BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY

The concept of boundary layer was first introduced by L. Prandtl in 1904 and since
then it has been applied to several fluid flow problems.

When a real fluid (viscous fluid) flows past a stationary solid boundary, a layer of
fluid which comes in contact with the boundary surface, adheres to it (on account
of viscosity) and condition of no slip occurs (The no-slip condition implies that the
velocity of fluid at a solid boundary must be same as that of boundary itself). Thus
the layer of fluid which cannot slip away from the boundary surface undergoes
retardation; this retarded layer further causes retardation for the adjacent layers of
the fluid, thereby developing a small region in the immediate vicinity of the
boundary surface in which the velocity of the flowing fluid increases rapidly from
zero at the boundary surface and approaches the velocity of main stream. The
layer adjacent to the boundary is known as boundary layer. Boundary layer is
formed whenever there is relative motion between the boundary and the fluid.

By Newtons law of viscosity

Since the fluid exerts a shear stress on the boundary and boundary exerts an equal
and opposite force on fluid known as the shear resistance.

According to boundary layer theory the extensive fluid medium around bodies
moving in fluids can be divided into following two regions :

1. A thin layer adjoining the boundary called the boundary layer where the
viscous shear takes place.
2. A region outside the boundary layer where the flow behavior is quite like
that of an ideal fluid and the potential flow theory is applicable

Boundary Layer Definitions and Characteristics

Consider the boundary layer formed on a flat plate kept parallel to flow of fluid ,of
velocity U (Though the growth of a boundary layer depends upon the body shape,.
flow over a flat plate aligned in the direction of flow is considered, since most of
the flow surface can be approximated to a flat plate and for simplicity),
• The edge facing the direction of flow is called leading edge.
• The rear edge is called the trailing edge.
• Near the leading edge of a flat plate, the boundary layer is wholly laminar.
For a laminar boundary layer the velocity distribution is parabolic.
• The thickness of the boundary layer (δ) increases with distance from the
leading edge x, as more and more fluid is slowed down by the viscous
boundary, becomes unstable and breaks into turbulent boundary layer over a
transition region.
For a turbulent boundary layer if the boundary is smooth, the roughness projections
are covered by a very thin layer which remains laminar, called laminar sublayer.
The velocity distribution in turbulent boundary layer is given by Log law of
Prandtl's one-seventh power law.
The characteristics of a boundary layer may be summarised as follows:
• δ (thickness of boundary layer) increases as distance from leading edge x
increases
• δ decreases as U increases
• δ increases as kinematic viscosity (υ) increases
• τ decreases as x increases. However, when boundary layer becomes
turbulent, it shows a sudden increase and then decreases with increasing x
• When U decreases in the downward direction, boundary layer growth is
reduced
• When U decreases in the downward direction, flow near the boundary is
further retarded. boundary layer growth is faster and is susceptible to
separation.
• The various characteristics of the boundary layer on flat plate are governed
by inertial and viscous forces ; hence they are functions of either

Critical value of Ux at which boundary layer changes from laminar to

turbulent depends on
• Turbulence in ambient flow,
• Surface roughness.
• Pressure gradient
 • Plate curvature, and
• Temperature difference between fluid and boundary.
Though the velocity distribution would be a parabolic curve in the laminar sub-
layer zone,but in view of the very small thickness we can reasonably assume that
velocity distribution is linear and so the velocity gradient can be considered
constant.
Boundary layer thickness - δ
The velocity within the boundary layer increases from zero at the boundary surface
to the velocity stream asymptotically. Therefore, the thickness of the boundary
layer is arbitrarily defined as that distance from the boundary in which the
velocity reaches 99 per cent of the velocity of the free stream (u= 099U) It is
denoted by the symbol δ. δ is generally termed as nominal thickness of the
boundary layer. It is of 2 types: Hydrodynamic and Thermal boundary layer
thickness
The boundary layer thickness for greater accuracy is defined in terms of certain
mathematical expressions which are the measure of the boundary layer on the flow,
The commonly adopted definitions of the boundary layer thickness are:
• Displacement thickness (δ* )
• Momentum thickness (ϴ)
• Energy thickness (δe)
Displacement thickness (δ*) :
It is the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary by which the main/free
stream is displaced on account of formation of boundary layer
Or
It is an additional "wall thickness" that would have to be added to compensate for
the reduction in flow rate on account of boundary layer formation
Momentum thickness (ϴ)
It is defined as the distance through which the total loss of momentum per second
be equal to if it were passing a stationary plate. It is denoted by ϴ.
It may also be defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of
the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for
reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer
formation.

Energy thickness (δe)

It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid
body , by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction
in K.E. of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation.

Critical Reynolds number(Rcr) :at this point the boundary layer changes from
laminar to turbulent
REcr =5*10^5
Problems
1. The velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given by : 𝑢/𝑈 = 𝑦/𝛿
where u is the velocity at a distance y from the plate and u = U at y = δ, δ
being boundary layer thickness. Find
• The displacement thickness.
• The momentum thickness
• The energy thickness, and
• The value of 𝛿 ∗/𝛳
2. The velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given by:
𝑢/𝑈 = 3𝑦/2𝛿 − 1𝑦2/(2𝛿^2 ) , 𝛿 being the boundary layer thickness.
Calculate the following:
1. The ratio of displacement thickness to boundary layer thickness
2. The ratio of momentum thickness to boundary layer thickness
Solving boundary layer problems by dimensionless numbers

There are few dimensionless numbers which play a important role in the boundary
layer concept and to solve the problems related to the same. They are

1. Reynolds number(Re) : The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial

forces to viscous forces. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless
number used to categorize the fluids systems in which the effect of viscosity
is important in controlling the velocities or the flow pattern of a fluid.

2. Nusselt’s number(Nu): The Nusselt number is the ratio of convective to

conductive heat transfer across a boundary.

3. Prandtl’s number(Pr) : Prandtl number (Pr) is defined as the ratio of

kinematic viscosity to thermal diffusivity.

4. Grashof’s number(Gr): The ratio of the buoyancy to viscous force acting

on a fluid.
Boundary layer parameters for different velocity profiles
 1. Air flows over a plate 0.5 m long md 0.6 wide with o velocity of 4 m/s The
𝑢 𝛱𝑦
velocity profile is in the form. = sin [ ] . If ρ=1.24 kg/m3 and υ = 0.15 x
𝑈 2𝛿
10-4 m2/s, Calculate:
• Boundary layer thickness at the end of the plate
• Shear stress at 250 mm from the leading edge, and
• Drag force on one side of the plate.

Boundary layer thickness at the end of the plate

2.Air at 200 C and pressure of 1 bar is flowing over a square flat plate at a velocity
of 3m/s. If the plate is 280mm wide and at 560 C, calculate the following
parameters at x=280mm, given the properties of air at bulk mean temperature
(20 + 56)/2 = 38 0 C are ρ = 1.137kg/m3, υ =16.768*10-6 m2/sec
Cp=1.005kJ/kg0C, K=0.02732W/m0 C and Pr =0.7. Determine:

• Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness

• Thermal boundary layer thickness
• Local friction coefficient
• Average friction coefficient
• Shearing stress due to friction
• Local convection heat transfer coefficient
• Average convective heat transfer coefficient
• Rate of heat transfer by convection
• Total drag force on the plate
• Total mass flow rate through boundary
Air at 20°C and at atmospheric pressure flows at a velocity of 4 m/s past a flat
plate with a sharp leading edge. The entire plate surface is maintained at a
temperature of 400c.Assuming the transition occurs at a critical Reynolds number
of 5 x 105. Find the distance from the leading edge at which the flow in the
boundary laver changes from laminar to turbulent. At the location, calculate the
following:

• Thickness of hydrodynamic layer.

• Thickness of thermal boundary layer,
• Local and average convective heat transfer coefficients.
• Total drag force per unit width on both sides of plate
• Convective heat flow or loss from plate to ambient
Air at 300C flows over a plate at a velocity of 2.2m/s maintained at 900C . The
length and width of the plate are 900mm and 450 mm, respectively. Using exact
solution, calculate the heat transfer rate from

• First half of the plate

• Full plate
• Next half of the plate
The properties at bulk mean temperature are ρ = 1.06kg/m3, υ =18.97*10-6
m2/sec , K=0.02894W/m0 C and Pr =0.696.
Air at 200C is flowing over a flat plate of 200mm wide and 500 mm long.
The plate is maintained at 1000C. Find the heat loss per hour from the plate,
if the air is flowing parallel to 500mm side with velocity of 2m/s. What will
be the effect on heat transfer if the flow is parallel to 200mm side. The
properties of air at (100+20/2=600C) are ρ = 1.06kg/m3, υ =18.97*10-6
m2/sec , K=0.025W/m0 C and Pr =0.7.