∇ X . (9.11)
for exact solutions, let us extend the previous consider- F
ations to second order disformal transformations of the
form Let us specialize these formulae to the line element of
interest in cosmology
ḡµν = Agµν + B∇µ φ∇ν φ + 2C∇(µ φ∇ν) X + D∇µ X∇ν X ,
(9.1) ds2 = −dt2 + gij dxi dxj (9.12)
where A, B, C and D are functions of φ, X, Y, Z with4 in the uniform φ-gauge in which φ = φ(t). It follows
X ≡ ∇µ φ∇ φ , µ
(9.2) immediately that
X = −φ̇2 , Y = 2φ̇2 φ̈ , Z = −4φ̇2 φ̈2 , (9.13)
Y ≡ ∇µ φ∇µ X , (9.3)
 
F = A A − B φ̇2 + 4C φ̇2 φ̈ − 4Dφ̇2 φ̈2 , (9.14)
Z ≡ ∇µ X∇µ X .
(9.4) yielding
ds̄2 = ḡµν dxµ dxν
It is useful to define the quantity
F ≡ A [A + XB + 2Y C + ZD]
 
= − A − B φ̇2 + 4C φ̇2 φ̈ − 4Dφ̇2 φ̈2 dt2 + Agij dxi dxj

+ C 2 − BD Y 2 − XZ ,



(9.5) F 2
= − dt + Agij dxi dxj . (9.15)
A
which will appear in several formulae. Invertibility of the
disformal transformation corresponds to [120] To preserve the metric signature, it must be A > 0 and
F > 0. Since A, B,q
C, D and φ and its derivatives depend
A 6= 0 , F=
6 0, X̄X 6= 0 , X̄Y = X̄Z = 0 , (9.6) F
only of time, dτ ≡ dt is an exact differential and the
A
R qF

time coordinate τ ≡ A dt is well defined. Using τ ,
∂ Ȳ , Z̄
6= 0 , (9.7) one rewrites the line element (9.15) as
∂ (Y, Z)
ds̄2 = −dτ 2 + Ā(τ )gij dxi dxj , (9.16)
where Ā(τ ) = A (t(τ )). For FLRW metrics gij =
4 For ease of comparison with Ref. [120], in this section we define a2 (t)γij (xk ) and
X with a different sign and normalization than in the previous
sections. ds̄2 = −dτ 2 + ā2 (τ )γij (xk )dxi dxj (9.17)
 10
p
with ā(τ ) = a (t(τ )) A (t(τ )). The Hubble function in When it acts on Bianchi universes with line element
the disformed world is
ds2 = −dt2 + gij t, xi dxi dxj


√  (9.28)
1 d A a dt
r !
1 dā A Ȧ in the uniform–φ gauge, the second order disformal trans-
H̄ ≡ =√ = +H .
ā dτ Aa dt dτ F 2A formation (9.1) produces the new line eleemnt
(9.18)
F 2
Here Y 2 − XZ = 0 and F reduces to ds̄2 = − dt + Agij dxi dxj . (9.29)
h  i A
F = A A − B φ̇2 + 4φ̇2 φ̈ C − Dφ̈ , (9.19) Since F /A = A − B φ̇2 + 4C φ̇2 φ̈ − 4Dφ̇2 φ̈2 depends only
on the time t, oneqcan introduce the new time coordinate
while F
defined by dτ ≡ A dt (an exact differential) to write
2
Aφ̇
X̄ = − . (9.20) ds̄2 = −dτ 2 + ḡij τ, xk dxi dxj


(9.30)
F
Assuming ∇µ φ to be timelike and future–oriented, the with ḡij τ, xk = A(t(τ )) gij t(τ ), xk , which is again a



four–velocities of the φ fluid before and after the disfor- Bianchi geometry with the same symmetries of the seed
mal transformation are metric gµν , in the uniform–φ gauge.
Finally, under the disformal transformation (9.1),
g µν ∇ν φ  
uµ ≡ √ = −sign φ̇ δ µ 0
! !
(9.21)
−X stealth solutions gµν , φ(t) = ηµν , φ(t) of the field
and (see Appendix A) equations become again the spatially flat FLRW geome-
tries
ḡ µν ∇ν φ
ūµ ≡ √
−X̄ ds̄2 = −dτ 2 + A (t(τ )) d~x2 , φ = φ(t) (9.31)

with the uniform–φ gauge coinciding with the comoving

(r
F φ̇2 h  
= 3
+√ A B − 2C φ̈ gauge.
A F A3
 io
+2φ̈A 2Dφ̈ − C uµ , (9.22) X. CONCLUSIONS

that is, ūµ is parallel to uµ . Then, by comparing Disformal transformations have been introduced in
Eq. (9.15) with gravity long ago [76], but their use has been greatly re-
vamped only recently in the context of Horndeski and
ds̄2 = ḡµν dxµ dxν = −ūµ ūν + h̄µν dxµ dxν ,


(9.23)
DHOST scalar–tensor gravity. Pure disformal transfor-
one obtains immediately mations of FLRW spaces have been studied in [40], whose
discussion we expand here. We have discussed disfor-
r
F mal transformations of cosmological spaces, making ex-
ūµ = uµ , h̄µν = A hµν . (9.24) plicit the 3 + 1 splitting, which is essential for the under-
A standing of the dissipative fluid equivalent of the scalar
The fluid sourcing the homogeneous cosmological space- field φ of scalar tensor–gravity. The latter is well–defined
time has the form only when the gradient ∇µ φ of the scalar field is time-
like, which is the case of FLRW and Bianchi cosmologies.
(φ) A h̄µν Bianchi universes and the effective dissipative fluid were
Tµν = ρuµ uν + P hµν = ρ ūµ ūν + P
F A not considered explicitly in the literature on disformal
transformations. Novel aspects of scalar field cosmol-
= ρ̄ ūµ ūν + P̄ h̄µν , (9.25) ogy under disformal transformations presented here in-
clude the transformation properties of de Sitter solutions
where as fixed points of the phase space (which have constant
ρA P scalar), stealth solutions, and de Sitter solutions with
ρ̄ = , P̄ = . (9.26) non–constant scalar field typical of scalar–tensor gravity.
F A
We have answered the question of whether these solutions
If w ≡ P/ρ is the equation of state parameter of the fluid are mapped into solutions of the same kind, first con-
before the transformation, its disformed cousin is sidering pure disformal transformations, and then more
general transformations.
P̄ F In the phase space of spatially flat FLRW cosmology,
w̄ ≡ = 2 w. (9.27) which is favoured by observations, the physical variables
ρ̄ A
 11
 
can be chosen to be H, φ, φ̇ . Then, necessarily, the mations containing second order derivatives of φ recently
fixed points of the Einstein–Friedmann dynamical system introduced in [120, 121].
are de Sitter spaces with constant scalar field. They are This study adds to the current knowledge of disfor-
invariant under pure disformal transformations. These mal transformations in scalar–tensor theories of gravity,
results extend straightforwardly to Bianchi universes. which has seen a very significant increase in the last
As we have seen in Sec. IV, when its gradient ∇µ φ is decade and are useful when searching for examples and
timelike and future–oriented, the gravitational scalar φ counterexamples related to disformal transformations in
is equivalent to a dissipative effective fluid. This effec- cosmology. Furthermore, we have in mind the application
tive fluid is the basis for the recent formalism dubbed of disformal transformations to the search for exact solu-
first–order thermodynamics of scalar–tensor gravity in tions of the scalar–tensor field equations which describe
which an effective “temperature of gravity” is introduced black holes and other objects embedded in cosmological
to describe the deviations of gravity from GR, which is spacetimes. Such solutions are difficult to find in GR and
then regarded as the state of zero temperature and ther- “first–generation” scalar–tensor gravity [46] and will be
mal equilibrium [117, 118]. An equation describing the searched for in more general scalar–tensor theories using
approach to equilibrium is also provided [117, 118], see disformal tranformatons of GR “seeds”. The first step
[119] for a review. In FLRW spaces, the analysis of the to understand their properties will be the knowledge of
3 + 1 splitting of FLRW spacetimes given explicitly here how the FLRW or Bianchi “backgrounds”, in which they
provides the transformation properties of the effective φ– are embedded, behave under disformal transformations.
fluid quantities. This derivation provides a parallel to This first step has been completed here.
well–known tranformation formulae of perfect fluids (in-
cluding scalar field fluids) under conformal transforma-
tions. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Stealth solutions and de Sitter solutions with non–
constant scalar fields are forbidden in GR and are typ- This work is supported, in part, by the Natural Sci-
ical of scalar–tensor gravity. They can be regarded as ences & Engineering Research Council of Canada (grant
degenerate cases of FLRW universes and can, therefore, No. 2023–03234 to V. F.) and by a scholarship from the
be analyzed in the same way, as done here in Secs. VI Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes of Germany (C. Z.).
and VII.
Finally, most of the results derived here for pure dis-
formal transformations survive under more general (i.e., Appendix A CALCULATION OF THE
not “pure”) disformal transformations of the form (8.1). DISFORMED FOUR–VELOCITY ūµ
We have extended the study to the disformal transfor-

ḡ µν ∇ν φ
ūµ = √
−X̄
(
AB − Z C 2 − BD AC + Y Z C 2 − BD

 

1 µν µ ν
= g − ∇ φ∇ φ − 2 ∇(µ φ∇ν) X
A F F
) )
AD − X C 2 − BD


µ ν ∇ν φ
− ∇ X∇ X q
F
φ̇2 A/F
r (
F g µν ∇ν φ 1  2
 µ
 2
 ∇µ φ∇ν X∇ν φ + X∇µ X
= √ − √ AB − Z(C − BD) X∇ φ + 2 AC + Y (C − BD)
A3 −X |φ̇| F A3 2
)
2
  µ ν
+ AD − X(C − BD) ∇ X∇ X∇ν φ . (A.1)

Using

∇ν X∇ν φ = 2φ̇2 φ̈ , (A.2)

 12

one obtains
(r
F 1 |φ̇| nh i h i h i
ūµ = + √ AB + 4 φ̇2 2
φ̈ (C 2
− BD) − AC + 2 φ̇2
φ̈(C 2
− BD) (2 φ̈) + 4 φ̈2
AD + φ̇2
(C 2
− BD)
A3 |φ̇| F A3
)
h io
2 2
−2φ̈ AC + 2φ̇ φ̈(C − BD) |φ̇| uµ

(r )
F φ̇2 h    i
= +√ A B − 2C φ̈ + 2φ̈A 2Dφ̈ − C uµ . (A.3)
A3 F A3

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