Decimal Points Using Metric and Inch Units

 when dimensions have numerals containing decimal points, the  PlacingMillimeterDimensions

decimal points should be uniform throughout the drawing. The following outlines the proper use of metric units on
 decimal should be clear and bold and in line with the bottom of the engineering drawings:
numerals. • The decimal point and zero are omitted when the metric dimension is a whole
 specified dimension in inches is expressed to the same number of number.
decimal places as its tolerance, and zeros are added to the right of the • A zero precedes a decimal millimeter that is less than 1.
decimal point if needed. • When the metric dimension is greater than a whole number by a fraction of a
millimeter, the last digit to the right of the decimal point is not followed by a
zero. This rule is true unless tolerance values are displayed.
• Plus and minus values of a metric tolerance have the same number of decimal
places. Zeros are added to fill in where needed.
• Metric limit tolerance values have the same number of decimal points. When
limit tolerance values are displayed on one line, such as 7.5–7.6, the lower value
precedes the higher value, and the values are separated with a dash. When limit
tolerance values are displayed stacked, the higher value is placed above the
lower value.
• When using unilateral tolerances, a single 0 is used without a 1 or 2 sign for
the 0 part of the value.
• Basic dimension values follow the same display rules as stated for other
metric numbers.
  PlacingInchDimensions - fraction bar should be drawn in line with the direction the dimension
The following outlines the proper use of inch units on engineering reads
drawings: - for unidirectional dimensioning, the fraction bars are all horizontal.
• A zero does not precede a decimal inch that is less than one. - for aligned dimensioning, the fraction bars are horizontal for
• A specified inch dimension is expressed to the same number of decimal places dimensions that read from the bottom of the sheet and vertical for
as its tolerance. Zeros are added to the dimensions that read from the right.
right of the decimal point if needed. - fraction numerals should not be allowed to touch the fraction bar.
• Fractional inches can be used, but they generally indicate a larger tolerance.
Fractions can be used to give nominal sizes, such as in a thread call out. Arrowheads
• Plus and minus values of an inch tolerance have the same number of decimal  are used to terminate dimension lines and leaders.
places. Zeros are added to fill in where needed.  three times as long as they are wide.
• Unilateral tolerances use the 1 and 2 symbols, and the 0 value has the same  all arrowheads on a drawing should be the same size.
number of decimal places as the value that is greater or less than 0.  do not use small arrowheads in small spaces.
• Inch limit tolerance values have the same number of decimal points. When  most companies prefer the appearance of the filled-in arrowhead.
limit tolerance values are displayed on one line, such as 1.000–1.062, the lower  filledin arrowheads look better and make the dimension easier to read.
value precedes the higher value, and the values are separated with a dash.
When limit tolerance values are displayed stacked, such as 1.062 Dimension Line Spacing
1.000, the higher value is placed above the lower value.  dimension lines are drawn parallel to the feature or object being
• Basic dimension values are not required to have the same number of decimal dimensioned.
places as their associated tolerance.  dimension lines should be placed at a uniform distance from the
object, and all succeeding dimension lines should be equally spaced.
 PlacingAngularDimensions  first dimension line should be a minimum of .375 in. (10 mm) from the
The following outlines the proper use of angular units on object,
engineering drawings:  the second dimension line should be a minimum distance of .25 in. (6
• Angular dimensions are established in degrees (8) and decimal degrees mm) from the first dimension line.
(30.58), or in degrees (8), minutes ('), and seconds (").  additional dimensions lines should be spaced equally, with the same
• Both the plus and minus tolerance values and the angle have the same space as the distance from the first to second dimension line.
number of decimal places.  in actual practice, the minimum distance is normally too crowded.
• Where only minutes or seconds are specified, the number of minutes or  drafters typically prefer a distance of .5–1.0 in. (12–24 mm) and a
seconds is preceded by 08 or 080', as applicable. spacing of .5–.75 in. (12–20 mm) for the following dimension lines.
 first dimension line is normally spaced farther from the object than the
Using Fractions spacing for additional dimension lines.
 Fractions
- not as common as decimal inches or millimeters. Relationship of Dimension Lines to Numerals
- are typically used on architectural, structural, and other  dimension numerals are centered on the dimension line unless
constructionrelated drawings. another placement is necessary.
- fraction dimensions generally mean a larger tolerance than decimal  numerals are commonly all the same height and are lettered
numerals when used on engineering drawings horizontally (unidirectionally).
- the fraction numerals should be the same size as other numerals on  a space equal to at least half the height of lettering should be provided
the drawing between numerals in a tolerance.
  The actual space between the numerals in a tolerance is determined by Direct Dimensioning
your CADD program, but some programs allow the space to be  is applied to control the size or location of one or more specific
adjusted. features.
 the numeral, dimension line, and arrowheads should be placed
between extension lines when space allows. Staggering Adjacent Dimensions
 always stagger adjacent dimensions when possible.
Chain Dimensioning - doing so helps clarity and reduces crowding.
 also known as point-to-point dimensioning - to accomplish this, the dimension numeral of some dimensions
 is a methods of dimensioning from one feature to the next. need to be offset from the center of the dimension line.
 each dimension is dependent on the previous dimension or
dimensions. Dimensioning Symmetrical Objects, Cylinders, and Square Features
 caution should be used as the tolerance of each dimension builds on - Both halves of the object are the same. Part of the right side is removed,
the next, which is known as tolerance stacking, or buildup. and a short break line is used to save space. Use this practice only if necessary
 the overall dimension is often a critical dimension that should stand because it can cause confusion if improperly read. If in doubt and if space
independently in relationship to the other dimensions. permits, draw the entire object.
 if all dimensions are given, then the actual size may not equal the given - Dimension cylindrical shapes in the view where the cylinders
overall dimension because of tolerance buildup. appear rectangular. The diameters are identified by the diameter
 potential tolerance buildup is three times .15, for a total of .45. symbol, and the circular view can be omitted.
 overall dimension has to carry a tolerance of 0.45 to accommodate this -Square features are dimensioned in a similar manner using the
buildup. square symbol
* If the overall dimension is critical, such a buildup may not be acceptable.
Thus, either one intermediate dimension should be omitted or the overall Preferred dimensioning practices
dimension omitted. The exception to this rule is when a dimension is given only  The following provides basic guidelines to follow when
as reference. A reference dimension is enclosed in parentheses. placing dimensions.
• Avoid crossing extension lines, but do not break extension lines when they do
Baseline Dimensioning cross.
 is a common method of dimensioning machine parts whereby each • Never cross extension lines over dimension lines. When there is no other
feature dimension originates from a common surface, axis, or center solution, break the extension line where it crosses over the dimension line.
plane. Never break a dimension line.
 Tolerance buildup is less likely to occur than when using chain • Break extension lines when they cross over or near an arrowhead, such as
dimensioning. when an extension line crosses a leader line near the arrowhead. It is not
 Baseline dimensioning is used when the size or location of features necessary to break the extension line in other cases. Your CADD drafting
must be controlled from a common reference plane and less tolerance application may not allow for breaks in extension lines. Confirm this with
accumulation is desired. your CADD instructions.
- each dimension in baseline dimensioning is independent, • Avoid dimensioning over or through the object.
reducing the possibility of tolerance buildup. • Avoid dimensioning to hidden features.
 symmetrical symbol is used shows that both sides of the object are • Avoid unnecessary long extension lines.
symmetrical when the object is too large to fit on the sheet and a • Avoid using any line of the object as an extension line.
portion is broken away. • Dimension between views when possible.
 short break line is used to represent the break. • Group adjacent dimensions.
• Dimension to views that provide the best shape description.  it is common to leave the center marks off small arcs and the arc center
• Do not use a center line, extension line, phantom line, visible object line, or a location is not dimensioned.
continuation of any of these lines as a dimension line. - this depends on the specific application and the company or
• Stagger adjacent dimension numerals so they do not line up. school preference.
* To save space, a break line is used in the leader and in the shortened locating
Dimensioning Angles dimension to indicate that the dimension is not in true length.
 angular surfaces can be dimensioned as coordinates, as angles in * A design can be created that has a series of tangent arcs. When
degrees, or as a flat taper . this is done, the curved outline made up of two or more arcs is
 angles are measured in degrees using the degree symbol. dimensioned by providing the radii of all arcs and locating the arc
 minutes are identified with the minute symbol ('). centers with coordinate dimensions.
 each minute has 60 seconds, identified with the seconds symbol ("). * Providing an arc length is an optional dimensioning application for an arc.
 in a situation in which an arc lies on an inclined plane and the true
Dimensioning Chamfers representation is not shown, the note TRUE R is used to specify the
 is a slight surface angle used to relieve a sharp corner. actual radius.
 chamfers of 45 degrees are dimensioned with a note, while other * dimensioning the arc in an auxiliary view of the inclined surface
chamfers require an angle and size dimension, or two size dimensions. is better, if possible.
 a note is used on 45 degreeschamfers because both sides of a 458  symbol CR refers to controlled radius.
angle are equal. - means the limits of the radius tolerance zone must be tangent to
- when placing the 45 degree chamfer note, the size is followed by the adjacent surfaces, and there can be no reversals in the contour.
the (X) symbol and then the 45 degree angle without spaces. - more restrictive than use of the R radius symbol where reversals
in the contour of the radius are permitted.
Dimensioning Conical Shapes  a spherical radius is dimensioned with the abbreviation SR in front of
 Conical shapes should be dimensioned when possible in the view the numerical value.
where the cone appears as a triangle.
 The circular view can be omitted because the base is dimensioned with Dimensioning Contours Not Defined as Arcs
a diameter.  an arc can be drawn without a defined radius in some design
 A conical taper can be treated in one of three possible ways. applications.
 another option is to place a series of dimensions on the object and
Dimensioning Hexagons and Other Polygons along the contour.
 dimension hexagons and other polygons across the flats in the views  additional dimensions are placed from a common surface to each of
where the true shape is shown. the previous dimensions.
 provide a length dimension in the adjacent view.  the dimension lines of the first set of dimensions are used as extension
lines for the second set of dimensions.
Dimensioning Arcs - this application is an option, but it is not as practical as other option and it
 arcs are dimensioned with leaders and radius dimensions in the views violates the rule of using a dimension line as an extension line.
where they are shown as arcs.  another option is the placement of a series of points along the contour
 the leader can extend from the center to the arc or point to the arc . and dimension the points using tabular dimensioning.
 letter R precedes all radius dimension values.  use of oblique extension lines can be considered when space is limited
 depending on the situation, arcs can be dimensioned with or without and the oblique extension lines clearly show where they apply.
their centers located.
Locating a Point Established by Extension Lines  counterbore note is normally stacked and uses the order of small hole
 If the sides of the object are extended beyond the bend, they meet at diameter, followed by the counterbore symbol and diameter, followed
the intersection of the extension lines. by the counterbore depth.
- this imaginary point is where the dimension often originates in  multiple counterbores are dimensioned in a similar manner.
this type of situation.  radius value can be specififi ed on the inside of the counterbore where
the side meets the bottom of the counterbore.
* NOTES FOR MACHINED FEATURES - this radius value on the inside of the counterbore can be put in
- Machined features such as holes, counterbores, countersinks, threads, the note following the depth or in a sectional view
and slots are commonly dimensioned using a leader connected to the feature
and a related note. Dimensioning a Spotface
 spotface is used to provide a flat bearing surface for a washer face or
Dimensioning Holes bolt head.
 hole sizes are dimensioned with leaders to the view where they appear  spotface is similar in appearance to the counterbore, except that the
as circles, or dimensioned in a sectional view. spotface depth is generally shallow, such as .06 in.
 when leaders are used to establish notes for holes, the shoulder should  the spotface symbol is also the same as the counterbore symbol, except
be centered on the beginning or the end of the note. SF is placed in the symbol.
 when a leader begins at the left side of a note, it should originate at the  the radius value at the bottom of the spotface can also be put in the
beginning of the note. spotface note.
 when a leader begins at the right side of a note, it should originate at
the end of the note
 Leaders can be drawn at any angle, but 45 degree is the preferred
angle.
 Leaders drawn between 15 degrees and 75 degrees from horizontal
are acceptable. Countersink or Counterdrill
* Do not draw horizontal or vertical leaders.  is used to recess the head of a fastener below the surface of a part.
 The diameter symbol precedes all dimensions for circular features.  the countersink specifications are designed to match the fastener head
 A hole through a part can be noted with the word THRU following the to be used in the application.
numeral, if it is not obvious that the hole goes through.  the order of elements in the note are hole diameter, followed by the
 If a hole does not go through the part, the depth must be noted in the countersink symbol, countersink diameter, followed by the by symbol
circular view or in section. (X) and the included angle of the countersink.
 It is not necessary to specify the machining process with the hole  counterdrill uses a smaller drill followed by a larger drill to a specified
diameter. depth.
 Holes are commonly machined with a drill that creates a conical point  the bottom of the larger drill has the 120 degree included angle of a
at the bottom of the hole. drill point.
 The conical drill end is drawn using a 120 degree included angle.
Dimensioning a Counterbore Dimensioning Multiple Features
 counterbore is often used to machine a diameter below the surface of a - when a part has more than one feature of the same size, the features are
part so a bolt head or other fastener can be recessed. dimensioned with a note specifying the number of like features.
 counterbore and other similar notes are given in the order of machine
operations with a leader in the view where they appear as circles. Dimensioning Slots
  slotted features can be dimensioned in one of three ways.  the hole centerlines are generally extended beyond the object where
 slot dimensioning practice is generally used when milling is the centerlines become extension lines.
desired machining process.  the location dimensions are commonly placed from a surface of the
part or from other features.
Dimensioning Keyseats and Keyways
 keyseats and keyways are dimensioned in the view that clearly shows Dimensioning Rectangular Coordinates
their shape by width, depth, length, and location.  linear dimensions are used to locate features from planes or
 sectional view is often used to expose the feature for dimensioning. centerlines.
* this method is referred to as rectangular coordinate
Dimensioning Knurls dimensioning.
 knurling is a cold forming process used to form a cylindrical or flat - rectangular coordinate dimensioning without dimension lines
surface uniformly with a diamond or straight pattern creating a knurl. can also be used.
 knurls are dimensioned with notes and leaders pointing to the knurl in
the rectangular view. Dimensioning Polar Coordinates
 A knurling process is dimensioned with the type of knurl, such as  angular dimensions locate features from planes or centerlines.
diamond or straight, and the diameter before or after knurling. - this method is called polar coordinate dimensioning.
* the diameter before or after knurling is omitted, if not required.  a linear and angular dimension is used to specify the feature location
 the knurl pitch or diametral pitch is also given in the note. from surfaces or centerlines.
- the pitch is the distance from the crest of one knurl form to the
crest on the next knurl form. Dimensioning Repetitive Features
- the pitch can also be referred to as linear pitch.  repetitive features are located by noting the number of times a
 the diametral pitch is a value found by dividing the total number of dimension is repeated and giving one typical dimension and the total
teeth in the circumference by the nominal diameter. length as reference.
* when dimensioning knurls that are decorative or used for gripping, * this method is acceptable for chain dimensioning.
such as a thumb screw, it is recommended to give the dimension and * if chain dimensioning is not acceptable because of possible
tolerance and state BEFORE KNURLING. tolerance stacking, baseline or direct dimensioning should be used to
 For knurls used to press fit into another part, the tolerance diameter of locate the multiple features.
the feature should be specified BEFORE KNURLING, and the minimum * with baseline dimensioning, each feature is dimensioned
acceptable diameter of the feature should be specified AFTER independently from a common surface or other feature and tolerance
KNURLING. stacking is reduced.

Dimensioning Necks and Grooves Locating Multiple Tabs in a Polar Orientation

 necks and grooves are used for a variety of purposes, including thread  locating multiple tabs in a polar orientation
relief at a fastener head, the assembly of an O-ring seal, or the insertion - this method also works for locating multiple slots in a polar
of a retaining ring. orientation.
 if the extension lines are not too long, it is possible to extend these Locating Multiple Features of Nearly the Same Size
dimensions through the object to the outside.  when repetitive features on an object are nearly the same size, they
can be dimensioned with an identification letter, such as Y.
Locating Holes
 locate a hole center in the view where the hole appears as a circle.
  there are two sets of holes that are close to the same diameter. It is  Reasons for using auxiliary views include the following:
impossible to distinguish the holes apart without individual • To find the true length of a sloping line.
identification. • To find the true size and shape of an inclined surface.
• To find the point view of an inclined line.
SPECIFYING DIMENSION ORIGIN • To look at the object in a different plane that is not one of the principal planes
 dimension origin symbol is used when the dimension between two so the object can be viewed differently or to start successive auxiliary views.
features must clearly identify from which feature the dimension  when a surface feature is not perpendicular to the line of sight, the
originates. feature is said to be foreshortened or to be shorter than true length.
- this method of dimensioning means the origin feature must be - these foreshortened views do not give a clear or accurate
established first, and the related feature is then dimensioned from the representation of the feature.
origin - it is not proper to place dimensions on foreshortened views of
. objects.
DIMENSIONING AUXILIARY VIEWS  allows you to look directly at the inclined surface so you can view the
 dimensions should be placed on views that provide the best size and surface and locate the hole in its true size and shape.
shape description of an object.  is projected from the inclined surface in the view where the inclined
 in many instances, the surfaces of a part are foreshortened and require surface appears as a line or edge.
auxiliary views to describe true size, shape, and the location of features - the projection is at a 90° angle from the view where the inclined
completely. surface appears as a line.
 dimensions should be placed on the auxiliary view for clarity when  the height dimension, H, is taken from the view that shows the height
foreshortened views occur. in its true length.
 in unidirectional dimensioning, the dimension numerals are placed - the auxiliary view shows only the true size and shape of the
horizontally. inclined surface, this is known as a partial auxiliary view.
* a partial auxiliary view is used because the partial auxiliary
view shows only what you need to provide the true geometry of
the inclined surface.
- the full auxiliary view shows the true size and shape of the
inclined surface and all the other features of the object projected onto
the auxiliary plane.
 projection lines are drawn as construction lines and should be on a
special layer that can be turned off or frozen when finished.
 hidden lines are generally not shown on auxiliary views unless the use
of hidden lines helps clarify certain features.
 auxiliary view can be projected directly from the inclined surface.
 When the auxiliary view is completed, one projection line remains
between the views to indicate alignment and view relationship.
 the projection line that you keep on the final drawing can be from a
corner or it can be a centerline that extends between views.
Auxiliary views  the projection centerline or projection line is often used as an
 are used to show the true size and shape of a surface that is not extension line for dimensioning purposes.
parallel to any of the six principal views.
  if view alignment is clearly obvious, then the projection line can be view and the width W in the front view. Connect the points to create the true
omitted. size and shape of the foreshortened surface, which is the desired auxiliary
view you are trying to establish.
Auxiliary view visualization
 multi-view and auxiliary view visualization can be difficult. View enlargements
 In some situations, you may need to enlarge an auxiliary view so small
Using the Mechanics of View Projection to Visualize and Draw Auxiliary detail can be shown more clearly.
Views  The two principal views are clearly dimensioned at a 1:1 scale.
 It is important to visualize the relationship of the slanted surfaces, - The 1:1 scale is too small to clarify the shape and size of the slot
edge view, and auxiliary view. through the part.
 If you have trouble with visualization, it is possible to establish the  A viewing-plane line is placed to show the relationship of the principal
auxiliary view through the mechanics of view projection by using the view to the auxiliary view.
following steps:  The auxiliary view can then be drawn in any convenient location at any
STEP 1 desired scale.
Number each corner of the inclined view so the numbers coincide from one
view to the other. Carefully project one point at a time from view to view. Some Drawing a removed auxiliary view
points have two numbers, depending on the view. When you look at a line from  When it is not possible to align the auxiliary view directly from the inclined
the end, the line looks like a point. When you see a point with two numbers, the surface, then a viewing-plane line can be used and the view placed in a
two numbers represent each end of the line in an end view. The first number is convenient location on the drawing.
the end point closest to you and the second number is the end point farthest  The viewing-plane line arrowheads maintain the same 3:1 length-to-width
away from you. The front view side of the fold line is labeled F, the side view ratio as dimension-line arrowheads.
side is labeled S, and the top view side is labeled T.  Viewing-plane line arrowheads are generally twice the size of dimension-
STEP 2 line arrowheads, so they show up better on the drawing.
With the corresponding points numbered in each view, draw an auxiliary  If the dimension-line arrowheads are .125 in. (3 mm) long on your
fold line parallel to the edge view of the slanted surface. The auxiliary fold line drawing, then make the viewing-plane line arrowheads .25 in. (6 mm) long.
can be any convenient distance from the edge view. Your line of sight for the  This depends on the size of the drawing and your school or company
auxiliary view is perpendicular to the edge view of the foreshortened surface. standards.
Draw projection lines perpendicular to the fold line to begin creating the  The viewingplane line is labeled with letters so the view can be clearly
auxiliary view. Project the points on the edge view perpendicular (90°) across identified.
the auxiliary fold line. Notice how the fold line is placed between the side and  This is especially necessary when several viewing-plane lines are used to
auxiliary view and labeled. The side view side of the fold line is labeled S, the label different auxiliary views.
auxiliary view side is labeled AUX. The vertical fold line (reference plane)  Place views in the same relationship as the viewing-plane lines indicate
between the front and right side views is used to establish the width and as if the auxiliary view were projected from the slanted surface.
dimensions.  Do not rotate the auxiliary.
STEP 3  Where multiple views are used, orient views from left to right and from top
Establish the distance to each point from the adjacent view and transfer to bottom.
the distance to the auxiliary view. Sometimes it is helpful to sketch a small  The views are labeled to correlate with their viewing plane, such as VIEW
pictorial to assist in visualization. You get the true width measurements from A-A for the first view, VIEW B-B for the second view, and VIEW C-C for the
either the front or top views. The front view is used, in this example, to get the third view.
width measurements. Measure the distance X from the fold line to the front  The title VIEW A-A uses a text height of .24 in. (6 mm).
  When this is done, a viewing-plane line is used to indicate from where the
LOCATING VIEWS ON DIFFERENT SHEETS view is taken, and the auxiliary view is placed in any desired location on
 the preferred method is to project the auxiliary view directly from a the drawing.
principal view.  The auxiliary view is rotated as needed and the angle and direction of
 Alternately, you can place labeled viewing-plane lines where needed and rotation is specified under the view title.
locate the related auxiliary view in another place on the same sheet.
 When using this method, each auxiliary view has a title correlated to the Using the Reference Arrow and Rotation Arrow Method
viewing-plane lines as previously described.  An optional reference arrow method can be used to show a removed
 When necessary, locate auxiliary views on a sheet other than where the auxiliary view.
viewing-plane lines appear.  This method was introduced into ASME Y14.3 by the International
 The method for doing this is called cross-reference zoning, and it is used to Organization for Standardization (ISO).
indicate the location of a view back to the viewing location.  When this method is used, a viewing arrow with a view identification letter
 The auxiliary view is located on a different page and is labeled with the points to the location from where the view is taken.
sheet number and zone of the cross-reference viewing plane.  The auxiliary view is then placed in any desired location on the sheet and
 ASME Y14.3 does not recommend a specific zone and page identification in the same orientation as the reference arrow. The view identification
system. letter is placed above the auxiliary view.
 The viewing plane and auxiliary views should have a note correlating each  An optional rotation arrow method can be used to show a rotated auxiliary
between sheets, such as LOCATED ON 2 ZONE B4 next to the viewing plane view with the reference arrow method.
on the sheet where the viewing plane is located, and SEE SHEET 1 ZONE A5 - When this method is used, a viewing arrow with a view identififi
next to the view on the sheet where the view is located. cation letter points to the location from where the view is taken.
 All sheets of a multiple-sheet drawing should be the same size. - The auxiliary view is then placed in any desired location on the
 Each sheet has the same drawing number or part number. drawing.
 The sheets also have page numbers. For example, if there are three sheets,  The view identification letter, rotation arrow, and degrees of rotation are
the first sheet is 1/3, the second sheet is 2/3, and the third sheet is 3/3. placed above the auxiliary view.
The format 1 OF 3, 2 OF 3, and 3 OF 3 can also be used.  If the rotation arrow points counterclockwise, the rotation is
 When a drawing has multiple sheets, the first sheet has the complete title counterclockwise.
block and other sheet blocks, including the angle of projection block and  The rotation is clockwise if the rotation arrow points clockwise.
dimensioning and tolerance block.
 Additional sheets can have same set of blocks, or they can have a SECONDARY AUXILIARY VIEWS
continuation sheet title block.  The auxiliary views described are called primary auxiliary views.
 The continuation sheet title block uses a minimum of the drawing number,  Primary auxiliary views are views that are adjacent to and aligned with a
scale, sheet size, CAGE code, and sheet number. principal view.
 In some situations, a feature of an object is in an oblique position in
DRAWING A ROTATED AUXILIARY VIEW relationship to the principal planes of projection.
 It is preferred to align an auxiliary view with its principal view - The term oblique means that the feature is inclined, slanted, or
when possible. sloped in the principal view.
 However, there is an option to rotate an auxiliary view when the normal - These inclined or slanting surfaces do not provide an edge view in any of the
auxiliary view placement takes up too much space on the sheet. six possible multiviews.
 To obtain the true size and shape of the inclined surface, a secondary
auxiliary view is needed.
 A secondary auxiliary view is projected from a primary auxiliary view.
 Secondary auxiliary view is defined as a view that is adjacent to and AUXILIARY VIEW ANALYSIS AND REVIEW
projected from a primary auxiliary view or from another secondary  The following is a review covering the features and importance of using
auxiliary view. multiviews, auxiliary views, and orthographic projection:
 The following steps can be used to prepare a secondary auxiliary view: • The multiview system, including auxiliary views, is covered in the ASME Y14.3
STEP 1 standard.
Only two principal views are necessary to use when creating a secondary • The two internationally accepted view projection systems are third-angle and
auxiliary view because the third principal view does not add additional first-angle projection. Both systems are discussed in this chapter, and third-
information. Establish an element in one view that is in true length. Label the angle projection is used throughout this textbook.
corners of the inclined surface and draw a fold line perpendicular to the true- • Multiview drawings represent the shape of an object using two or more views,
length elements. and there are six principal views: front, top, right side, left side, bottom, and
Note: You know a line is in true length when the adjacent view of the line is rear.
parallel to the fold line. • All views are aligned in either third-angle projection or firstangle projection,
STEP 2 and the appropriate third- or first-angle projection symbol should be placed on
The purpose of this step is to establish a primary auxiliary view that the drawing.
displays the slanted surface as an edge view. Project the slanted surface onto • Adjacent views must be aligned, unless otherwise specified.
the primary auxiliary plane. This results in the inclined surface appearing as an • Related views must be aligned, unless otherwise specified.
edge view or line in the primary auxiliary view. • There is always one dimension that is the same between adjacent views.
STEP 3 • The front view is normally considered the most important view from which
Now, with an edge view established, the next step is the same as the other views are established.
normal auxiliary view development. Draw a fold line parallel to the edge view. • The number of required views varies, depending on the complexity of the
Project points from the edge view perpendicular to the secondary fold line to object, and views must be selected to completely describe the shape and
establish points for the secondary auxiliary view. The primary auxiliary view features on the object.
established corners of the inclined surface as a line or edge view. This edge • A line in a view is in true length when the line is parallel to the projection
view is necessary; the perpendicular line of projection for the secondary plane.
auxiliary helps establish the true size and shape of the surface. • A surface of a view is in true size and shape when the surface is parallel to the
projection plane.
Using a Primary Auxiliary View in Place of a Principal View • A line in a view is foreshortened when the line is not parallel to the projection
 Previously, only the edge view of the inclined surface was shown in the plane.
primary auxiliary view. This was because showing the entire object in that • A surface of a view is foreshortened when the surface is not parallel to the
view would not have added any clarity to the drawing. projection plane.
 The only purpose for the primary auxiliary view was to establish the true • Auxiliary views are used to show the true size, shape, and relationship of
geometry in the secondary auxiliary view. features of a surface that is not parallel to any of the principal planes of
In many situations, both the primary and secondary auxiliary views are used to projection.
establish the relationship between features of the object. The primary auxiliary • A primary auxiliary view is one that is adjacent to and aligned with a principal
view shows the relationship of the inclined feature to the rest of the part, and view.
the secondary auxiliary view shows the true size and shape of the inclined • A secondary auxiliary view is one that is adjacent to and aligned with a
features plus the true location of the holes. In this application, the primary primary auxiliary view or with another secondary auxiliary view.
auxiliary view is much like a principal view because it shows height dimensions
and the true angle relationship between features on the part.
• Additional view placement options are discussed in this chapter and in • Select and sketch the other principal views in proper relationship to the front
Chapter 8 and include: removed views, rotated views, and detail views. Use of view, eliminating any unnecessary views.
these options should be confirmed with your school or company practices. • Sketch the auxiliary view or views in their proper positions.
• Establish the sheet size and the working area to be used.
DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY • Determine the approximate total drawing area.
 is used for determining issues such as finding the true lengths of lines, the • Lay out the views using construction lines.
end view of a line, the true size and shape of a surface or plane, the angle • Complete the formal drawing.
between two lines, the angle between two planes, the intersection between  Instruction on the development of views often focuses on the use of three
two planes, and the intersection between a cone or a cylinder and a plane. views, such as a front, top, and side view or a front, top, and auxiliary view.
 Descriptive geometry problems are solved graphically by projecting points  Although this view orientation is common, the actual view selection
onto selected adjacent projection planes in an imaginary projection system. depends entirely on the part you are drawing.
 Many parts can require a number of views that can include several
AUXILIARY VIEW LAYOUT multiviews and an auxiliary view.
 Working with auxiliary views is a little more complex than working with  The combination of views can even include a sectional view.
the normal multiviews.
 The auxiliary view is often difficult to place in relationship to the other INTRODUCTION TO SECTIONAL VIEWS
views.  Sectional views are also called sections, and the process of creating
 Sheet size requirements can cause the auxiliary view to interfere with sections is referred to as sectioning.
other views.  Sections are used to describe the interior portions of an object that are
 Whenever possible, it is best to project the auxiliary view directly from the otherwise difficult to visualize.
inclined surface with one projection line connecting the inclined surface to  Interior features that are described using hidden lines are not as clear as if
the auxiliary view. they are exposed for viewing as visible features.
 This arrangement makes it easier for the reader to correctly interpret the  It is also a poor practice to dimension to hidden features.
relationship of the views.  The sectional view allows you to expose the
 When drawing space is limited, it is possible to use the viewing-plane hidden features for dimensioning.
method or the rotated view method to display the auxiliary view.
 The advantage of the viewing-plane method is that it allows you to place CUTTING-PLANE LINES AND SECTIONAL VIEW IDENTIFICATION
the auxiliary view in any convenient place on the drawing.  The sectional view is created by placing an imaginary cutting plane
 Multiple auxiliary views should be placed in a group arranged from right to through the object that cuts away the area to be exposed.
left and from top to bottom on the drawing.  The adjacent view becomes the sectional view by removing the portion of
 A poor practice sometimes used by entry-level drafters is to place viewing the object between the viewer and the cutting plane.
planes all over the drawing and shift views from their normal position.  The sectional view should project from the view that has the cutting plane
 This practice should be avoided because the normal multiview projection as you normally project a view in multiview.
is always best.  The cutting-plane line is a thick line representing the cutting plane.
 You should follow the layout procedure described in Chapter 8 for  The cutting-plane line can be drawn using alternating long and two short
multiviews and for auxiliary views described in this chapter. dashes, or evenly spaced dashes.
 The following steps summarized creating a multiview and an auxiliary  The long dashes can vary in length depending on the size of the drawing,
view layout: but the short dashes are generally .25 in. (6 mm) in length.
• Select and sketch the front view.  The cutting-plane line is capped on the ends, with arrowheads showing
the direction of sight of the sectional view.
 The cutting-plane line arrowheads maintain the same 3:1 length-to-width SECTION LINES
ratio as dimension line arrowheads.  are thin lines used in the view of the section to show where the cutting-
 Cuttingplane line arrowheads are generally twice the size of dimension line plane line has cut through material.
arrowheads, so they show up better on the drawing.  are usually drawn equally spaced at 45degree but cannot be parallel or
* If the dimension line arrowheads are .125 (3 mm) long on your perpendicular to any line of the object.
drawing, then make the cutting-plane line arrowheads .25 in. (6 mm) long.  Any convenient angle can be used to avoid placing section lines parallel or
* When the extent of the cutting plane is obvious, only the ends of the perpendicular to other lines of the object.
cutting-plane line can be used.  Angles of 30 degrees and 60 degrees are common.
* Such treatment of the cutting plane also helps keep the view clear of  Section lines that are more than 75degrees or less than 15 degrees from
excess lines. horizontal should be avoided.
 The sectional view should be projected from and perpendicular to the  Section lines must never be drawn horizontally or vertically.
cutting-plane line and placed as one of the standard principal multiviews.  Section lines should be drawn in opposite directions on adjacent parts;
* If lack of space restricts the normal placement of a sectional view, the when several parts are adjacent, any suitable angle can be used to make
view can be placed in an alternate location. the parts appear clearly separate.
* When this is done, the sectional view should not be rotated but  When a very large area requires section lining, you can use
should remain in the same orientation as if it is a direct projection from the outline section lining.
cutting plane. Equally spaced section lines specify either a general material designation or
 The cutting planes and related sectional views should be labeled with cast iron and malleable iron.
letters beginning with AA. - This method of drawing section lines is common even if the part is made
 The cutting-plane line labels should be placed near the arrowheads. out of another material because the actual material identification is normally
* An option is to place only one identification letter at one arrowhead located in the drawing title block.
when a continuous cutting-plane line is used and the application is clear.  General section lines are evenly spaced.
 The text height for cutting-plane line labels and the correlated view - The amount of space between lines depends on the size of the part.
identification is generally the same text height used for drawing titles, - Very large parts have larger spacing than very small parts.
which is typically .24 in. (6 mm).  The space between section lines can vary depending on the size of the
 When the cuttingplane line has labels A on each end, then the sectional object, but the minimum space recommended by the ASME standard is .06
view has the related title SECTION A-A placed below the sectional view. in. (1.5 mm).
 When there is more than one sectional view on a drawing, the additional  The key is to represent section lines so their intent is clear and obvious.
cutting-plane lines and views are labeled BB, CC, and so on. Section lines can be omitted in the sectional view when drawing clarity is not
 The letters I, O, Q, S, X, and Z are not used for sectional view identification. affected.
 If there are enough sectional views on a drawing to use up all of the letters
of the alphabet, then double letters are used to label the cutting-plane lines Using Coded Section Lines
and related views, such as AA-AA, AB-AB, and AC-AC.  Coded section lines are used if you want to represent specific material
 The cutting-plane line can be omitted when the location of the cutting section line symbols in the sectional view.
plane is obvious.  Coded section lining can be used effectively when a section is taken
* When in doubt, use the cutting-plane line. through an assembly of adjacent parts of different materials.
 Cuttingplane lines take precedence over centerlines.  An assembly is a grouping of one or more design components.
- Components can include part models and sub-assemblies.
- This is also referred to as an assembly drawing.
.
Very Thin Features in Section  there is no line in the sectional view of a 2-D drawing indicating the change
 Very thin features, less than .06 in. (4 mm) thick, can be drawn without in direction of the cutting-plane line in the adjacent view where the
section lines. cutting-plane line is located.
- This option is often used for features such as the gasket. * This practice can be different when creating 3-D drawings or
- Although the ASME Y14.3 standard covering sectioning applications parametric models using CADD.
recommends omitting section lines in thin sections, some companies prefer * In this application, the CADD program may automatically create a
the practice of using solid fill on very thin sections. line representing the edge where the cutting plane changes direction in the
3-D sectional view.
FULL SECTIONS * When converting the 3-D model to a 2-D drawing, the CADD program
 is drawn when the cutting plane extends completely through the object, may automatically place a line in the sectional view where the cutting-
usually along a center plane as. plane line changes direction in the adjacent view.
 The cutting-plane line can be omitted when the relationship between views * If this happens, you may have to erase the unwanted lines or change
is obvious. the program setting to avoid having the lines displayed.
 It is normally best to show the cutting-plane line for clarity.
ALIGNED SECTIONS
HALF SECTIONS  Similar to the offset section, the aligned section cutting plane line staggers
 is used when a symmetrical object requires sectioning. to pass through offset features of an object.
 The cutting-plane line of a half section removes one quarter of the object.  Normally the change in direction of the cutting-plane line is less than 90
 The advantage of a half section is the sectional view shows half of theobject degrees in an aligned section.
in section and the other half of the object as it normally appears in  When this section is taken, the sectional view is drawn as if the cutting
multiview without section. plane is rotated to a plane perpendicular to the line of sight.
 The name half section comes from the idea that only half of the sectional  A cutting-plane line is always used when the cutting plane is bent or offset
view is sectioned. or when the sectional view is non-symmetrical.
 Notice that a centerline is used in the sectional view to separate the
sectioned portion from the unsectioned portion. UNSECTIONED FEATURES
 Hidden lines are generally omitted from sectional views unless their use  Specific features of an object are commonly left unsectioned in a sectional
improves clarity. view if the cutting-plane line passes through and parallel to the feature.
 The types of features that are left unsectioned for clarity are bolts, nuts,
OFFSET SECTIONS rivets, screws, rods, shafts, ribs, webs, spokes, bearings, gear teeth, pins,
 Staggered interior features of an object are sectioned by allowing the and keys.
cutting-plane line to offset through the features creating an offset section.
 The cutting-plane line for an offset section is generally drawn using 90
degrees turns where it offsets through the staggered features.
 Normally, the cutting-plane line in an offset section extends completely
through the object to display the location of the section clearly.
 A cuttingplane line is always used when the cutting plane is bent or offset  When the cutting-plane line passes through the previously described
or when the sectional view is non-symmetrical. features perpendicular to their axes, then section lines are shown.
 The portion of the cutting-plane line between offsets is drawn as an arc,
with the arc center at the center of the object. INTERSECTIONS IN SECTION
 When a section is drawn through a small intersecting shape, the true  The broken-out section is used when it is not necessary to section the
projection can be ignored if creating the fine detail takes too much time or entire view.
the detail is too complex to represent.  A short break line is generally used with a broken-out section to separate
 Larger intersecting features are drawn as their true geometry the sectioned area from the unsectioned view.
representation.
 The true projection is typically automatically displayed by the CADD AUXILIARY SECTIONS
program, and an accurate true geometry representation is provided when  A section that appears in an auxiliary view is known as an auxiliary section.
using 3-D modeling.  Auxiliary sections are generally projected directly from the view of the
cutting plane.
CONVENTIONAL REVOLUTIONS  If these sections must be moved to other locations on the drawing sheet,
 When the true projection of a feature results in foreshortening, the feature they should remain in the same relationship (not rotated) as if taken
should be revolved onto a plane perpendicular to the line of sight. directly from the view of the cutting plane.
 The revolved spoke shown gives a clear representation.  The use in this drawing is also an auxiliary section application.
 The true projection is poor practice because the spoke is foreshortened.
 The revolved web in the preferred view is clear and easy to draw. CONVENTIONAL BREAKS
 When using a 2-D CADD program such as AutoCAD, you can easily draw the  can be used when a long object of constant shape throughout its length
conventional revolution preferred by ASME Y14.3. requires shortening to fit on a sheet or for creating a partial view.
 If the CADD program provides true projection, the 2-D drawing can be  The actual length of the object is dimensioned, but a portion of the object is
edited to comply with conventional revolution standards by using removed.
commands such as ROTATE.  These breaks can be used effectively to save space on the sheet, to use a
 Some 3-D CADD modeling programs automatically display the true smaller sheet, or to increase the scale of an otherwise very long part.
projection, and an exact representation of the object is provided.  The short break line is commonly used in mechanical drafting and is used
- Although the true projection does not comply with ASME Y14.3 on metal shapes.
recommendations of providing conventional revolutions, it may be difficult  The short break line is a thick .02 in. (0.6 mm) slightly irregular line. In
for the CADD system to create a drawing other than true projection. Figure 12.33a, notice that the actual length dimension is given with a long
- Your 3-D CADD modeling program may provide two display options, break symbol placed in the dimension line to indicate that the feature has
such as projection and aligned. been shortened using a conventional break.
 The projection option provides the true geometry projection, and the  When used for wood shapes, the short break line is drawn as a thick, very
aligned option provides the preferred aligned conventional revolution irregular line.
practice.  The long break line is a thin line used to create a break on a large area.
 Most 3-D CADD modeling programs establish a parametric relationship  The long break line has a specific break symbol placed periodically
between the 3-D model and the 2-D drawing. throughout the length of the line.
 This parametric relationship means that any changes made to the 3-D  The long break symbol should be uniformly spaced with the distance
model or the 2-D drawing automatically affects the other. between symbols determined by the size of the drawing.
 The break line for a solid round shape is drawn using the specific symbol.
BROKEN-OUT SECTIONS  The shape width should be 1/3 the radius of the feature and should be
 A small portion of a part can be broken away to expose and clarify an symmetrical about the horizontal centerline and the vertical guidelines as
interior feature. shown.
- This technique is called a broken-out section.  Section lines are drawn on the solid round break to represent material.
 The break lines for a tubular round shape are drawn using the specific  Multiple removed sections are generally arranged on the sheet in
symbol shown in Figure 12.33e. The total shape width is 1/2 of the radius alphabetical order from left to right and top to bottom.
of the feature and is symmetrical about the horizontal centerline and  The cutting planes and related sections are labeled alphabetically.
vertical guidelines.  The only letters that should not be used for labeling sections are I, O, Q, S,
 Section lines are drawn on the tubular round break to represent material. X, and Z because they can be mistaken for numbers.
 When the entire alphabet has been used, label your sections with double
REVOLVED SECTIONS letters beginning with AA-AA, AB-AB, AC-AC, and so on.
 Using conventional breaks was introduced before revolved sections  Another method of drawing a removed section is to extend a centerline
because conventional breaks are commonly used in combination with adjacent to a symmetrical feature and revolve the removed section on the
revolved sections. centerline.
 A revolved section can be used when a feature has a constant shape  The removed section can be drawn at the same scale or enlarged as
throughout the length that cannot be shown in an external view. necessary to clarify detail.
 The types of feature shapes that are common with revolved sections are
extrusions, spokes, beams, and arms. Reference Arrow Method for Sectional View Identification
 The desired section is revolved 90 degrees in place onto a plane  An alternate technique for placing the cutting-plane lines is called the
perpendicular to the line of sight. reference arrow method.
 No cutting-plane line is used with a revolved section.  When using the reference arrow method for identifying sections,
 Revolved sections can be represented on a drawing in one of two ways. arrowheads point toward each end of the cutting-plane line, and the
 The revolved section can also be placed in the view with a portion of the section identification letters are placed at the ends of the cutting-plane line.
view broken away to create an opening for the revolved section.  The view title is placed above the removed section when using the
* When using this method, the surrounding space can be used for removed arrow method.
dimensions.
LOCATING SECTIONAL VIEWS ON DIFFERENT SHEETS
REMOVED SECTIONS  The preferred method is to project the sectional view directly from and
 are similar to revolved sections except they are removed from the view. perpendicular to the cutting plane.
 A cutting-plane line is placed through the object where the section is taken.  Alternately, you can place labeled cutting-plane lines where needed and
 Removed sections are not generally placed in direct alignment with the locate the related sections in another place on the same sheet.
cutting-plane line but are placed in a surrounding area.  When using this method, each section has a title correlated to the cutting-
 The cutting-plane line is labeled with letters such as AA for the first plane lines.
removed section and BB for the second removed section.  When necessary, locate sectional views on a sheet other than where the
 The cutting-plane line in Figure 12.39 is labeled AA, and the removed cutting-plane lines appear.
section is placed in any desired location on the drawing.  The method for doing this is called cross-reference zoning, and it is used to
 The title SECTION A-A is placed below the sectional view. indicate the location of a section back to the viewing location on a previous
 Removed sections are usually preferred when a great deal of detail makes page.
it difficult to use a revolved section effectively.  The sectional view is located on a different page and is labeled with the
 An additional advantage of the removed section is that it can be drawn to a sheet number and zone of the cross-reference cutting plane.
larger scale so close detail can be more clearly identified.  ASME Y14.3 does not recommend a specific zone and page identififi cation
 The sectional view should be labeled with SECTION A-A and the scale system.
placed below the view.  The cutting plane and sectional views should have a note correlating each
 The predominant scale of the principal views is shown in the title block. between sheets.