Republic of Yemen

Ministry of Higher Education &

Scientific Research
University of Aden
Centre for English &
Translation Studies

The Translation of Culture-Specific Issues

In the English Translation

Of Zayd Muttee Dammaj's Novel

"ARRAHINAH"

Submitted by:

Abdul-Hamid Ahmed Ali Al-Ghadap

Supervised by:

Dr. Abdullah Abdul-Rahman Al-kaff

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Master Degree of Arts in English Translation

2013, A.D/1434, A.H

 Dedication

In the Name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful

To the spirit of my father, whose inspiration shines through every page of

this dissertation.

To my mother and step- mother.

To my dearest wife &

My little Kids: Rowa'a, Mohammed and Ahmed, whose patience and

accompaniment have been great comfort in times of distress.

ii
 Acknowledgements

This research will not have come into existence without the help of Allah and then

the support of my supervisor Dr. Abdullah A. Al-Kaff. Thus, I am very grateful to him

for his precious help and guidance throughout this dissertation, for his continual

encouragement, patience and constructive criticism that helped me to finish this study.

I would also thank my teachers for their constant encouragement during the MA

program: Dr. Anis Obadi, the Head of English and Translation Studies Center, Dr. Abu-

Bakr Al-Hamed, Dr. Tariq al-Saqaf and Mr. Mohammad Mousa.

Special thanks, also, to Dr. Abdul-Wahab Al-Maqaleh with whom I shared ideas

about the topic.

I would also thank my Sheikh Saleh Ahmed as-Shafaee and my Shiekh Abdulla

Abdul-Fatah al- Junaid for their prayer to me.

I would like to express my gratitude to the following friends for their help,

support and encouragement: Dr. Mohammad S. Obadi, the Vice-rector Assistant for

higher studies and scientific research, Aden University, also, Dr. Mohammad al-

Nidhary, Dr. Gamal Abdul-Ghafur, Mr. Mohammad Ali al-Dubaee, Mr. Mohammad

Shamlan, Mr. Khalil Taher, Mr. Ali Alawi and finally my cousin, Adeep M. Yassin.

Last but not least, I wish to express my loving appreciation to my darling wife and

my sons, who instilled in me the desire to obtain the Master Degree, and for their

prayer, patience, love and encouragement in times of distress.

iii
 Abstract

The title of this study is "The Translation of Culture-Specific Issues in The

English Translation of Zayd Muttee Dammaj's Novel "ARRAHINAH" with reference to

the translation of May Jayyusi and Christopher Tingley.

The study aims at shedding light on the cultural gaps that might represent some

difficulties when rendering from Arabic into English. Besides, it tries to study the

translation procedures, types and strategies employed by the translators in rendering the

aspects of culture-specific issues in general and in dealing with problematic areas in the

ST in particular.

For the purpose of this study, (100) items have been identified deliberately as

culture-specific items from the ST and the TT. They are systematically classified into six

categorized issues in separated tables adopting cultural and conventional expressions

including culture-specific terms, idioms, metaphors, proverbs, irony and poetry.

Relying on the distinction of the two key cultural strategies of Foreignization and

Domestication in addition to Newmark's procedures for translating the culture-specific

terms and Janet Watson's in her translation of the book entitled " Social Issues in Yemeni

Popular Culture" so called as "Musid and Musida"; the study reveals the way in which

culture-specific issues have been portrayed in the English version of the novel.

Based on the obtained findings, culture-specific terms, idioms, proverbs and poetry

significantly have represented the problematic areas among other issues. Although,

Newmark's translation procedures and Watson's recommended types and strategies of

translation have been employed thoroughly; foreignization has been used more as the

most persistent strategy.

iv
 Arabic Alphabet Transliteration System

The following Arabic alphabet transliteration system is borrowed from

Nielsen (1999) cited in Aghti (2005). It is used throughout this work to

transliterate Arabic items into Latin script.

Arabic Translit- Sound Arabic Translit- Sound Arabic Translit- Sound

alphabet eration as in alphabet eration as in alphabet eration as in
alif a ram zi z zeal qaf q Qater
‫أ‬ ‫ؾ‬ ‫ق‬
ba b bat siin s sing kaf k Kent
‫ة‬ ‫ـ‬ ‫ن‬
ta t tab shiin sh shall laam l Lamb
‫د‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ي‬
tha th thanks saad S salt miim m mark
‫س‬ ‫و‬ َ
jiim j jet daad D dart nuun n nasty
‫ج‬ ٌ ْ
ha h harsh Ta T tore waaw w word
‫ذ‬ ِ ٚ
kh kh loch Tha TH those ha h hand
‫ش‬ ‫ظ‬ ‫٘ـ‬
daal d dad ayn 3, 3a, eel ya y yet
‫ظ‬ ‫ع‬ 3i, 3u ٞ
thaal dh that ghayn gh Ghana hamza a , i, u ,
‫غ‬ ‫ؽ‬ ‫ء‬ 'a, 'i, 'u
ra r ram fa f far -
‫ؼ‬ ‫ف‬

v
 Table of Contents
No. Subject Page
Certificate
Dissertation Approval Sheet
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
Abstract iv

Arabic Alphabet Transliteration System v

Table of Contents vi
List of Tables xii
List of Figures xiii
List of Pictures xiii
List of Abbreviations xiv
Operational Definitions xv
CHAPTER ONE 1
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Statement of the Problem 1
1.2 Aim of the Research 2
1.3 Research Objectives 3
1.4 Research Questions 3
1.5 Research Methodology 3
1.6 Data Collection and Analysis 4
1.7 Dissertation Structure 5
1.8 Conclusion 6
CHAPTER TWO 7
I. Literature Review of Theoretical Issues Related to Translation 7
2.1 Language, Society and Culture 7
2.1.0 Introduction 7
2.1.1 Language as a Social Activity 7
2.1.2 The Concept of Culture 9

vi
2.1.3 The Relationship between Language and Culture 13

2.2 Translation and Culture 16

2.2.1 Translation 16
2.2.2 The Items of Culture-Specifics 17
Classification of Culture-Specific Issues into Cultural Categories and Sub-
2.2.3 19
Categories
2.2.3.1 Culture-Specific Terms 20
2.2.3.1.1 Ecological Culture 20
2.2.3.1.2 Material Culture 21
2.2.3.1.3 Social Culture 21
2.2.3.1.4 Religious Culture 22
2.2.3.2 Culture-Specific Idioms 23
2.2.3.2.1 Translation Strategies of Idioms 23
A Using an Idiom of Similar Meaning and Form 23
B Using an Idiom of Similar Meaning but Dissimilar Form 24
C Translation by Paraphrasing 24
D Translation by Omission 24
2.2.3.3 Culture-Specific Proverbs 25
2.2.3.4 Culture-Specific Metaphors 26
2.2.3.5 Culture-Specific Irony 28
2.2.3.5.1 Irony and Translation 29
2.2.3.6 Culture-Specific Poetry 29
2.2.3.6.1 Difficulties Associated with Poetic Texts 30
2.2.4 Conclusion 31
II. Literature Review of Empirical Issues Related to Translation 32
2.3.0 Introduction 32
2.3.1 Previous Studies on the Theories of Translation 32
2.3.2 Previous Studies on the Translation of The Hostage Novel 37
Conclusion
2.4 40

vii
CHAPTER THREE 41

Literature Review of the Translation of Culture-Specific Issues 41

3.0 Introduction 41
3.1 Translation Strategies, Types and Procedures 41
3.1.1 Venuti's Strategies (Domestication and Foreignization) 41
3.1.2 Watson's Recommended Types and Strategies of Translation 43
3.1.2.1 Literal Translation 43
3.1.2.2 Free Translation 43
3.1.2.3 Translation by Paraphrasing 44
3.1.2.4 Translation by Omission 44
3.1.2.5 Transliteration (Transference) 45
3.1.2.6 Verse Translation 45
3.1.3 Newmark's Translation Procedures 45
3.1.3.1 Translation by a More General Word (Superordinate) 45
3.1.3.2 Substitution 46
3.1.3.3 Cultural Equivalent 47
3.1.3.4 Componential Analysis 47

3.1.4 Distinction between Foreignization and Domestication Strategies 48

3.2 Cultural Gaps 49

3.3 Cultural Translatability versus Untranslatability 51
3.4 Approaches to Cultural Translation 53
3.4.0 Introduction 53
3.4.1 Sociolinguistic Approach to Translation 53
3.4.2 Culture-Based Approach to Translation 55
3.4.3 Cultural Dynamic Equivalence 58
3.5 Conclusion 61
CHAPTER FOUR 62
Research Methodology 62
4.0 Introduction 62

viii
4. 1 Research Methodology 62
4.2 Data Collection 64
4.2.1 Obtaining the TT 64
4.2.2 Obtaining the ST 65
4.2.3 Categorizing Culture-Specific Issues 65
4.3 Data Analysis 66
4.3.1 Analysis of the Translators‟ Treatments of Culture-Specific Issues 68
4.4 Conclusion 70
CHAPTER FIVE 71

5 Analysis of the Target Text with Reference to Culture-Specific Issues 71

5.0 Introduction 71

5.1 An Overview of the Novel „Ar-Rahinah‟ 72

Identification and Classification of Culture-Specific Issues into Cultural

5.2 73
Categories and Their Translation into English

5.2.1 Culture-Specific Terms 74

5.2.1.1 The Translators' Treatments in Dealing with Culture-Specific Terms 78
5.2.1.1.1 Ecological Culture Terms 78
5.2.1.1.1.1 Translation Procedures of Culture-Specific Ecological Terms 78
5.2.1.1.1.1.1 Cultural Equivalent 78
5.2.1.1.1.1.2 Translation by a More General Word (Superordinate) 79
5.2.1.1.1.1.3 Translation by Substitution 80
5.2.1.1.1.1.4 Componential Analysis 80
5.2.1.1.1.1.5 Translation by Transliteration 82
5.2.1.1.1.1.6 Translation by Omission 83
5.2.1.1.2 Material Culture Terms 85
5.2.1.1.2.1 Translation Procedures of Material Culture Terms 85
5.2.1. 1.2.1.1 Translation by a More General Word (Superordinate) 85

ix
5.2.1.1.2.1.2 Translation by Substitution 89
5.2.1. 1.2.1.3 Cultural Equivalent 90
5.2.1.1.2.1.4 Componential Analysis 91
5.2.1.1.2.1.5 Translation by Omission 93
5.2.1.1.3 Social Culture Terms 94
5.2.1.1.3.1 Translation Procedures of Social Culture Terms 94
5.2.1.1.3.1.1 Cultural Equivalent 94
5.2.1.1.3.1.2 Translation by Substitution 96
5.2.1. 1.3.1.4 Translation by Transliteration 97
5.2.1.1.4 Religious Culture Terms 99
5.2.1.1.4.1 Translation Procedures of Religious Culture Terms 99
5.2.1.1.4.1.1 Cultural Equivalent 99
5.2.1.1.4.1.2 Translation by a More General Word 101
5.3 Culture-Specific Metaphors and Idioms 103
5.3.1 Translation Types and Strategies of Culture-Specific Metaphors and Idioms 107
5.3.11 Literal Translation 107
5.3.1.2 Free Translation 111
5.3.1.3 Translation by Paraphrasing 113
5.3.1.4 Translation by Omission 116
5.3.1.5 Translation by Substitution 117
5.4 Culture-Specific Proverbs 118
5.4.1 Translation Strategies and Types of Culture-Specific Proverbs 119
5.4.1.1 Proverbs that Have No Direct Equivalent in the TL Culture 120
5.4.1.1.1 Literal Translation 120
5.4.1.1.2 Translation by Paraphrasing 122
5.4.1.2 Proverbs that Have Direct Equivalent in the TL Culture 124
5.4.1.2.1 Free Translation 124
5.5 Culture-Specific Irony 126
5.5.1 Translation Types of Culture-Specific Irony 127
5.5.1.1 Literal Translation 127

x
5.5.1.2 Free Translation 130
5.6 Culture-Specific Poetry 132
5.6.1 Translation Strategies of Culture-Specific Poetry 132
5.6.1.1 Verse Translation 132
5.6.1.2 Literal Translation 133
5.6.1.3 Translation by Omission 134
5.6.1.4 Translation by Cultural Equivalent 135
Identification and Distinction of Translation Strategies Employed in
5.7 136
Translating Culture-Specific Issues (Foreignization or Domestication)
5.8 Conclusion 139
Chapter Six 140
6 Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations 140
6.0 Introduction 140
6.1 Findings Related to Research Questions 140
6.1.1 First Research Question 140
6.1.2 Second Research Question 141
6.1.3 Third Research Question 144
6.2 General Findings 147
6.3 General Conclusions 154
6.4 General Recommendations 155
6.5 Suggestions for Further Researches 156
6.6 Concluding Summary 157
Bibliography 158
Appendix 1 163
Appendix 2 165
Appendix 3 166
Abstract (Arabic) 171

xi
 List of Tables
Table No. Subject Page
Table 2 -1 A summary of elements mentioned in the different definitions of culture 12
Table 4 -1 Parallel diagram for culture-specific terms analysis in ST and TT 67
Table 4 - 2 Parallel diagram for culture-specific issues analysis in ST and TT 67
Table 5 -1 Cultural sub-categories of culture-specific terms identified in ST and TT 75
Table 5 - 2 Transliteration strategy in rendering ecological terms 82

Table 5 -3 Mis-Transliteration in rendering the proper nouns of singers 83

Table 5 - 4 Transliteration strategy in rendering social terms 97
Table 5 - 5 Culture-specific metaphors identified in ST and TT 103

Table 5 - 6 Culture-specific idioms identified in ST and TT 104

Table 5 - 7 Culture-specific proverbs identified from ST and TT 118

Table 5 - 8 Culture-specific irony indented from ST and TT 126

The frequent occurrences of translation strategies employed to deal with

Table 5 - 9 137
identified items of different culture-specific issues

The frequent occurrences of foreignization and domestication strategies in

Table 5 -10 138
terms of numbers and percentages

Culture-specific issues and their classification into main and sub-categories (as
Table 6 -1 141
an answer to Q.1)

Table 6 -2 Translation problems in terms of numbers and percentages(as an answer to Q.2) 142
The frequent percentage of using foreignization and domestication strategies in
Table 6 -3 145
terms of numbers and percentages (as an answer to Q.3)

Table 6 -4 Inadequate translation to some culture-specific terms and idioms. 146

Table 6 -5 Transliteration strategy in rendering ecological terms 150

Table 6 -6 Transliteration strategy in rendering social terms 150

xii
 List of Figures
Figure No. Subject Page
Figure 3 -1 Domestication & Foreignization Movement. 42
Figure 3 -2 Procedures and Strategies Combined within Foreignization Strategy. 48
Figure 3 -3 Procedures and Strategies Combined within Domestication Strategy. 48
Figure 4 -1 Mechanization of Data Analysis. 69

List of Pictures
Picture No. Subject Page
Picture 5-1 The Different Parts of Janbia. 88
Picture 5-2 The Hilt and Blade of Janbia. 89
Picture 5-3 Jamanah or Coffee Pot. 92

xiii
 List of Abbreviations

Abbrev. Meaning
SL Source Language
TL Target Language
ST Source Text
TT Target Text
SC Source Culture
TC Target Culture
TS Translation Strategies
PBUH Peace Be Upon Him

xiv
 Operational Definitions

For the purpose of this research, the following terms shall have the following
meanings unless stated otherwise.

Term Description

Descriptive
A detailed examination without the researcher's comment.
analysis
Functional
A simple translation that clarifies the meaning of the SL text.
translation
Pragmatic effects The manner in which readers of the text respond to it. (E.g. sad, wonder,

surprise).

Inadequate A translation that does not fully recover the meaning and effect intended by the
ST. It refers to improper choice of strategies and rendition of these culture-
translation
specific items, selecting the inappropriate equivalents, into the target language.
Literal translation Word for word rendition that replaces individual SL words with individual TL

words wherever possible, and cling as possible to the SL word order in the TL.

Free translation Manipulating ST to achieve effectiveness in the TT within linguistic and

cultural norms of the TL. The translator replaces a social or cultural reality in

the SL with a corresponding reality in the TL.

Paraphrasing Replacing a word in the SL by a group of words or an expression in the TL that

explain a non-existent notion in the TL.

Source language The language translated from (Arabic).

Source text The Arabic version of "Ar-Rahinah" novel (The Hostage)

Target language The language translated into (English)

Target text The English version of Al-Rahina novel (The Hostage)

The author The writer of " Ar-Rahinah" novel i.e. Zayd Muttee Dammaj

The translators May Jayyusi and Christopher Tingley.

Transliteration Using TL alphabets to write SL lexical items.

xv
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTORY CHAHPTER

1.0 Introduction

Translation has become a very important means of communication and

information exchange between nations. In other words, translation is considered as the

forcible replacement of the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text with a

text that will be intelligible to the target language reader. On the one hand, translating a

literary work is bridging cultural gaps between nations and bringing people with

different languages closer to one another. Thus, the function of translation consists in

providing equivalence between the source text and the target text equivalence, if

possible, or in providing a suitable strategy to deal with this issue of equivalence.

Moreover, it refers to the similarity between items or expressions in the source text and

its equivalent or near equivalent in the target text. On the other hand, analyzing the

processes involved in translation exposes the complexity of the activity. Indeed, two

acts are involved in the process of translation: the act of comprehension and the act of

re-expression of what is understood, in another language. So it is important to analyze

the mechanisms of comprehension and re-expression to understand the process of

translation. Aghti, (2005:2) states that, "Various constrains are placed on the translators

to achieve equivalence between the source and the target texts and among them is the

translators' poor knowledge of the two cultures involved". So, analyzing translated

pieces helps to understand the strategies that are used to deal with some of the cultural

problems likely to be encountered in the process of translation.

1.1. Statement of the Problem

Culture-specific issues are thought to pose the most difficult problem in

translation. What makes them difficult to translate is the fact that they are well-rooted in

a particular socio-cultural context. Therefore, when they are transferred to a different

-1-
context, they may display some kind of translation resistance because they express

terms or concepts which may not exist in the target language culture. These terms or

concepts may be related to something abstract or concrete referring to a specific

environment, religious beliefs, social values and material items. In other words, every

linguistic community has its own specific universe, and the language it uses mirrors a

specific and distinct reality; moreover, the way people use language reflects their

attitudes, values and customs. Therefore, such cultural variety makes it difficult for the

translators to bridge the gaps that exist between languages since each language reflects

reality in its own way. That is why it is difficult to find exact cultural equivalent terms

or concepts which recall the same perception and reaction in two persons having

different cultural backgrounds. For these reasons, translating 'The Hostage' novel i.e.

Ar- Rahinah into English is not a simple work not only because it sketches the Yemeni

community comprehensively in terms of language during specific period of time i.e.

Imamate era, but also it presents a lot of cultural issues that need a special treatment to

convey them from the source culture into the target culture. This can not be performed

unless the translators have enough understanding about the Yemeni culture and the

target culture in all their aspects. Although, the culture- specific issues are many but we

will restrict our study to some of them.

1.2. Aim of the Research

On the one hand, this study is set to identify, classify, analyze and evaluate the

translation strategies used by the translators to handle the culture-specific issues in the

English version of Zayd Muttee Dammaj's novel "The Hostage" translated by May

Jayyusi and Christopher Tingley. On the other hand, accounting for the problems the

translators face when rendering the different aspects of culture-specific issues is taken

into consideration where translation is not only to transfer language but culture. As well,

the study of the importance of the cultural aspect of translation which requires careful

and skilful handling is the main motive for the present work.

-2-
1.3. Research Objectives

The research tries to:

A. Identify and classify the culture-specific issues in the novel.

B. Account for the problems that the translators have faced when rendering the

aspects of culture-specific issues in arRahinah novel into English.

C. Find out and evaluate the translation strategies the translators have used in

dealing with problematic areas in the ST.

1.4. Research Questions:

The research will attempt to answer the following questions:

A. What are the culture-specific issues that have been dealt with by the translators?

B. What are the problems the translators have faced in rendering aspects of culture-

specific issues in arRahinah novel into English?

C. What are the translation strategies used by the translators in rendering the

culture-specific issues from the source culture into the target culture and to what

extent the translators succeeded in conveying them?

1.5. Research Methodology

The present research deals with the translation of culture-specific issues and

strategies that have been adopted to deal with them. These issues will be tackled

through discussing the translation of Arabic culture-specific issues into English with

reference to May Jayyusi and Christopher Tingley's translation of Zayd Muttee

Dammaj's novel "The Hostage" (al- Rahinah) into English.

The research methodology of culture-specific issues in The Hostage novel is

based on an Arabic-English Parallel Corpus, obtained from the ST and TT, in order to

understand translation problems due to the particular features of cultures involved and

-3-
solutions provided through strategies used by the translators. The pairing of source

language culture-specific issues and their translation version is one way of evaluating

processes involved in translation activity. A parallel corpus is a valuable source of data

to illustrate cultural similarities and differences between the source text and its

translation. As this research is concerned with the issue of translating culture-specific

issues in the novel, a descriptive method is used. To account for the data, the

descriptive approach suggested by Toury (1995) is adopted. It can be used in the study

of translation processes and mechanisms involved in the treatment of the cultural issues

including strategies available to the translators, the choices they make between them,

and the constraints that may affect such choices. Thus, the evaluation starts with the

analysis and treatment of the culture-specific issues and then, deals with the translation

procedures and strategies that are employed by the translators, and ends up with an

attempt of an assessment of the effectiveness of these strategies in terms of achieving a

translation that is culturally equivalent to the source text.

1.6 Data Collection and Analysis

For the purpose of this research, 100 culture-specific items are identified and

systematically categorized into six categorized issues including culture-specific terms,

idioms, metaphors, proverbs, irony and poetry. They are put in parallel corpuses form

and analyzed to bring out which strategies have been applied. Furthermore, the

occurrence number of each strategy is presented in a quantity manner then converted

into percentage to identify the translation strategies more employed. J. Watson's

recommended types and strategies (2002), and Newmark's procedures (1988) in

translating cultural terms as well as Venuti's translation strategies (2001), i.e.

foreignization and domestication, will be taken in consideration.

-4-
1.7 Dissertation Structure
The research is composed of six chapters designed as follows:

The first chapter presents the introduction of the research, statement of the

problem, aim and objectives of the research. Besides, the research questions and

methodology in addition to data collection analysis have been dealt with.

The second chapter deals with the literature review related to translation. It is

composed of two parts i.e. theoretical and empirical one. The first part discusses the

theoretical issues that are relevant to translation such as language as a social activity, the

concept of culture and the relationship between language and culture. Moreover, it

includes the relevant literature about translation and culture and the concept of culture-

specifics. The classification of culture-specific issues into main and sub-categories will

be introduced in this part. They are categorized into six key issues i.e. culture-specific

terms, idioms, metaphors, proverbs, irony and poetry. Finally, the second part i.e. the

empirical one aims to review the previous studies on the practical translation related to

this study and on the translation of "The Hostage" novel with reference to Al-Maqaleh's

notes (2009).

The third chapter will deal with translation strategies and cultural gaps. In

addition, the cultural translatability and untranslatability will be handled. Finally, some

relevant approaches to translation will be presented i.e. sociolinguistic and culture-

based approaches to translation as well as the culture-dynamic equivalence.

The fourth chapter is devoted to present the research methodology, the way in

which the data will be analyzed by the researcher according to the sixth classified issues

shown clearly in the next chapter.

-5-
 The fifth chapter concentrates on analyzing the target text with reference to

culture-specific issues where a brief overview of the novel will be introduced; then, the

culture-specific issues in the novel will be identified and classified into categories and

subcategories. Besides, the descriptive analysis of the translator‟s treatment of cultural

issues will be introduced; also, the researcher tries to show, to some extent, Venuti's

translation strategies, Newmark's procedures and Watson's recommended strategies and

types that have been employed by the translators in order to overcome the difficulties

which they have faced during the process of translation of the culture-specific issues.

This chapter tries to find out the translation problems and evaluate the employed

strategies for translating the culture-specific issues in The Hostage novel into English.

At this point, the researcher will design summary tables to show the translation

strategies employed in a quantified manner.

The sixth chapter deals with the findings and conclusions of the research,

research questions will be answered in this chapter. Recommendations and a concluding

summary to the research will be presented.

1.8 Conclusion

This chapter tried to shed light on the aim and the value of this study; besides,

highlighting the nature of the novel being chosen. It also presented the research

methodology and its structure. The following chapter will deal with the topic and its

related literature in detail.

-6-
 CHAPTER TWO

I. LITERATURE REVIEW OF THEORETICAL ISSUES

RELATED TO TRANSLATION

2.1. Language, Society and Culture

2.1.0. Introduction

This chapter is divided into two parts i.e. the theoretical part and the empirical

aspects related to translation. The first part, of the chapter will show the relationship

between language, society and culture. It is important to relate society to culture in

order to understand how language works. Studying language in terms of its relation to

society reveals its social features. That is why, using language properly requires being

aware of social norms that govern its use. Thus, it is not enough to master language

rules to communicate appropriately because social norms influence the choice of

linguistic forms. Language use reflects people‟s patterns of thought and behaviour. This

illuminates the close relationship between language and culture. Also, the chapter will

present the definition of the word "translation" as existed in the various references and

its relation to culture and culture-specifics. Hence, the classification of Culture-specific

issues will be dealt with in this part.

The second part will give an account of the empirical aspects related to

translation including the previous studies on the practical translation in general and to

the translation of the "The Hostage" novel in particular with reference to AL-Maqaleh's

notes (2009: 120-122).

2.1.1. Language as a Social Activity

Language is a social creation. It encodes people‟s common experience of the real

world. Its main function is to communicate our everyday needs. The study of language,

-7-
in relation to society, helps to discover the social factors that affect people‟s use of

language. Aghti, A. (2005: 11) states that, "The use of a particular term or structure may

involve cultural values, e. g. a "lamb" may stand for innocence in one culture, but in

another culture it may not symbolize the same concept. In the Eskimos‟ culture, the

"seal" is used to refer to innocence; on the other hand, the color "white" may represent

purity and "black" evil in one culture, but they may not connote the same thing in

another culture". The meaning of a symbol is social in origin where meaning is given to

a symbol by those who use it. For this reason, language should be regarded, not only as

a set of linguistic forms, but also as a social product that constructs and reflects

knowledge of the world. Understanding and producing language is not only limited to

language forms. Other factors such as social situations, cultural presuppositions and

personal relationships influence the choice of these forms. Language must be

appropriate to the context in which it is used. A person needs to know social norms that

govern the use of language in order to be communicatively competent in a speech

community. Language as a social phenomenon makes it possible for individuals to

interact with each other in a society. The interaction would not be effective unless

language is used in an appropriate way, on the basis of social norms.

Hymes (1971: 10) states that, “There are rules of use without which the rules of

grammar are useless”. When the linguistic behaviour is observed in the various contexts

in which it takes place, differences are noticed in the type of language used. Thus, the

situational context determines the type of lexical items to be used. People who speak the

same language tend to share the same language conventions and any violation of these

conventions would result in confusion, misunderstanding or even communication

breakdowns.

-8-
 The language people use is an integral part of the environment and social

structure. It reflects all aspects of life of a particular speech community including

beliefs, customs, activities, objects, etc. This is what makes languages differ from each

other in what they express and represent. As people belong to different speech

communities, languages they use express different attitudes, patterns of thought,

behaviours and objects. Such differences make people understand things differently

with reference to their social background. Linguistic practices cannot be accounted for

without taking into account social aspects of language.

Levi-Strauss in Alessandro (1997: 337) says: "To say language is to say society".

This is illustrated through the function of language as a means of social interaction. The

study of language from a sociolinguistic point of view provides a deeper description of

how language works in society. It is not enough to describe the linguistic rules that

govern the use of language without extending these rules to cover sociolinguistic rules

or social conventions of language use. Investigating the social aspects of language helps

to understand better the social conventions of its use in concrete social situations.

2.1.2 The Concept of Culture

Culture is described as, "The arts and other manifestations of human intellectual

achievements regarded collectively… and the customs, institutions and achievements of

a particular nation, people or group,"(Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 2002). This

means that there is a collective cultural relationship between members of any given

nation or community reflecting their social norms. The classical definition of culture

concentrates on a number of culture features such as a social heritage, that is, all the

knowledge, beliefs, customs, skills, morals, traditions and language that are available to

the members of a society. Tylor's definition (1871) cited in Richards, (1957:16) is a

good example of this trend. He puts it:

-9-
 "Culture or civilization, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that

complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law,

customs, any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of

society".

This definition denotes one important feature of culture, which is its acquisition

through the society, which implies that culture differs from one society to another.

Besides, it focuses on the elements of culture, but as separated entities. Another

contribution to the study of culture is in the Applied Linguistic Dictionary (1985:94),"

The total set of beliefs, attitudes, customs, behaviors and social habits, etc of the

members of a particular society". More systematically, Newmark in Ghazala (2004:172)

defines culture as follows:

''Culture is the way of life and its manifestations that is peculiar to

community that uses a particular language as its means of expression''.

The values we have are based on our culture. Attitudes express values and get us

to act or react in a certain way toward something. There is no action without attitudes.

The behaviour of individuals and groups i.e. instinctive or indistinctive one, influences

the culture of the society. There is no culture in the society without people‟s behaviour.

Every culture has distinct characteristics that make it different from every other culture.

This manifests through people‟s distinctive system of behaviour patterns including the

way of life, feelings, attitudes, material artifacts, etc.

Katan (1999:17) also, defines culture as follows:

A shared system for interpreting reality and organizing experience … a

shared mental model or map… a system of congruent beliefs, values,

strategies and cognitive environments which guide the shared basis of

behavior".

- 10 -
 What is particularly appropriate in this definition is the use of the word "shared".

She explains it saying that," It has been referring to culture- specific elements".

Therefore, to understand culture, two kinds of symbols should be distinguished: the

referential and the expressive. Referential symbols are denotative; they are items or

objects that have a specific reference; they are instrumental. For example, “water” is a

referential symbol because it refers to something essential for life that everybody

knows. Expressive symbols, on the other hand, are connotative because they are open-

ended rather than specific and limited. For instance, the term “mother” means the

female parent of a human being or an animal. That is denotation, but the term carries

associations with: warmth, security, tenderness, comfort, love, origins etc. That is why

the term is used in connection with other things about which we are expected to

experience strong feelings, for instance, “motherland”''ٓ‫ط‬ٌٛ‫''ا‬.

Expressive symbols have a special importance for culture. A symbol invested with

connotation evokes responses that are personally meaningful, that is, the connotations

are experienced by the person with pleasure or disgust. For example, "home" is a more

expressive symbol than "house". "Home" refers to inside to connote security and

comfort. Likewise, the term, "Imam" may express more authority than "president".

Moreover, expressive symbolism expresses people‟s belongingness and identity through

sharing attitudes, concepts and outlook. Any human act, any object, however, simple or

complex, can have expressive meaning. A meal, a form of dress or haircut, a dwelling-

any of these may be rich in connotation. All cultural elements embodying material

artifacts exhibit a symbolic character. Cultural elements as symbols assume their

meanings in relation to other symbols within a broader context of a meaning system.

The interrelatedness of elements forms larger patterns and a cultural whole. That is why,

culture traits cannot be understood in isolation. Thus, culture includes everything that is

produced, and is capable of supporting shared symbolic experience.

- 11 -
 Based on what has been introduced, most scholars deal with the concept of culture

from the same social structure, way of life and human behavior as follows:

Scholars' Definitions
Elements of Culture
Tylor Newmark Katan COED1

Knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law,

√
customs and habits
The way of life and its manifestations. √

Beliefs, values √

Arts, customs, institutions and

√
achievements.

Table No. (1) A summary of elements mentioned in the different definitions of culture

Based on the different definitions of culture and the nature of The Hostage novel,

culture can be defined as a real reflection of all cultural aspects of Yemeni society

during specific period of time, i.e. the Imamate era, in terms of expressions.

1
(COED) is an abbreviation which stands for "Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 2002".
- 12 -
2.1.3 The Relationship between Language and Culture

Language and culture are interrelated to each other. Language is the main

communication tool among cultures. It is a representation and reflection of the cultural

contents and connotations. Culture, also, is the main centre of interest of language, and

it is the main source of all the changes and developments in the target language.

Ito and Nakakoji, (1995), cited in Qassem, M. (2010:18) states that, "Language

reflects the interests, ideas, customs and other cultural aspects of a certain community".

The items of a language manifest the culturally important areas, whether they are

religious, aesthetic, social or custom. Arabic, for instance, has a variety of names for

dates, camels, lions, horses, etc. while, Eskimo distinguishes between various types of

snow which reflect their environment :(softly falling snow, dry packed snow, wet

packed snow, powder snow, drifting snow, etc.) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary

English, (1995: 1362).

Most of the time, items that exist in different cultures may have different

functions and meanings as well. Thus, translation between languages that are culturally

unrelated is more difficult than translation between culturally related or similar

languages. This also, does not imply that translation between languages that are

culturally related or similar is a straight forward process. On the contrary, it may cause

serious pitfalls for translators. Examples of this can be taken from rendering the French

item "alcohol" into English by "alcohol", which should be rendered as "spirits", simply

because French wine does not contain alcohol.

It is quite true that members of the same speech community, who use the same

language, tend to share the same outlook of life. The shared experiences shape the way

they understand the world. Language serves for the expression of people‟s experiences,

preoccupations and needs. Any linguistic community has its particular universe which

- 13 -
determines its particular culture and activities including linguistic ones. Each culture

has its specificities which make it different from other cultures. When a language is

spoken, a reference is made to what makes up that culture. Lexical distinctions express

socio-cultural characteristics of a linguistic group. Culture influences both behaviour

and psychological processes on which it rests. People‟s culture is reflected by the

language they use. The way people behave linguistically in a particular situation is

affected by their own culture. For example, in English there are different expressions to

reply to "thanks" showing willingness to be helpful such as: not at all, don‟t mention it,

that‟s all right, it‟s a pleasure, you‟re welcome, etc, but in standard Arabic "thanks" are

replied to by saying " ‫اخة‬ٚ ٍٝ‫[ "ال شىش ع‬laa shukra alaa waajib] (no thanks for a duty) or

" ‫ا‬ٛ‫[ "عف‬3afwan] (willingly and spontaneously), depending on the situation. This example

illustrates the fact that different languages do not have equivalent linguistic structures to

respond to a given situation. Arabic, for instance, has many items to denote the distinct

types of horses like " ْ‫[ "حصا‬hiSaan] (male horse), it is a derivated term from ''bastion''

" ٓ‫[ "حِص‬hiSn] to defend, " ‫[ "فشط‬faras] (female horse ), " ‫اد‬ٛ‫[ "خ‬jawaad] ( race horse ),

" ُ٘‫[ "اد‬adham] (male or female completely black horse ) to attack, and " ‫'[ " أغش‬aghar]

(male or female horse with a white patch on the forehead ), " ‫د‬١ّ‫[ "و‬kumayt] ( male or

female black and red horse). Aghti, (2005: 13).

It may be noticed that in Arabic the distinction between the different types of

horse is based mainly on color and sex. On the other hand, in English, the distinction is

made with reference to the age and sex of the horse, "filly": female foal, "foal": young

horse, "stallion": uncastrated fully-grown male horse kept for breeding, "colt": young

male horse up the age of 4 or 5, "mare": female horse.

Language is viewed as a cultural practice by anthropological linguists because it

represents culture, namely, terms refer to culture, as the beliefs and practices of a

- 14 -
society. Linguistic expressions are representations of an external reality; and hence, a

society's language is an aspect of its culture. Language represents culture because

specific terms refer to culture including the beliefs and practices of a society. They

express cultural features. A language is always a part of a culture and the meaning of

any text refers directly or indirectly to the corresponding culture. As a result of that a

culture-specific term only has a meaning in terms of the corresponding culture. It is true

that one could not really understand another culture without having direct access to its

language in which knowledge serves as an important means to a full understanding of

the customs and beliefs of the people who speak that language.

At the same time, the ways in which the world is divided up by different speech

communities are often culturally-specific. Fowler in Evelyn and Brown (1985:116)

states that, "The vocabulary of a language could be considered a kind of lexical map of

the preoccupations of a culture". That is to say that language is tied to culture-specifics

where the members of the same linguistic group can make sense out of them. This

explains why we find differences in the level of specialization forms. For example,

Arabic may say more to express the idea of love such as ( ‫[ )عشك‬3ishq] (desire), " َ‫"غشا‬

[gharaam ] (passion), " ‫ق‬ٛ‫[ " ش‬shawq] (strong desire), " ٜٛ٘" [hawaa] (vivid inclination),

" َ‫ا‬١٘" [hayaam] (fond in love ), though all deal broadly with the same meaning, they

express love in different degrees.

Consequently, because of the close relationship between language and culture,

translation cannot be regarded as a pure linguistic operation. However, it is rather a

cross-cultural practice involving re-contextualization. Hence, the next part of this

chapter will present the definition of the word "translation" and its relation to culture-

specific issues as existed in the various books and journals.

- 15 -
2.2 Translation and Culture

2.2.1 Translation

The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1995: 1538) defines the word

translation as, "The changing of (speech or writing) from one language to another, or

one form into another", while, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current

English (2000) defines translation as, "The changing (speech or writing) from

something spoken or written into another language".

Gideon Toury (1995:200) states that, ''Translation is a kind of activity which

inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions''. Bell (1991:5)

defines translation as, '' The expression in another language (the target language) of

what has been expressed in another (the source language), preserving semantic and

stylistic equivalence''. He goes on by giving another definition of translation i.e.

"Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a

representation of an equivalent text in a second language'' (ibid, pp.5-6).

Lawrence Venuti (1995: 17) defines translation as, "A process by which the chain

of signifiers that constitutes the source-language text is replaced by a chain of signifiers

in the target language which the translator provides on the strength of an interpretation".

He also sees that the aim of translation is to bring back a cultural other as the same, the

recognizable, even the familiar; and this aim always risks a wholesale domestication of

the foreign text, often in highly self conscious projects, where translation serves an

appropriation of foreign cultures for domestic agendas, cultural, economic, and

political'' (Venuti, L. 1995:18). What is significant in Venuti's view is that the

possibility of translation is established by its relationship to the cultural and social

conditions under which the translation is produced and read where a foreign text is the

site of many different semantic possibilities that are fixed, only with reservations, in any
- 16 -
one translation on the basis of varying cultural assumptions and interpretive choices in

specific social situations and during different historical periods.

2.2.2 The Items of Culture-Specifics

Cultural terms or cultural-bound words may cause translation problems due to a

number of reasons. Baker (1992, 21) enumerates eleven types of translation problems,

one of them being culture-specific concepts. Other scholars use different terms to

denote this notion. Newmark (1988: 94), for instance, refers to culture-specific items as

cultural items. All these labels cover specific objects which may be defined as words,

lexical units or combinations of words denoting objects, concepts and characteristics of

the way of life, the culture, and the social and historical development of one nation alien

to another.

Hence, the culture-specific terms refer to those words which are specific to a

language culture. These items may not have the same value when they are taken out of

their socio-cultural context. The term of culture concerns references which are culturally

significant because they reflect the interests, ideas, customs, and other cultural aspects

of a certain community. Generally speaking, all lexical units and proper nouns are

potentially "culture-specific terms" because they are used by members of a culture to

communicate and talk about the world in a particular way. We correctly give “wedding

"as the English equivalent of “ ‫[ ”صفاف‬zifaf] but the two terms are quite different because

they conjure up different images in Britain and any Arab country. For example, in Arab

countries [zifaf] is done within a social habits and religious rules that should be

respected by the whole such as making a party for the bride which may take about four

to five days before and after the wedding; however, this does not happen for the British

bride. If translation requires an in-depth knowledge of source and target language, the

identification of culture-specific terms requires sufficient knowledge of source and

- 17 -
target cultures to be aware of the meaning of certain references. It is important to ask

whether the reference is understood in both cultures, and if so, whether it is understood

in the same way. If the answer of these two questions is no, the reference should be

noted as "a culture-specific term" within the context of that particular language.

Whenever there is a cultural difference, the term would qualify as a culture-specific

term. The terms for local handicrafts, materials, types of food, clothes, geographical or

environmental elements and festivals are cultural terms. For instance, the term “ ‫ح‬١‫”خّث‬

[jambiya] (a curved dagger worn as part of traditional costumes in Yemen), has not a

corresponding term in English, so it is a culture-specific term.

Culture-specific terms may be of different types. The first concerns terms which

refer to aspects of culture. For example, the term “flat cap” denotes a type of covering

for the head, but for a British person it also connotes a stereotype of the English

working-class man, who is popularly depicted wearing one. Thus, people‟s culture is

reflected through their dress, food and other practices. However, the second type

concerns terms referring to objects, institutions, etc. which are perceived as being a

connected part of the cultural fabric of a country and which do not exist elsewhere. A

bilingual dictionary can help, to some extent, the user understand these terms by

providing brief approximate equivalents. Accordingly, cultural or historical

connotations that these terms may carry cannot be conveyed through a simple

definition.

By and large, culture-specific issues including the culture-specific terms are of

many types, so, for the purpose of this study, we have to classify them into cultural

categories and sub-categories.

- 18 -
2.2.3 Classification of Culture-Specific Issues into Cultural Categories and

Sub-Categories

Newmark (1988:32) puts that, "The chief difficulties in translating are lexical, not

grammatical i.e. words, collocations, and fixed phrases or idioms; these include

neologisms and'' unfindable'' words".

The culture-specific issues are those concepts i.e. terms, idioms, metaphors,

proverbs and even irony and poetry which are specific to a language culture. They

denote any material, social, religious and emotional expressions that can be attributed to

a particular community. Baker (1992: 21) calls them '' culture-specific concepts''. She

states that:

"The source language item may express a concept which is totally

unknown in the target language. The concept in question may be abstract

or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or even a

type of food".

Culture-specific issues are classified into six main categories as follows:

1. Culture-specific terms. They are sub-categorized as follows:

A. Ecological culture terms.

B. Material culture terms.

C. Social culture terms.

D. Religious culture terms.

2. Culture-specific idioms.

3. Culture-specific metaphors.

4. Culture-specific proverbs.

5. Culture-specific irony.

6. Culture-specific poetry.

- 19 -
2.2.3.1 Culture-Specific Terms

Following Newmark in Ghazala (2004: pp: 172-173), there are five major sub-

categories of culture-specific terms i.e. ecology, material culture, social culture,

religious culture and gestures and habits; however, the researcher in this study excludes

the last sub-category i.e. gestures and habits because of the fact that they come with

culture-specific irony. The sub-categories of culture-specific terms are as follows:

2.2.3.1.1 Ecological Culture

Ecology related terms refer to plants, animals, local winds, mountains, plains, ice,

etc. Every culture is related to a particular environment and it has its own way of

expressing things existing in that environment. When two cultures are involved in

translation, it is likely to find things that exist in one culture and do not exist in another.

Within the different cultural frameworks, ecological terms display different features and

shades of meaning when used by people belonging to various speech communities.

The ecological culture is a major barrier in translation. One term might have

different meanings because of different ecological environments. In different nation's

mentalities, the same item will have totally different meanings in two different cultures.

A missionary who is preaching Christianity for the Eskimo will find a difficulty , or let

us say , impossibility when he translates a piece of the bible that has the word "lamb",

simply because the Eskimo are not familiar with that word. A translator of English-

Arabic or Arabic-English may face problematic situations in translation due to

ecological based idioms and expressions. Some Arabic expressions that are associated

with cold, as a climate feature, reflect favorable connotations. For example, the

equivalent ecological English expression of the Arabic " ٓ١‫"لؽح اٌؼ‬, which means literally

the "coolness of the eye", must have something related to warmth when rendering it into

English. Another example that shows the cultural difference between languages is the

- 20 -
Arabic sentence " ‫ثٍح اًٌعؼ‬٠ ‫ "ضجؽ‬which literally means “news that freezes the heart”,

meaning good or happy news. The rendering of this sentence into English might be

"news that warms the cockles of heart". If that sentence is translated by an

inexperienced translator, it would convey a very bad situation, because freezing the

heart in English is very bad.

2.2.3.1.2 Material Culture

Material culture refers to the terms of artifacts such as food, clothes, drinks,

housing, transport, communications, etc. and other objects that people use in their daily

life. These may differ from one community to another. It is possible that material things

that exist in one society may not exist in another. There are some terms related to the

material culture of a particular people whose translation into the language of some other

people is problematic e.g. the terms “ ‫[ ”خّٕخ‬Jamanah] and “ ‫[ ”نؽنف‬sharshaf] are

common items in the Yemeni culture. It is necessary to add, when we translate these

terms, some background information for the TL readers because they might not be

familiar with them.

2.2.3.1.3 Social Culture

Social culture includes people‟s attitudes towards things that distinguish

communities from each other. People tend to have different world views and outlooks

and this makes them perceive things in different ways. Every member of a community

tries to conform to the customs and beliefs of the community to which he belongs;

otherwise, he would be rejected. Many social terms do not mean the same thing for

people with different cultures. Let us take an example about the different expressions in

greeting and apologizing. Indians, when they greet, they put the palms of their hands

together in a vertical way in front of the chest, or they touch the feet of old people as a

sign of respect and gratitude. When an Indian wants to apologize for stepping on

- 21 -
someone‟s foot, he touches that man‟s leg with his hand and then puts his hand on his

head. In other societies, that might appear as humiliating. So the translator should be

aware, when translating, of these customs and traditions.

2.2.3.1.4 Religious Culture

Bassenett and Lefevere (1990:14) state that, "Translation is not made in a vacuum.

It functions in a given culture at a given time''. This means that there are many factors

that work together to influence the process of translation. Religion is one of these

factors. It is one of the most complicated areas in the field of translation since religious

beliefs and rituals often differ dramatically from one religion to another. As a matter of

fact, what is allowed in one religion might be a taboo in another.

Religion has deep roots in people‟s culture and it influences their behaviours and

actions. Differences in religion often lead to variations in the concepts and beliefs

people have and affects their choices of words. For that reason, one religion may bring

about a register of words that is completely different from the one in another religion.

When translating, the absence of correspondence between these words in different

languages may cause the translator to interpret them with reference to his own religion

and scheme of thought; this in turn results in inadequacies in translation.

Let us take an example from English and try to render it into Arabic: the English

term "Good Friday" does not have a good or happy connotation, as it appears to the

Christian. On the contrary, it refers to that Friday in which Jesus Christ was crucified. It

is rendered into Arabic as َ‫" خّؼخ االال‬Friday of pains" or ‫ّخ‬١‫"اٌدّؼخ اٌؼظ‬great Friday".

Another example of English is "Adam‟s apple". It is rendered as " َ‫ "رفبزخ اظ‬in Arabic.

However, this term is originated from the Bible, when God discovered that Adam and

Eve had eaten the forbidden fruit, He punished Adam by letting the fruit stuck in his

throat. Therefore “Adam‟s apple” refers to the lump on the front of throat in the western

- 22 -
culture. Giving the literal meaning of these terms is not enough in the process of

translation because, in Islam, this term has a different denotative and connotative

meaning as in the following Aya: " ‫ّب‬ٙ‫ار‬ٛ‫ّب س‬ٌٙ ‫"فٍّب رالب اٌشجشح ثذد‬, translated as, " Then

when they tasted from the tree, that which was hidden from them of their shame (private

parts) became manifest to them […]". Surah 7, Al-A'raf, Part: 8, Ayya: 22. (al-Hilali &

Khan, 1982:202).

2.2.3.2 Culture-Specific Idioms

An idiom is "An expression whose meaning is different from the meaning of

individual items". (Macmillan Essential Dic. 2003:352). "Idioms carry meanings which

can not be inferred from their individual components", Baker, (1992:63). In another

work, Baker, cited in (Barakat, 2008:46) is of the following opinion:

"The main problems that the idiomatic […] expressions pose in

translation relate to two main areas: the ability to recognize and

interpret them correctly; and the difficulties involved in rendering

the various aspects of meaning that an idiom […] conveys into the

TL".

2.2.3.2.1 Translation Strategies of Idioms

Baker (1992:71-77) introduces a number of translation strategies for translating

idioms. They are as follows:

A. Using an Idiom of Similar Meaning and Form

The translator resorts to use an idiom in the target language which conveys the

meaning of the source text idiom using the same lexical items, "Turn head over heel",

"‫ ػمت‬ٍٝ‫ؼ ؼاقبً ػ‬ِٛ‫"لٍت األ‬. However, this kind of equivalent is rarely to happen.

- 23 -
B. Using an Idiom of Similar Meaning but Dissimilar Form

This strategy involves the use of a TL idiom that expresses the same meaning of

SL idiom but consists of different lexical items. This strategy works with many idioms,

e.g. ''read [one's] mind'', ''ٖ‫مؽأ افىبؼ‬٠''.

C. Translation by Paraphrasing

Baker (1992:74) states that:

"This is by far the most common way of translating idioms when a

match can not be found in the target language or when it seems

inappropriate to use idiomatic language in the target text because of

differences in stylistic preferences of the source and target languages".

For example, "to shut the stable door when the horse has bolted", can be rendered into

Arabic as "ْ‫ا‬ٚ‫اد األ‬ٛ‫"ثؼع ف‬.

D. Translation by Omission

The translator may resort to this strategy when an idiom has no close match in

the target language, its meaning can not be easily paraphrased, or for stylistic reasons.

For example,

.‫غبً ثبٌسٕب‬ٛ‫خ فمع وبْ ًِج‬١ٌ‫خ ٘ال‬٠‫نبؼة اٌّطزبي ثعٕزش‬

ٖ ‫ أِب‬.ٓ‫ك اٌػل‬١ٍ‫ع ز‬١‫ز‬ٌٛ‫ وبْ ا‬-

- He was the only man without a beard, and his proud mustache was dyed with henna.

The expression " ‫خ‬١ٌ‫خ ٘ال‬٠‫ "عٕزش‬has no equivalent in the TL, so, it can not be

rendered easily into the TL.

- 24 -
2.2.3.3 Culture-Specific Proverbs

A proverb is ''A short well-known statement that gives practical advice about life''.

(Macmillan Essential Dic. 2003:560). Proverbs are vehicles of nation's wisdom and this

wisdom is conveyed in a concentrated and communicable form. They summarize the

experience of the older generations regarding many aspects of life.

Bakella (1948) cited in Qassem (2010:48) defines a proverb as, '' An

epigrammatic saying presenting a well-known truth that is popular and familiar to all. It

is used colloquially and set forth in a guise of metaphor and in the form of a rhyme and

sometimes alliterative''. According to Shunnaq, A. (1993:52), "In translating proverbs

from Arabic to English, the translator should give them special attention as they reflect

the homely philosophy, humour, and characters of the Arabs''. This can be applied not

only to Arabic proverbs, but also to the proverbs of other languages.

Proverbs are culture- specific items and are greatly associated with the place and

time of their inception. This should not be understood, however, that the concept

expressed by a proverb in one language does not exist in another. Proverbs across

language and cultural boundaries reveal a considerable degree of similarity regarding

their cultural implications. This may be attributed to the consistency of human nature.

Proverbs of different languages may have the same root idea though they may vary in

their rendering of that idea, mostly in figurative expressions. For example, the idea

expressed in the English proverb "Charity begins at home" has its equivalent in Arabic

i.e." ‫ف‬ٚ‫ ثبٌّؼؽ‬ٌٝٚ‫ْ أ‬ٛ‫ ''األلؽث‬or '' ٍٗ٘‫ؽوُ ال‬١‫ؽوُ ض‬١‫''ض‬. The two proverbs express the same idea

but in different ways.

The translation of proverbs poses a challenge for any translator; regardless of how

competent s/he is; since they are culture-specific. Proverbs are a result of people's

experiences, ideologies and environments which differ from one society to another.

- 25 -
Therefore, the translator should have knowledge of peculiarities of the SL and TL

cultures in order to render the meaning into the TL appropriately.

Proverbs are characterized by a number of features. First, they have a strong

tendency to use figurative language. Thus, the idea of a proverb is conveyed through

simile e.g." Like father like son",' ‫ ;'٘ػا اٌهجً ِٓ غان األقع‬personification, 'Love is blind'

'ّٝ‫'اٌست اػ‬. (Barakat, 2008:42).

Another feature of proverbs is their tendency to exaggerate. For example, a person

who deals with an insignificant matter as if it were an important issue is described as

someone who '' makes a dome out of a molehill'' i.e. '' ‫ؼًّ ِٓ اٌسجخ لجخ‬٠''. ''Both proverbs

call for avoiding unnecessary exaggeration''. (Ghazala, 2004:112).

Generally speaking, the problems associated with translating proverbs relate to

two main areas. The first one is adequate interpretation of the proverb in the SL text and

its cultural implications and appropriateness for the situation in which it is employed.

The second one is the creative rendering of the proverb into the TL that achieves

comparable pragmatic effect.

2.2.3.4 Culture-Specific Metaphors

Metaphor is, "A way of describing something in which you refer to it as

something else with similar qualities". (Macmillan Essential Dic.2007:895).

Metaphorical expressions are those used to represent other situations or ideas. Newmark

(1988:104) defines metaphors as, "Any figurative expression: the transferred sense of a

physical word […]; the personification of an abstraction […]; the application of a word

or collocation to what it does not literally denote, i.e. to describe one thing in terms of

another. Newmark (1988:104) urges that:

- 26 -
 "The purpose of metaphor is of two-fold: its referential purpose is to

describe a mental process or state, a concept, a person, an object, a

quality, or an action more comprehensively and concisely than is

possible in literal or physical language; its pragmatic purpose, which is

simultaneous, is to appeal to the senses, to interest, to clarify'

graphically', to please, to delight, to surprise. The first purpose is

cognitive, the second is aesthetic".

Ghazala (2008:146) defines a metaphor as, "An expression of language that

meant to be used and understood in indirect, non-literal way. It is a figure of speech that

aims at achieving a kind of resemblance between two objects without stating the

similarity in clear terms, or using either article, 'like' or 'as'.

Metaphorical expressions represent one of the most problematic areas in literary

translation particularly if the cultural gap between SL and TL is vast. Newmark

(1988:108) offers three options for rendering metaphors." The first and most satisfying

procedure […] is to reproduce the same image in the TL, provided it has comparable

frequency and currency in the appropriate TL register". This method may be employed

only when a similar metaphor exists in the target language. This means that TL

metaphor should refer back to the same object and the same image 'demonstrate a

resemblance, a common semantic area' in both SL and TL, e.g. ' All that glitters is not

gold' , '‫ٍّغ غ٘ت‬٠ ‫' ِب وً ِب‬, ' speech is silver, but silence is gold', ' ‫د‬ٛ‫إغا وبْ اٌىالَ ِٓ فُخ فبٌكى‬

‫'ِٓ غ٘ت‬,' love is blind','ّٝ‫'اٌست اػ‬.

Another common procedure for translating metaphors is "to replace ST image

with another established TL image", e.g. ' widen the gulf between them' , ' ‫ح‬ٛ‫قغ اٌفد‬ٛ٠

‫ّب‬ٕٙ١‫'ث‬, ' diamonds cut diamonds', '‫ع‬٠‫ع إال اٌسع‬٠‫فً اٌسع‬٠ ‫'ال‬.

- 27 -
 The third translation procedure is reducing [the image embedded in a

metaphorical expression] to sense or literal language". In this procedure, the emotive or

pragmatic impact generated by metaphor may be spoiled or lost," e.g. ' The leopard

cannot change its spots', '‫'اٌطجغ غٍت اٌزطجغ‬.

2.2.3.5 Culture-Specific Irony

Irony is the most difficult type of style to realize and recognize in language. It is

described by Newmark (1993), cited in Ghazala (2004:269) as, "The most serious and

powerful weapon in satirical comedy and farce, particularly, when used to expose

pomposity and deceit or to deflate self-importance". Webster's World Dictionary

defines irony as," A method of humorous or subtly sarcastic expression in which the

intended meaning of the words is the direct opposite of their sense, e.g. it is irony to

call a stupid plan, 'clever'. Moreover, Nash (1989), cited in Ghazala (2004:270),

defines irony as"[…] It says what it does not mean, and means what it does not say".

However, Plesmaekers and Besein (2002) cited in (Barakat, op. cit.:48), in their

paper (Subtitling Irony) adopt the definition of irony which is based on speech act

theory. They say that "Any utterance constitutes a locutionary (propositional),

illocutionary (functional) and perlocutionary (pragmatic) acts". They add that, "The

locutionary act consists of saying something with a propositional content. At the same

time the speaker performs an illocutionary act, i.e. in saying something, he or she

makes an assertion, a promise, and a request and so on. By the same token, the speaker

performs a perlocutionary act in that he or she causes a certain effect in the hearer".

In terms of locutionary acts, it can be concluded that irony arises when there is

some kind of contrast or absurdity between what is said (the propositional content) and

what can be inferred from the situation. For instance, (thank you); when said to

someone who opens the window for wind causing your papers to scatter). The

- 28 -
expression 'thank you' has its propositional content (locutionary act) but it also has a

conventional force (illocutionary act) which is expressing gratitude.

2.2.3.5.1 Irony and Translation

Hatim and Mason (1990:92) claim that:

"As a text producer, the translator operates in a different socio-cultural

environment, seeking to reproduce his or her interpretation of 'speaker

meaning' in such a way as to achieve the intended effects on the TT

readers".

This shows that those insights into the translation of irony have been influenced

by the mainstream of pragmatics, which takes meaning to be intentional, and to be

necessarily described in a context whose scope goes far beyond the purely linguistic

and needs to be approached from a cognitive perspective. A possible solution is to

further amplify the message expressed in the original, especially when the context

cannot be accessed. Hatim and Mason (1990: 99) add that "[...] Since, TT readers

cannot be assumed to share the same cognitive environment as ST readers, the

translator may feel the need to provide additional cues for the recognition of the ironic

intention".

2.2.3.6 Culture-Specific Poetry

Random House Unabridged Dictionary (2006) defines poetry as, "The art of

rhythmical composition, written or spoken, for exciting pleasure by beautiful

imaginative or elevated thoughts". Poetry is the expression of feelings experienced by a

poet. Since, every act of translation is mingled with some problems and challenges,

poetry translation may be more challenging than other types of translation due to the

- 29 -
importance of both form and content in the type of interpretation and response evoked

in the audience.

In poetry translation, one of the most essential issues to be addressed by the

translator is whether to prefer the form over the content or vice versa. Therefore,

translators largely disagree regarding the possibility of poetic translation into another

language. However, almost all translators agree that, "Poetry translation is a special case

within literary translation and involves far greater difficulties than the translation of

prose'' (Connolly 2001:171).

2.2.3.6.1 Difficulties Associated with Poetic Texts

The language of poetry is far different from the ordinary language and the way

poets use language is not the same as ordinary use. Poetry, as Connolly (2001:171)

states "Represents writing in its most compact, condensed and heightened form, in

which the language is predominantly connotational rather than denotational and in

which content and form are inseparable linked". Furthermore, he adds that, "In poetry

the 'musical mode' which is created by sounds, rhythms, rhyming patterns and meters

contributes to the semantic content of the poem and plays an important role in achieving

the intended dynamic effect on readers. Hence, the translator of poetry is often expected

to produce a text that would function as a poem in the TL by creating impressions on

the TL reader comparable to those made by the SL readers".

In translating poetry, some translators of poetic texts believe that achieving the

pragmatic effect intended by the poet is the top priority in translating such texts. They

are of the opinion that there is no fixed process to follow in the translation of poetry.

Poetic translation demands a thorough stylistic analysis. Preserving the style of the

original is regarded one of the factors that contribute to the success of translation.

Stylistic analysis often gives the translator the opportunity to determine his/her priorities

- 30 -
in the decision making process. Hence, this will lead us to a controversial issue in the

translation of poetry, namely whether verse should be translated into verse or prose.

Translators who believe in the untranslatability of poetry are of the opinion that if

poetry is to be translated, only literal translation is possible.

However, Newmark is of translating poetry by creating a new independent poem.

Newmark (1988:70) states that," The translation of poetry is the field where most

emphasis is normally put on the creation of a new independent poem and where literal

translation is usually condemned".

2.2.4 Conclusion

As this chapter attempted to shed some light upon the theoretical aspects related

to translation, it is important to show the relationship between language, society and

culture in order to understand how language works. Language use reflects people‟s

patterns of thought and behaviour. Based on that, translating The Hostage novel into

English is most likely to be a very hard work although it may look simple. The novel

deals with many culture-specific issues in terms of language. There are various

references to culture and culture-specifics of Yemen during a particular period of time

i.e. the Imamate era. Accordingly, there is a need to identify and classify the culture-

specific issues the translators have dealt with. In other words, this part is significant

because it gives an account of the culture-specific issues in terms of identifying and

classifying them culturally into main categories and sub-categories.

- 31 -
 II. LITERATURE REVIEW OF EMPIRICAL

ISSUES RELATED TO TRANSLATION

2.3.0 Introduction

The theoretical works on translation are huge. The rigorous works of Nida (1964),

Newmark (1981) and (1988) have participated in building up a theoretical framework

for translation. However, the empirical studies on translation are limited in comparison

with the theoretical ones. This may be ascribed to the difficulty of their conduction.

To the best of the researcher's knowledge, many studies are devoted to translation

problems from Arabic into English and vice versa. Taking account of the cultural

dimension in translation, it is important to mention these studies with their objectives

and methods to show how they relate to this study. The works of Al-Najjar (1984),

Aghti, (2005), Thawbteh (2006), Barakat (2008) and Ba Owidhan (2010) are empirical

studies done within the descriptive translation studies. They contributed to Arabic-

English translation and vice versa since they focused on the problematic areas that the

translators face when they attempt to convey language and culture from SL into TL.

Hence, this part deals with the previous studies that have a close contact with the

nature of the current study in terms of tackling the culture-specific issues and that as

follows:

2.3.1 The Previous Studies on the Theories of Translation

2.3.1.1 Al-Najjar (1984)

With regard to Al-Najjar (1984) cited in (Qassem 2010:11), he devoted his study

to linguistic and cultural transfer of English-Arabic translation. He dealt with American

English and Iraqi Arabic. The data used in this study were taken from written texts in

English and Iraqi Arabic. The researcher concluded that the transfer of life patterns and

- 32 -
concepts is a problematic area of translation that should be taken into account. The SL

(source language) culture constitutes a problem for a translator due to its difference

from the TL (target language) culture. There are culture- specific issues found in the SL

culture, but are not parts of the TL culture. Among them are the lexical items,

compounds, idioms, etc. If these culture- specific issues are rendered into the TL

culture, the linguistic signs coined into the TL will not be comprehensible to the TL

readers unless they are explained to them.

2.3.1.2 Aghti, Abdelaziz (2005)

Regarding Agti (2005), the study examines the translation of some culture-

specific terms from Arabic into English to provide insight into the cross-cultural process

of translation and some of the various strategies involved when dealing with the

translation of culture specific terms. The study takes as an example William Granara‟s

translation of Tahar Wattar‟s novel „Az-Zilzal‟. The study aims at shedding light on the

cultural gaps that may pose problems when translated from Arabic into English.

Furthermore, the analysis is carried out with regard to translation from the target

reader‟s point of view and translation from a sociolinguistic perspective. Culture-

specific terms are identified in the original Arabic text, and put into the cultural

categories suggested by Eugene Nida (1964: 91). Next, they are compared with their

translation into English and analyzed. An attempt is made to identify the translation

strategies most probably selected by the translator. Their effectiveness is then dealt with

in terms of producing a target language text carrying the same meaning as the SL text.

The researcher concluded that, on one hand, the transfer of culture-specific terms is

always problematic in terms of comprehension and production because concepts differ

from one culture to another. Thus, preserving and conveying the cultural items of the

ST into the TL cannot be achieved without any distortion. For example, the word ' ‫'ِٕجؽ‬

- 33 -
[minbar] in Arabic, which means the place where the Imam stands to preach on Friday,

was substituted for “pulpit” in English. But [minbar] is associated with the mosque,

whereas “pulpit” pertains to the church. One cannot speak about the mosque and use

“pulpit” as something related to it. The translator tried to provide a cultural equivalent

term that is part of the target reader‟s culture and this may facilitate understanding for

him with a more naturalized translation. Keeping the word [minbar] untranslated, and

supplying an explanatory footnote or a glossary would make reading awkward but it

permits the reader to understand it in its socio-cultural context.

On the other hand, through the translation of cultural terms included in „Az-Zilzal‟

the researcher found that the equivalent cultural terms in the translated text are not a

perfect parallel to culture-specific terms in the source text. But, it remains important to

emphasize the fact that the success of a translation depends on the purpose for which it

is made, which in turn reflects the needs of the people for whom it is intended.

2.3.1.3 Thawbteh (2007)

With Regard to Thawbteh (2007), he studied the translation of cultural signs from

Arabic into English from a discourse perspective. The study worked within Descriptive

Translation Studies; therefore, the study described the TT (target text) and compared it

to the ST (source text). Then, it measured and analyzed those shifts. The data used in his

study comprised a collection of ten Arabic short stories conflated in ‫ لًى‬: ‫اٌمّؽ اٌّؽثغ‬

" ‫خ‬١‫'[ "غؽائج‬Al-Gamar Al- Muraba]: Gisas Gharaibiya': "The Square Moon: Supernatural

Tales" by Al-Samman (1994) translated by Boullata (1998) and [Muthakarat

Saim]" ُ٠‫" "ِػوؽاد يب‬Faster's Notes" by Bahgat (1986) translated by Hassan (1988). It is

a unidirectional study. The writer discussed the problematic areas in translating from

Arabic into English such as religion, politics, habits, and customs due to their

differences from Arabic to English. The researcher came to the conclusion that Arabic

- 34 -
discourse depends heavily on religion such as Qura'an, Prophet's traditions and classical

poetry, which pose problems for the translators in rendering their connotative meanings

into English.

2.3.1.4 Barakat (2008)

Barakat (2008) studied the translation of social issues in popular Yemeni culture

from Arabic into English from a discourse perspective. The study was done within

"Descriptive Translation Studies". Hence, the researcher made a comparative analysis of

ST (source text) and the TT (target text). The data of the study consisted of independent

radio program episodes entitled as (( ‫ ِكؼعح‬ٚ ‫( ِكؼع‬Musid and Musida) which are

composed and produced by Abdurrahman Mutahhar for the Yemeni Broadcasting

Corporation and translated into English by Janet C.E.Watson. Barakat analyzed and

evaluated the problematic areas in translating some social issues from Arabic into

English such as proverbs, metaphors, irony, poetry, cultural- specific lexical items and

verses of the Holly Qur'an and Hadith and this was due to their cultural differences. The

researcher concludes that although the translator succeeds in achieving her main

objective which is to highlight issues of social concern to the Yemeni people along with

their traditions and customs, there are some points that should be taken in consideration:

1. The translation seems to be ST- centered and this allows for the preservation

of the taste and atmosphere of the original.

2. Transferring some cultural items into the TT adds local color and flavor to

the translation.

3. The translator aims at bringing the TT reader to the ST. She adopts the

expressions and style of the ST and occasionally she gets closer to the TT

culture and linguistic norms.

- 35 -
2.3.1.5 Ba Owidhan, Awadh (2010)

Ba Owidhan's central aim of his study is to highlight Venuti's translation

strategies i.e. foreignization and domestication that have been applied in translating

culture-specific elements and dialectical expressions with special reference to Watson's,

J. translation of some episodes of the popular series of "Musid wa Musida". This study

reveals the way in which Arabic culture-specific elements have been portrayed in

foreign context. The study considers the validity of those cultural translation strategies

and discusses their application in different occasions. Culture- specific elements have

been selected deliberately from the ST and systematically classified into four categories

adopting cultural and conventional expressions, including translating of titles of

episodes, religious references, cultural expressions and popular proverbs in the TT. The

study concludes that both foreignization and domestication strategies have been used to

overcome the language and cultural barriers in the translation of Sana'ani Arabic into

English. But foreignization has been used more as the most pervasive cultural strategy.

After setting up a brief account of the previous studies that are relevant to the

current study, it seems important to shed some lights on the previous attempts to

highlight the translation of "The Hostage" novel with reference to Dr. Abdul Wahaab

Al-Maqaleh's short notes (2009).

- 36 -
2.3.2 Previous Studies on the Translation of The Hostage Novel

The Hostage novel is written by the Yemeni novelist Zayd Muttee Dammaj

(1943- 2000). "The Hostage is selected by the Arab Writers Union as one of the top

100 Arabic novels of the 20th century". AL-Maqaleh, Abd al-Aziz2(2009:6). It is

translated into seven languages including English in 1994 by the translators May

Jayyusi and Christopher Tingly. The novel acquires its importance not because of its

being creative but informative too i.e. it expresses Yemen in the Imamate era. It was

subjected to study by many Yemeni and Arab researchers and writers; however, they

focus on the narrative perspective to the novel such as Ahmed al-Zara3i (2009:235) in

his paper entitled '' The Sociological and Creative Dimensions in The Hostage Novel in

Zayd Muttee Dammaj: Critical Studies and Readings".

2.3.2.1 Jayyusi, S. Khadra (1994)

In the introduction to the translation of "The Hostage" novel, Al –Jayyusi S.

Khadra (1994) states that "The Hostage novel speaks well of Yemen and enjoys the

personal privacy of Yemen nobility. i.e. […] traditions of courage, sanctity of honour

and open-hearted hospitality which have characterized the best in Arabic culture from

time immemorial''. Furthermore, the novel deals with the brutal exploitation of human

life as it appears entirely in the hands of others.

2.3.2.2 Al-Maqaleh, Abdul Wahab, (2009)

Al-Maqaleh, A., as a critic for the task of translation of Ar-Rahinah novel into

English, appreciates the great deeds of the translators starting from their motives to

translate this distinguished literary masterpiece and ending in their insistence to

overcome and solve the specifically cultural features that distinguish the novel.

2
Abd al-Aziz al-Maqaleh, (2009:6) " Zayd Muttee Dammaj:Critical Studies and Readings".
- 37 -
 Al-Maqaleh, A. (2009:120-122) states that '' […] The novel has full information

about the country, interestingness and thrill, and human experience that could add to the

reader a cognitive, emotional and even linguistic and stylistic knowledge. The dense

local privacy of the novel represented in the key event i.e. taking a child from his

mother's lap, his family and his village as " held hostage" in the fortress in order to

ensure the loyality of his father, clan and tribe to the Imam. This event has not been

invented by the author in order to impress the local reader or the foreign one, as some

contemporary writers aim to do. Moreover, the life of this small (hostage) in prison and

in the palace gives rise to longings of the reader. Secondly, the method of "Zayd" is

easy, simple and spontaneous and sometimes it approaches to photographic registry. But

this trait in this novel is what gives it the charm, attractiveness and beauty where the

author does not seem to exaggerate or decorate or to manipulate linguistically or

stylistically. Thirdly and finally, the novel in this context provides to the TL reader, a

huge amount of historical information about Yemen in terms of geography, political

system, customs, traditions and life that are not provided by the historical books and

academic researches. […] the novel provides this information in an exciting and indirect

manner. These and other reasons are what encouraged the translators of The Hostage

novel to translate it into English and other languages i.e. French, Indian and German.

Al-Maqaleh concludes that the novel poses the same necessities of translation into

other languages and this stems from the value of art, humanity and knowledge, not from

the outside as is the case with many novels again where their writers baptize to the

excitement and thrill through what they call a challenge taboos (politics, religion, sex,

world of the harem), consequently, they provide accounts of technical bearish which

may succeed in media to make waves for some time and perhaps some limited

commercial gains. Above and beyond, the translators have faced many translation

problems during the translation process and this is because of the cultural privacy of the

- 38 -
novel. He states that " The translation of "ar-Rahinah" into English or into any other

language has not been […] so easy. The privacy of the historical period the novel i.e.

sketching the lives of Yemeni people and their traditions and customs in clothing,

food…etc and the language used in particular the local expressions and cultural

vocabularies all that create countless problems in the translation. […] No matter how

the translators tried to be faithful in the translation of this novel, they will not succeed in

the transfer of the complete privacy." Al-Maqaleh, (op.cit:124) mentions that "There are

some culture-specific issues that the translators can not deal completely with them and

they need special translation treatments because of the privacy of these issues. In terms

of culture-specific terms, for example, he asks that " What can the translator do when

translating items, such as: "Jamanah", ‫" خّٕخ‬Madaat Munaiber," ُ‫جؽ‬١ِٕ ‫ ِعاػخ‬, "al-

Burazan," ْ‫ؼ ؾا‬ٛ‫ اٌج‬, "albunduk Alpeshli", ٍٟ‫" اٌجٕعق اٌجه‬azZamel" ًِ‫ اٌؿا‬and "Aokfatun",

‫" ػىفخ‬...?. […] many of these items, and others, explained in the margins of the novel in

Arabic in an attempt to round to the Yemeni contemporary reader before the Arabic or

the foreign readers". On the other hand, in terms of translating culture-specific irony,

the term " ٌٟ‫ "اٌذب‬translated as "the handsome". Al-Maqaleh puts a question "Does this

translation convey the connotative meaning of the cultural item ( ٌٟ‫)اٌذب‬, particularly

when this item is said by a soldier in an ironical way and even hiding a sexual desire.

In other words, is the translation of the proverb "‫ف‬١ٌُّ‫ف ثسىُ ا‬١ٌُ‫ '' ا‬translated as:

(It is for the host to decide where the guest goes.), i.e.

‫؟‬.)‫ف‬١ٌُ‫فؼٍٗ ا‬٠ ‫مؽؼ ِب‬٠ ِٓ ‫ف‬١ٌُّ‫ (إٔٗ ا‬or )‫ف‬١ٌُ‫ػ٘ت ا‬٠ ٓ٠‫مؽؼ أ‬٠ ٞ‫ف اٌػ‬١ٌُّ‫ (إٔٗ ا‬-

Al-Maqaleh adds that […] to what extent the translators succeeded in conveying

these uncontrollable issues in translation? Actually, the efforts of the translators in

rendering The Hostage are understood and appreciated, taking into consideration the

difficulties that may prevent the process of translation to some culture-specifics items.

- 39 -
However, what can not be accepted in the translation and what should not happen is the

obvious error which does not change the original meaning only, but also it gives the

wrong image and even a bad impression about the writer, or the novel and its time,

history and society.

2.4 Conclusion

On the basis of what has been introduced, language interacts with society

because it expresses its speakers‟ culture and environment. Being aware of the relations

between language forms and social context helps understand language use to fulfill

social functions. Social influences on language use cannot be ignored. Extra-linguistic

dimension of language is of great value since using acceptable forms of language

depends on the situation context. Language occurs in situations and the choice of

language should fit the situations in which a person may find himself. In other words, if

we think of translation as a contact between cultures, it is indispensable to adopt a

socio-cultural approach to achieve understanding between cultures. The text to be

translated is regarded as an integral part of the culture to which it belongs. The role of

translation from a socio-linguistic point of view is to familiarize the reader of the TT

with the culture of the speakers of the SL. Keeping the cultural components of the

source text gives the target reader the opportunity to understand the setting and the

cultural context of the original text. Preserving the cultural features of the source text

serves as enrichment to the TL. However, there are those who are in favour of providing

the target reader with a text that is easy to read and understand focusing on what is

universal in terms of human content of the text giving more importance to the text‟s

universal and human features than cultural peculiarities. Rendering cultural issues of the

source text may reduce readability and decrease the number of the translated text

readers who may be unable to know the complete cultural dimension and cultural

features of the source text.

- 40 -
 CHAPTER THREE

LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE TRANSLATION

OF CULTURE-SPECIFIC ISSUES

3.0 Introduction

This chapter is devoted to present the literature review that is relevant to

translation of culture-specific issues. The translation types, strategies and procedures as

well as the cultural gaps, translatability and intranslatability will be accounted for in

addition to dealing with the approaches of cultural translation.

3.1 Translation Strategies, Types and Procedures

Culture-specific issues are deeply rooted in people‟s culture and their

understanding becomes difficult for a foreigner. They may not have equivalents in the

TL. Thus, their translation poses problems to the translators. This is what makes them

resort to a range of translation strategies to handle them. The translators have to find a

way that can help the TL reader understand these culture-specific issues which are

outside her/his cultural background.

3.1.1 Venuti's Strategies (Domestication and Foreignization)

The choice of a particular translation strategy is justified by the translators'

objective. Lawrence Venuti (2001:240-244) divides strategies of translation into two

large categories i.e. domestication and foreignization. On the one hand, domestication is

a cultural translation strategy which involves a process of choosing a foreign text (e.g.

cultural specific elements …etc), and developing the adequate translation method to

translate it into the target context. In other words, what domesticated are the form and

the content of the ST.

- 41 -
 Foreignization, on the other hand, is a process of choosing the foreign text and

developing it by an adequate translation method to render it into the target context.

What foreignized are the form and the content of the target text. The translator seeks to

preserve linguistic and cultural norms of the SL and deviate from prevailing domestic

values. He further adds (2001:243) that, "Determining whether a translation project is

domesticating or foreignising clearly depends on a detailed reconstruction of the

cultural formation in which the translation is produced and consumed".

Relying on the distinction between the two key cultural translation strategies of

domestication and foreignization, Friedrich Schleiermacher cited in "Ba Owidhan

(2010:57) considers only two paths for the translator," Either the translator leaves the

author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or leaves the

reader in peace as much as possible and moves the author towards him.

As stated by Venuti (1998) cited in Ba Owidhan (2010:57-8):

"Schleiermacher allowed the translator to choose between the domesticating

method, an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign-language cultural values,
bringing the author back home, and a foreignising method, an ethno dement
pressure on those values to register the linguistic and cultural differences of the
foreign text, sending the reader abroad".

The researcher, here, shows the movement of the two cultural

translation strategies i.e. foreignization and domestication as follows:

Domestication Writer

Reader Foreignization

Figure No. (13) Illustrates Domestication & Foreignization Movement.

3
The figure is quoted from Ba Owidhan, A. (2010:58).
- 42 -
3.1.2 Watson's Recommended Types and Strategies of Translation

There are common translation strategies employed in translating culture-specific-

issues. Watson, J. (2002), cited in Barakat (2008:32), recommended specific translation

types and strategies to translate literary texts. Translation types are either literal or free

translation; however, translation strategies are such as paraphrasing, omission,

transliteration and verse translation.

3.1.2.1 Literal Translation

Literal translation or word–for-word translation attempts to preserve the cultural

features of the source text. The translators choose this technique very frequently in

order to render the exact content and to give the target reader the opportunity to have

access to a different culture. They apply this strategy even when dealing with culture-

specific issues like proverbs and idioms. In fact, such a translation claims to be very

accurate and faithful to the original text. It favors the source language over the target

language. A translation that is not literal is not objective because relying on meaning

may be misleading especially if the translator misinterprets the original text. Therefore,

this type of translation prevents the translator from departing from the literal sense.

However, the problem with this strategy is that the meaning of the original text may not

be communicated clearly in the target text because languages divide up the world in

different ways. The target reader finds himself dealing with a text that is strange to his

culture as it does not conform to the cultural norms of the target culture.

3.1.2.2 Free Translation

Free translation bases the text on its own language. "It is the task of the translator

to release in his own language that pure language which is under the spell of another, to

liberate the language imprisoned in a work in his re-creation of that work". Benjamin in

- 43 -
Venuti, (2004: 22). In other words, the translators detach themselves from the ST form

and lexical items and express the meaning using different TL forms and words.

3.1.2.3 Translation by Paraphrasing

This strategy is applied by the translators when they have not comparative lexical

items or expressions in the TL. Thus, the translators are forced to render content at the

expense of form, and the matter not the manner becomes the translators' priority.

3.1.2.4 Translation by Omission

When the translator comes across a cultural term in the source language that has

no equivalent in the target language and he thinks that it does not contribute greatly to

the understanding of the original text, he may resort to the omission strategy. The

translator turns to omission when other translational procedures are thought to be not

suitable i.e. to paraphrasing the meaning, which tends to be lengthy and distracting.

People‟s attitudes towards omission may not be the same. It may be regarded as a

conscious and informed choice that the translator makes to treat cultural elements that

resist translation. Instead of confusing the target reader or making a translation mistake,

the translator opts for the strategy of omission. Yet, this procedure may be interpreted

negatively in the sense of being viewed as a mark of the translator‟s inability to find a

way to treat culture-specific terms and expressions and it may be interpreted in terms of

distortion and unfaithfulness to the original text. Besides, the translators use the method

of translation by omission in translating poetry; however, this method is not ideal in

poetic translation since some formal/stylistic aspects of poetry as well as the intended

meaning will be lost.

- 44 -
3.1.2.5 Transliteration (Transference)

Translation by Transliteration is used when dealing with culture-specific terms

that do not exist in the TL. This method enables the translator to transfer culture items

as they are to the TL and to give a local color to the translation though at the expense of

meaning.

3.1.2.6 Verse Translation

It is a translation technique employed in translating poetry. The translators

manage to perform "verse translation" by adapting a TL corresponding form i.e. by

maintaining the rhythm pattern.

3.1.3 Newmark's Translation Procedures

Newmark cited in Ghazala (2004:173) mentions 16 translation procedures.

However, for the purpose of this study, the researcher adopts only four procedures i.e.

Translation by a More General Word (Superordinate), Substitution, Cultural Equivalent

and Componential Analysis.

3.1.3.1 Translation by a More General Word (Superordinate)

When the translator deals with a word that has no equivalent in the target

language, he may resort to translation by a more general word. Using a general word to

handle a lack of specificity in the target language may result in the loss of the

expressive meaning in translation. This type of translation ignores the cultural

dimension of the source text item. But cultural implications are important to be rendered

in translation.

- 45 -
3.1.3.2 Substitution

Substitution is a translation procedure which substitutes another cultural reality

for the one of the source language when the TL reader can not capture the intended

meaning. This translational solution may be adopted to establish a partial equivalence.

Even if the target language term is not an absolute equivalent for the source language

term, it is likely to achieve a more or less similar impact on the target reader as found in

the source text. The advantage of this translation procedure is that the translator

conforms to the target reader‟s culture providing him with a concept that he is familiar

with. On the other hand, the disadvantage of this translation procedure is that the

equivalent word and the source language term may not refer exactly to the same thing

and this would result in not re-expressing the original thought efficiently. As the

translator comes across elements that have no equivalents in the target language, he

resorts to cultural substitution strategy. But there will be a certain degree of loss in

meaning in translation. In this respect, Newmark (1988:7) states:

"If the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the natural

environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an

inevitable loss of meaning, since the transference to the translator‟s

language can only be approximate".

When making a decision in translating culture-specific items, the translator should

be sensitive to losses and gains of cultural elements, assessing their weight in the source

text in order to translate them in the target text and bring about the same effect as in the

source text. In different cultures, different objects, signs and symbols are used and their

translation involves rewriting. The basic idea or message has to be retained creating a

new cultural context. Therefore, understanding the meaning of the cultural elements

- 46 -
permits to establish their significance and role when being translated into another

culture.

3.1.3.3 Cultural Equivalent

Cultural equivalent strategy refers to providing an equivalent translation to the

source text. Cultural equivalent requires employing a term which is used in the same

context or situation to render the meaning of the source text term. The translator

operates a cultural shift to transfer the source language term into the target language.

Both terms in the source text and the target text should have the same function. For

example, the Islamic term " ‫[ "ؾوبح‬zakat] is translated culturally into the TL as “tax”

and/or "alms tax" "Ghazala, H (2004:86). The term in the source language culture is

adapted to the target language culture i.e. to employ the cultural strategy of

domestication.

3.1.3.4 Componential Analysis

Ghazala, H. (2004:185) defines the translation procedure of componential

analysis in translation as," A comparison of the SL word with the Equivalent TL word

or items in terms of their similar and different senses, with the aim of striking the closet

possible equivalent in the TL". He adds that, "It is a kind of paraphrase that can be

described as more precise and economical than the original procedure of paraphrase".

For example: "High tea" can be rendered into Arabic as, ‫ذ‬٠ٛ‫ثكى‬ٚ ٛ‫وبر‬+ ٞ‫ نب‬: ٞ‫خجخ اٌهب‬ٚ(

) ‫ش‬ٛ‫طجك ِطج‬ٚ ‫خجٕخ‬ٚ or rendering the item " ً‫ "قف‬i.e. [safel] into English as "the lower part

of the house". Such explanations appear necessary to Arab and English readership to

understand these cultural items.

- 47 -
3.1.4 Distinction between Foreignization and Domestication Strategies

To identify the applications of the two cultural translation strategies, the

researcher has to recognize the distinctive procedures of each strategy namely

foreignization and domestication. Foreignization strategy can be applied in five basic

distinctive strategies including a more general word, literal translation, paraphrasing,

transliteration and componential analysis as shown in the figure bellow:

Foreignization

A More G. Literal Paraphrasing Transliteration Componential

Word Translation analysis

Figure No. (2) Shows the Procedures of Foreignization Strategy

Whereas, domestication strategy can be applied through four strategies i.e.

omission, substitution and cultural equivalent as shown in the figure bellow:

Domestication

Omission Cultural Substitution Free

Equivalent Translation

Figure No. (3) Shows the Procedures of Domestication Strategy

- 48 -
3.2 Cultural Gaps

Aghti, A. (2005:30) states that, "If language is viewed not as a mere collection of

words and grammar rules but rather as an expression of a culture, it will be important to

link it to the way a particular speech community conceptualizes and interprets the

world. That is why languages can be interpreted and learned with reference to a

particular cultural context".

Understanding differences between concepts in different languages will help the

person gain insights into the cultures behind other languages. A person who considers

two concepts in two languages to be exactly the same is depriving himself of

information about other people's way of looking at the world. The words "cottage" and

" ‫ش‬ٛ‫[ "و‬kuukh] (a small house made of canes) cannot be exact equivalents. Likewise, the

word “loaf” cannot be an exact equivalent for the Arabic word " ‫ف‬١‫[ "ؼغ‬raghiif] (a piece

of pastry that is prepared to be baked). There should be differences in some respects

(shape, content, etc.). While one language has one item to denote a variety of meanings,

another may have separate words for these meanings. Arabic has " ‫[ "ِمعذ‬maqaad] and

" ٟ‫[ "وشع‬kursi] whereas in English, we have "chair ", "stool", "seat" and "bench". If

"bench" and "stool" are translated by " ‫[ "ِمعذ‬maqaad], the difference between "bench"

and "stool" will not be clear for the TL reader.

Words that might be thought to be equivalents may not mean the same thing in

two languages; for instance, the word "dowry" means "The property and money that a

woman gives to her husband when they marry in some societies e.g. India", (Longman

Dictionary of Contemporary English, (1995:407)). However, " ‫ش‬ِٙ" [mahr] in Arabic

means, "What the husband gives to his wife in marriage" (al-Muagam al-waseeT

(2004:889)). Such differences are due to people's life styles, beliefs, customs and

religions. If the translator opts for a target language culture oriented translation, that is,

- 49 -
adapting the source cultural norms to the target cultural norms, the reader of the

translated text will understand the word with reference to his culture which is quite

different from the meaning of the word in the source culture, namely, he will not see the

situation as the source language audience sees it.

Cultural gaps may be linked to connotation of words and concepts. A word in one

culture may connote something different from what its equivalent in another culture,

connotes. For example, in Arabic, “ravens” are symbols of nostalgic separation and a

reminder of the distant beloved and ill omen. However, in England, some of these birds

live outside the tower of London and it is said that something terrible may happen if

they leave. This illustrates the fact that the interpretation of words depends on the

culture for which they are symbols. Nida (1964: 91) argues that, "Words are

fundamentally symbols for features of the culture".

If the role of the translator in the translation process is to bridge the differences

between cultures and languages which are symbols of that specific cultural identity, s/he

should make use of a method where dynamic- equivalence takes place in order to

produce a message that the target audience would understand in a similar manner as the

audience of the source text. The translator has to translate specific cultural terms, idioms

or proverbs with equivalent ones that have the same cultural load. In one culture a word,

an idiom, a proverb or a metaphor may not be culturally loaded but in another culture

the opposite could be true. Thus, the translator is supposed to be knowledgeable about

the two cultures in order to reduce the gap between the two cultures. If the two cultures

are quite different, recreating the same situations in the target culture will be difficult if

not impossible. Snell-Hornby (1988: 41) urges that:

"The extent to which a text is translatable varies with the degree to which

it is embedded in its own specific culture, also with the distance that

- 50 -
 separates the cultural background of source text and target audience in

time and place".

However, Nida (1982: 9) illustrates that:

"Human experience is so much alike throughout the world.[….] In fact, what

people of various cultures have in common is far greater than what separates

them from one another".

If we assume that people‟s experiences are alike and their cultural differences

would not pose problems for the translator, this cannot be applied to all cases because

some culture-specifics issues i.e. terms, idioms or proverbs are culturally loaded and

when they are translated, they may lose their cultural value.

3.3 Cultural Translatability versus Untranslatability

Baker, M. (2005:273): in the encyclopedia of translation studies defines

translatability as" the capacity for some kind of meaning to be transferred from one

language to another without undergoing a radical change". On the one hand, translation

difficulties have their origin in the gap between source culture and target culture.

Catford (1965: 98) defines untranslatability as follows:

"Cultural untranslatability arises when a situational feature functionally

relevant for the SL [source language] text is completely absent from the

culture of which the TL [target language] is a part; for instance, the names

of some institutions, clothes, foods and abstract concepts amongst others".

On the other hand, Nida and Taber (1969: 4) claim that, "Anything that can be

said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element in

the message".

- 51 -
 Thus, the translator should make a description of the elements existing in the SC

in order to give their equivalents in the TC and to overcome the translation problems

resulting from the cultural differences between the ST and the TT. Also, Nida and Taber

(1969:85) express this by stating that:

"The area of cultural specification, however, is likely to provide the greatest

difficulties for the translator. In translating a text which represents an area of

cultural specification in the source language, the translator must frequently

construct all sorts of descriptive equivalents so as to make intelligible

something which is quite foreign to the receptor".

Dealing with the problem of untranslatability in terms of producing an equivalent

version, Brislin, R.W. (1976: 63) states:

"The question of untranslatability has too often been discussed in

terms of absolute rather than relative equivalence. If one is to insist

that translation must involve no loss of information whatsoever, then

obviously not only translating but all communication is impossible. No

communication, whether intralingual, interlingual or intersemiotic can

occur without some loss of information".

Most translation theorists agree that the text in the source language may include

words or expressions that represent cultural features in the source text that have no

equivalents in the target language, or they may exist but in a different way. That is why;

some connotative meanings may be lost when translating. To sum up, the compromise

now seems to be that the absolute cultural untranslatability does not exist in spite of

distinctive elements of each language.

- 52 -
3.4 Approaches to Cultural Translation

3.4.0 Introduction

Because of the link between language and culture, translation cannot be viewed

merely in terms of a linguistic operation; it is also a cultural operation. Harvey et al

(1995:20) argue that, “Translation is not just a transfer of information between

languages, but a transfer from one culture to another”. So, many approaches to

translation are culture-based. They regard translation as transference of one culture into

another. Consequently, carrying out the activity of translation adopting a culture-based

approach requires a certain translation theoretical framework.

3.4.1 Sociolinguistic Approach to Translation

Carmen Llamas and Peter Stockwell in Schmitt (2002:150) define sociolinguistics

as, "The study of the linguistic indicators of culture and power". Hence, this emphasizes

the social force of language events in the world. If we consider translation, on the one

hand, as a cultural process across cultures, sociolinguistics would play an important role

in the process of translation and the focus would be on cross-cultural communication

difficulties. Whereas, culture tends to be at the root of communication challenges, the

translator has the job of taking a message formed in one culture and producing an

equivalent message that is understandable to members of another culture. Accordingly,

the translated message should convey the same understanding as the original message,

but such results are not always possible. This is because of the distance that may exist

between the two cultures which affects the process of translation.

On the other hand, translation involves more than going from one language to

another. The question of how successfully situations in one language can be recreated in

another is the foremost concern of the translator. And since cultures do not interpret the

- 53 -
same situation in the same way, it would be difficult to render the connotation that those

culture-specifics i.e. terms, idioms or proverbs carry with them. Culture-specifics

themselves gain meanings through their associations with their socio-cultural and

historical background. Thus, when engaging in translation activity, the translator has to

take into account cultural and historical associations that become active in items

adopting a sociolinguistic perspective toward the text he is translating. Each word or

concept in a culture functions as a cultural and historical entity whose underlying

associations of meaning have to be transferred as a totality into the cultural context of a

new language.

However, Snell-Hornby (1989:319) maintains that, "Translation no longer entails

linguistic substitution or mere code-switching but a cultural transfer". Thus, involving

the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language by one social group into the

appropriate expression of another group entails a process of cultural decoding and

recoding.

When translating, we are not just dealing with words written in a certain time;

most importantly, it is the cultural aspects of the text that we should take into account.

The focus on both cultures namely, the source culture and the target culture permits to,

on the one hand, understand the cultural aspects of the source text, on the other hand,

express these cultural aspects in the target text in such a way that fits the culture

concerned so as to ensure a good communicative function of the target text. Aghti, A.

(2005:41) urges that, "If thinking is mental operations which aims at finding concepts

that refer to things around, people do not conceptualize these things in the same way.

For example, the fifth wheel of a car which is called " ِ‫ب‬١‫[ "اٌؼدٍخ اإلزز‬alajalatu

al'ihtiyaaT] in Arabic, and "spare wheel" in English. The two words [ihtiyaat] i.e.

“reserve” and “spare” are not synonymous but they are used to refer to the same thing".

- 54 -
Some terms in some languages express meanings not expressed in others. This can be

easily noticed in difficulties of translating between languages that are associated with

different cultures, and consequently, have names for ranges of concepts. A large

proportion of everyday vocabulary is tied to culture-specific concepts which may not

exist in other cultures. A word in one language may be more or less untranslatable into

another, in the sense that no equivalent word expresses precisely the same concept that

is expressed by the word used in the first language. Hence, different languages do not

simply provide different ways of expressing the same ideas, but they are also different

in the more fundamental sense that the ideas that can be expressed differ from language

to language.

3.4.2 Culture-Based Approach to Translation

Translation can be regarded as a particular type of cultural practice involving

processes of intercultural mediation. Translating is viewed less as a linguistic and more,

or even exclusively, as a cultural procedure. A linguistic approach to translation is

thought to be too narrow and to neglect the wider cultural and social aspects of

translation. As a result of this turn towards a cultural dimension, scholars look at

translation more as a way of transmitting ideas from one culture to another. Every

translation is to be considered a cultural translation before it is a linguistic one.

Snell-Hornby (1988:42) urges that, "If language is an integral part of culture, the

translator needs not only proficiency in two languages; he must also be at home in two

cultures". Hence, translation is recognized as an act of culture-specific communication.

Modern trends are more oriented towards cultural rather than linguistic transfer. A text

to be translated is regarded as a cultural phenomenon that functions within its culture

producing and undergoing many influences. The translator has to think of finding the

appropriate rendering of the culture represented in one language into another.

- 55 -
 As language is thought to be embedded in culture, meaning of any linguistic term

can only be properly understood with reference to the cultural context enveloping it.

Since in translation, meaning is of particular importance, it follows that translation

cannot be fully understood outside a cultural frame of reference. When translation is

regarded as a fact of culture, translational activity is governed by a set of norms that

have cultural relevance in the target culture framework in which the translator operates.

Translation norms are socio-cultural constraints which affect the way translation is

viewed and carried out in different cultures. Translation is expected to conform to target

culture norms. The differences between culture norms constitute the main source of

translation difficulties. Since the process of translation involves two cultures, the

translator cannot carry out the translation act in isolation from cultural factors.

Lotman in Bassnett (1992: 14) claims, "No language can exist unless it is steeped

in the context of culture". Nida (1993:14) expresses the same idea in another way:

"The role of language within a culture and the influence of the culture

on the meanings of items and idioms are so pervasive that scarcely any

text can be adequately understood without careful consideration of its

cultural background".

Cultures tend to resort to different means of expressions to express the same

situation. The case is referred to as “same meaning, different form”, because what

should change in translation is the form and the code but meaning should remain

unchanged. Translation activities should be regarded as having cultural significance.

Translation could be viewed as an act attached to certain cultural concepts and notions

of certain people. Thus, it can be approached from an anthropological standpoint.

Malinowski, cited in Aghti (2005:44), states that, "In order to translate a source text, it

is imperative to take into account the totality of the culture surrounding the text in

- 56 -
question". In his view, this is of principal importance for understanding and

consequently translating the text. The study of meaning should be carried out in terms

of function in context because the meaning of an utterance refers to intention to be

achieved rather than the mere individual meaning of its own lexical terms.

Translation must incorporate different cultural realities, namely, the cultural

context behind items. A translator must place linguistic symbols against the cultural

background of a society, not simply to give their lexical equivalents. The ultimate goal

is to understand what the text means with reference to the situation in which it is

produced. A translator culturally adapts the text so that it can be understood in the target

language in the same way it is understood in the original language. The translator needs

to define words by placing them within their cultural context to minimize cultural

differences. The translator can adapt the text if necessary to make unfamiliar contextual

terms culturally appropriate. Thus, he operates some changes to make translation fit the

target language culture. For example, the translator may use “ ‫غ‬١‫[ ”ؼث‬rabi3] “spring” In

Arabic to translate the word “summer” in Shakespeare‟s verse:

Shall I compare thee to a summer‟s day

Thou art more lovely and more temperate

"‫انثش اعرذاال‬ٚ ِٕٗ ًّ‫ع فأد اخ‬١‫َ ست‬ٛ١‫"ً٘ الا سٔه ت‬

[hal 'uqaarinuki biyawmi rabii3in fa'anti 'ajmalu minhu wa'aktharu 'i3tidaalan ]

The word “ ‫غ‬١‫[ ”ؼث‬rabii3in] is used instead of “ ‫ف‬١‫[ ”ي‬Sayfin] which is a faithful

translation because in Arab countries summer is a hot season which is associated with

heat. It would be unusual for an Arab poet to compare his beloved to a summer‟s day.

The season of lovely weather is spring. The translator must be aware of cultural nuances

in both cultures. The translator needs a translation method to carry out the transference

of cultural elements from one language into another in order to achieve an equivalent
- 57 -
message in the target language and thus an equivalent response from the receiver.

Translational norms should be understood as internalized behavioral constraints which

embody the cultural factors. A translator who fails to take the cultural context into

account is likely to commit errors. The ability to recognize the cultural connotations

behind words is a reflection of the translator‟s ability to do his task properly. If the

translator works not on language but on its use in real social situations, he would be

expected to conform to sociocultural norms of the language into which he translates.

The translator has to place a cultural filter between source text and target text. He has to

view the source text from the angle the target culture reader views it, but should not lose

sight of the importance of remaining faithful to the original text.

Cultural connotations are the main reason for intensive background studies in

translation from one language and culture to another. For the Chinese, white elephant

symbolizes something powerful and pure. But for Americans, white elephant means

something old or useless. Rendering the intended meaning of the source text requires

cultural awareness on the part of the translator.

3.4.3 Cultural Dynamic Equivalence

The dynamic equivalent translation approach provides the translator with a theory

which can deal with the cultural challenges. Nida (1964:166) defines the dynamic

equivalent as, "The closest natural equivalent to the source language message".

Therefore, the key word in this definition is the word equivalent which is related to the

source text in the sense of understanding the meaning as the first step in the process of

translation. The word equivalent is also linked to the target language because it is the

representation of that meaning in the target text. The equivalent is supposed to be

viewed in terms of approximation rather than exact correspondence. The naturalness of

the equivalent refers to being culturally part of the target reader‟s way of using

- 58 -
language. Therefore, the translation should bear no obvious trace of a foreign origin.

But, this is difficult to achieve to a certain extent because some cultural words bring

with them foreign associations such as the word “igloo” which refers the Eskimos‟

dwelling in the Arctic regions.

The problem raised by the dimension of culture in the process of translation is

whether the translator erases all cultural features that make the translated text sound

foreign or preserves the cultural specificities of the source text in the target text. There

is not a clear cut solution to this problem. It depends on the translation approach

adopted by the translator. If the translator makes a shift towards the target culture, this is

called target-oriented translation. But, if he preserves the source culture, this is termed

source- oriented translation. For example, the word “fought” may be translated into

Arabic by “ ‫[ ”خب٘ع‬jaahada] instead of “ ‫[ ”حاسب‬haaraba]. The word “ ‫[ ”خب٘ع‬jaahada] is

typical of the target culture. “As black as ink” may be translated into Arabic by “ ‫د‬ٛ‫أع‬

‫'[ ”واٌحثش‬aswadun kalhibri] (source translation) keeping the original metaphor rather than

using the Arabic idiomatic expression “ ُ‫د واٌفح‬ٛ‫'[ ”اع‬aswadun kalfahmi] “as black as

coal” (target-oriented translation).

The advantage of target-oriented translation is that it results in a translated product

that would be meaningful since it conforms to the norms of the target language. But this

may deprive the reader of gaining insight into a foreign culture and knowing about other

people‟s practices, and hence it results in cultural hegemony instead of accepting

differences and being tolerant by acquiring a broader cultural horizon. Accepting

elements from source language will enrich the target language.

When translating discourse that refers to a historical period, the translator should

use a word relevant to that period. The translator should not use outdated items in a

contemporary piece of discourse. Nida (1964:168) states that, "The appropriateness of

- 59 -
the message within the context is not merely a matter of the referential content of items.

The total impression of a message consists not merely in the objects, events,

abstractions and relationships symbolized by the items, but also in the stylistic selection

and arrangement of such symbols". It is important in a dynamic equivalent translation

that the translator reflects the point of view of the author such as sarcasm and irony. The

point of view is often expressed through the tone of the writer which is a clue to his

intent, to what he really wishes to say. The tone indicates the attitude that the writer

wishes to produce in the reader. Attitudinal meaning should be rendered in translation

through the choice of words that express a certain stance vis-à-vis something. If the

writer uses the word “ pigs “ instead of “ fuzz ” or “ police ” the translator has to find an

equivalent word in the target language that conveys this attitudinal meaning. But this

may not be achieved in case the translator is confronted with the absence of an

equivalent word in the receptor language.

- 60 -
3.5 Conclusion

If culture-specific issues do not lend themselves to translation, the translators

have a number of strategies that enable them to find solutions to the problems that they

have faced when translating. The availability of these strategies makes translation

possible. However, they are not without drawbacks. Hence, it is up to the translator to

assess losses and gains when transferring cultural items into another language.

Moreover, the role of translation from a socio-linguistic point of view is to familiarize

the reader of the TT with the culture of the speakers of the SL. Keeping the cultural

issues of the ST gives the target reader the opportunity to understand the setting and the

cultural context of the original text. Preserving the cultural features of the source text

serves as an enrichment of the target language. On the basis of what has been

introduced, it is important to emphasize that the practical issues related to the process of

translation represent a fundamental source to deal with the objectives and questions of

the research. In other words, the translation strategies, types and procedures,

recommended by Venuti (2001), Newmark (1988) and Watson (2002), will help to

understand the translation strategies employed by the translators; as well, recognizing

the cultural gaps and cultural approaches of translation will help the researcher to find

out the problematic areas the translators have faced in rendering the culture-specific

issues in The Hostage novel into English.

- 61 -
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.0 Introduction:

As this research deals with the translation of culture-specific issues from Arabic

into English as used in the translation of "ar-Rahinah" by Zayd Muttee Dammaj,

translated by May Jayyusi and Christopher Tingley, the research aims at unfolding the

cross-cultural process of translation and some of the various strategies involved when

dealing with the translation of culture specific issues. In addition to that, it is introduced

to shed light on the cultural gaps that may pose problems while translating from one

language and culture into another. The analysis of the present research concentrates on

identifying and classifying the culture-specific issues where a descriptive approach

suggested by Toury (1995) is adopted.

4. 1 Research methodology

For Toury, G. (1995:13), translations first and foremost occupy a position in the

social and literary systems of the target culture, and this position determines the

translation strategies that are employed. Toury (1995:35-9 and 102) proposes the

following three-phase methodology for systematic DTS (Descriptive Translation

Studies), incorporating a description of the product and the wider role of the

sociocultural system:

A. Situate the text within the target culture system, looking at its significance
or acceptability.

B. Compare the ST and the TT for shifts, identifying relationships between

coupled pairs of the ST and TT segments and attempting generalizations
about the underlying concept of translation.

C. Draw implications for decision making in future translating.

- 62 -
 The research methodology of culture-specific issues in the translated work is

based on an Arabic-English Parallel Corpus i.e. the identified and categorized items in

the ST and the TT of "The Hostage" novel. This is in order to understand translation

problems due to the particular features of the two cultures involved and the solutions

provided through strategies used by the translators. The pairing of source language

culture-specific issues and their translation version is one way of evaluating the

processes involved in translation activity. A parallel corpus is a valuable source of data

to illustrate cultural similarities and differences between the source text and its

translation. Thus, after identifying and classifying the culture-specific issues, the

evaluation starts first with the analysis and treatment of the culture-specific issues and

then, dealing with the translation strategies employed by the translators, ends up with an

attempt at an assessment of the effectiveness of these strategies in terms of achieving a

translation that is relatively culturally equivalent to the source text.

Toury's notion of norms assumes that the translator is essentially engaged in a

decision making process. He further suggests that being a translator involves playing a

social role, rather than simply transferring phrases and sentences across a linguistic

boundary. The translator fulfils a function specified by norms for determining what is

appropriate in that community. Toury (1995:56-61) defines norms as, "A category of

descriptive analysis. One identifies norms of translational behaviour by studying a

corpus of authentic translation and identifying regular patterns of translations, including

types of translation strategies that are typically opted for by the translators represented

in that corpus".

- 63 -
4.2 Data Collection

The data of the culture-specific issues is based on the Arabic and English parallel

corpus available in the English translation of the novel. It is a valuable source of data to

illustrate cultural similarities and differences between the source text and its translation.

This is in order to understand translation difficulties due to the characteristic features of

cultures involved and the solutions provided through strategies used by the translators.

Further more, the pairing of source language culture-specific issues and their translation

version is one way of discovering processes involved in translation activity. The

following sections deal with the gradual processes followed by the researcher in

collecting data pertaining to the present study. These steps present an explanation of the

procedures involved in collecting data:

4.2.1 Obtaining the TT

The present research concentrates mainly on the translation of culture-specific

issues in the English translation of Zayd Muttee Dammaj's novel "ar-Rahinah". So, the

English translation of the novel is considered as its sample of analysis. As a matter of

fact, the novel depicts life in a certain period of time where culturally special concepts

are used, so it may not be easy to find the most appropriate translation to them. In fact,

the researcher devotes most of his time in reading the target text in order to determine

the items both out of and in context. To ensure they are being used musically,

figuratively or colloquially; the measures, names of people and places are rendered

appropriately. The researcher follows Newmark in selecting and categorizing foreign

texts in the TT. To Newmark (1988:95), "There are particular criteria that should be

followed in selecting and categorizing texts in the TT: (a) The purpose of the text, (b)

The motives of the text, (c) The significance of the text in ST".

- 64 -
 Therefore, the researcher set to identify the significant culture- specific issues in

the TT and compare them with their counterparts in the ST that have been identified,

organized and stored by the researcher in the computer's hard drive in the Microsoft

Word Format. This is for the purpose of identifying the relationships between pairs of

TT and ST.

4.2.2 Obtaining the ST

The Arabic version of "ar-Rahinah" novel represents the source for the research

data. In obtaining the data of culture–specific issues in the ST, each text has been read

carefully in search of any culture-specificity that refers to a particular issue described

there. For the purpose of the study, the researcher identifies (100) culture-specific items.

Next, the examples, containing references to the culture-specific issues are identified

within the ST, which in turn, are compared with their counterparts in the TT. For

keeping the collected data organized and safe, and in order to be accessible at the time

of need, a file is made in a computer's hard drive and Microsoft Word Format for each

culture-specific issue in the form of tables.

4.2.3 Categorizing culture-specific issues

After selecting the significant data in the ST, the researcher has categorized

culture-specific issues into six separated issues where some typical examples, identified

in the novel, are offered. In addition, in order to make the analysis process easier, some

culture-specific issues are sub-categorized as follows.

A. Culture -specific terms. They will be sub-categorized as follows:

- Ecological culture.

- Material culture.

- Social culture.

- Religious culture.

- 65 -
 B. Culture -specific Idioms.

C. Culture -specific Metaphors.

D. Culture -specific Proverbs.

E. Culture -specific Irony.

F. Culture -specific Poetry.

These six categories are analyzed in details in the next chapter.

4.3 Data analysis

In the analysis of the data of culture–specific issues, each text i.e. ST and TT was

carefully read in search for any culture-specificity that refers to a particular issue that

will be described then. Next, the examples containing references to the culture-specific

issues are situated within the T texts which in turn are compared with their counterparts

in the source texts; then, the identified issues are categorized into main categories and

sub-categories. So, as to make the process of analysis easy, the researcher resorts to

prepare tables in which every category is introduced with a separated parallel table

illustrating and comparing the identified issues in both the SL and TL. With reference to

the culture-specific terms, five columns in a table are provided as follows: Firstly, serial

number of identified items; secondly, the cultural category or sub-category; thirdly, the

culture-specific term in the ST which in response is composed of three sub-columns i.e.

Transliteration, Arabic Script and the ST page number; fourthly, the equivalent in the

TT which in turn is composed of two sub-columns i.e. Translation and TT page number

and finally, the translation strategy column.

To conclude that, table No. (4-1) shows how the identified and classified data

have been analyzed:

- 66 -
 Equivalent Terms Translation
Culture–Specific Terms in the ST
s. Cultural sub- in the TT Strategy

No. categories Transliteration Arabic Page Page Translation

Script

--- culture [----] xxx 000 000 xxx xxx

Table No. (4-1) Parallel table for culture-specific terms analysis in ST and TT

As with the other culture-specific issues i.e. idioms, metaphors, proverbs, irony

and poetry, four columns in a table are provided as follows: Firstly, serial number of

identified items. Secondly, the culture-specific issue in the ST which in response is

composed of two sub-columns i.e. Arabic Script and the ST page number; thirdly, the

equivalent issue in the TT which in turn is composed of two sub-columns i.e.

Translation and TT page number, and finally, the translation strategy column. To

conclude, table No. (4-2) shows how the identified and classified data have been

analyzed:

S Culture–Specific issue in
The Equivalent issue in the TT
Translation
No. the ST
Strategy
Page Arabic script Page Translation

xxx 000 xxx xxx

0 000

Table No. (4-2) Parallel table for culture-specific issues analysis in ST and TT

However, to account for the data, translation processes and mechanisms involved

in the treatment of the cultural issues including strategies available to the translators, the

- 67 -
choices they make between them, and the constraints that may affect such choices,

Toury emphasizes the need to infer the decisions that are taken by the translator during

the translation process. These translation norms which determine what is or what is not

accepted as translation in a particular context need to be part of the translator‟s

awareness.

4.3.1 Analysis of the translators’ treatments of culture-specific issues in the

target text:

The comparative analysis of the Arabic culture-specific issues with their

translated version in English is based on viewing translation as a decision making

process. As culture-specific issues are cases that make the translators face a decision-

making task in the sense of opting for a particular strategy, so the analysis aims at

understanding what caused the translators to proceed in a particular way, and to what

extent the procedure adopted is efficient. The descriptive parallel study of the Arabic

culture-specific issues and their translation reveal the translators' solutions brought to

problematic situations. The translators are constantly faced with choices to find

solutions to problems and it is important to understand the reasons behind their

decisions in favour of one of the alternatives. The need for a systematic study of

translation arises from the problems encountered during the translation process. These

problems are due to cultural differences. Comparing cultural terms in the source text

and their counterparts in the target text shows how conceptions of the world are not the

same everywhere. Thus, understanding translation procedures, strategies and types will

help to understand the norms of translational behaviour.

- 68 -
 Research Methodology

First Data

Processed in the Light of

Six Classified Categories

Culture- Culture- Culture- Culture-

Culture-specific Culture-
specific specific specific specific
metaphors specific irony
terms idioms proverbs poetry

Second Decision making

Leads to

Third

Identification of The Translation Strategies Employed

Foreignization Domestication Others

Figure No. (4-1) illustrates Mechanism of Data Analysis4

4
The figure is borrowed from Ba Owidhan (2010:93) with adaptation
- 69 -
4.4 Conclusion

This chapter has discussed the nature of the analysis methodology of the research

with reference to Toury's comparative descriptive approach based on the three-phase

methodology; in addition to shedding some light upon the concept of norms in Toury's

Descriptive Approach. Also this chapter has discussed how data have been collected,

identified, categorized and analyzed.

- 70 -
 CHAPTER FIVE

ANALYSIS OF THE TARGET TEXT WITH REFERENCE TO

CULTURE-SPECIFIC ISSUES

5.0. Introduction

Translating "Ar-Rahinah" novel into English was not an easy task for the

translators i.e. Jayyusi and Tingley. The culture-specific nature of the novel presented a

major problem in translation. In addition, the source text is heavily loaded with a

number of problematic items which represent a challenge for any translator. These items

demand a great deal of work both on the level of the source language and target

language. The translators, actually, had to work first on the level of the SL text

comprehension and then making the appropriate choices to render the text into the TL.

Hence, the translators aim at rendering the major ideas and thoughts behind the texts to

provide TL readers with a source of entertainment. Thus, their focus is on the content of

the ST as well as the form and function. Normally, in translation, it is almost impossible

for the translator to preserve the content and the form of the ST without having to make

any compromises. Translation is a decision making process and this process involves

arranging translator's priorities and accepting some degree of loss in meaning.

This chapter is devoted to analyze the TT with reference to the culture-specific

issues included in Zayd Muttee Dammaj's novel "Ar-Rahinah ". The aim of this study is

to identify the cultural-specific issues, categorize them and understand the process of

translation including problems that the translators have faced in the translation. The

culture-specific issues i.e. terms, idioms, proverbs …might not be understood easily

because of their semantic complexity where the equivalent in the TL may not have the

same expressive meaning or lack an equivalent. The strategies used by the translators to

- 71 -
treat these culture-specific issues are illustrated. The analysis is based on the cultural

aspect of translation from the target reader‟s point of view.

5.1 An Overview of the Novel "Ar-Rahinah"

„Ar-Rahinah‟ was first published in Beirut in 1984. It is a tale which combines

more reality with less fiction. Characters and actions are representative of Yemeni

people‟s real life. The novel includes references to items, places and events which are

part of the Yemeni socio-cultural background. It depicts a particular social and

historical setting of Yemen in the forties. The novel goes back to the Imam's iron

regime era. It starts with the arrival of The Hostage, a young boy from the countryside

taken as a hostage by the ruling Imam soldiers to ensure his father's and his clan's

acquiescence, into al-Qahira fortress and then into the palace of the Governor who ruled

over the city and the surrounding countryside as the Imam's representative where the

events take place.

"The main theme of the novel deals fundamentally with atrocity, with a world of

exploitation within which the destiny of a human being seems totally in the hands of

others i.e. the sexual exploitation on the part of the elder palace women. Yet it is, at the

same time, a work about freedom and individual salvation, showing how, for all the

attack on the person's body and mind, a clear line of insight and sound judgment may be

retained, reflecting an instinctive grasp of virtue and dignity". Jayyusi, S.K. (1994: viii)

in her preface about the translation of The Hostage novel.

- 72 -
5.2 Identification and Classification of Culture-Specific Issues into Cultural

Categories and Their Translation into English

The identification of culture-specific issues existing in the novel as object of

study is based on the fact that they are specific and clear markers of Yemeni people‟s

cultural identity. That is why; their understanding requires enough cultural awareness.

As the novel depicts life in a certain period of time where culturally special concepts

are used, it may not be easy to find the most appropriate translation to them. After

identifying the culture-specific issues involved in the novel, they will be classified into

cultural categories and sub-categories as suggested by Nida (1964:91) i.e. ecological

culture, material culture, social culture and religious culture. Then, in order to make the

analysis process easy, every category begun with a separated table illustrating and

comparing the identified issues in both the source and target texts. Two columns in

each table are provided to show the page number of the identified item in both the ST

and TT. Then, these identified items are analyzed and described in terms of translation

strategies employed by the translators of the novel. The main purpose of classifying

cultural-specific issues into categories and sub-categories is to provide guidelines

towards a better understanding of cultural issues for analysis.

- 73 -
5.2.1 Culture-Specific Terms

The comparative analysis of the ST culture-specific terms with their translated

version in English is based on viewing translation as a decision -making process. The

analysis reveals a variety of different sub-categories of culture-specific terms in which

the translators might face translation problems.

It should be pointed out that it is difficult to draw a line of distinction between

these cultural sub-categories because they overlap. However, cultural categories may

help to understand the problem of lexical mismatch caused by cultural differences.

Tymoczko, M. (1999:24-25) states:

"Translators are presented with aspects of the source culture that are

unfamiliar to the receiving audience- elements of the material culture (such

as food, tools, garments), social structures (including customs and law),

features of the natural world (weather conditions, plants, animals), and the

like; such features of the source culture are often encoded in specific lexical

items for which there are no equivalents in the receptor culture, or for which

there are only rare or technical words".

These sub-categories of culture-specific terms are as follows:

1. Ecological culture terms.

2. Material culture terms.

3. Social culture terms.

4. Religious culture terms.

- 74 -
 The following sub-categories present these culture-specific terms in the TT

which pertaining to specific period of Yemen history, i.e. the Imamate era, including a

possible description of the different translation strategies used in rendering them.

S. Cultural Culture–Specific Terms in the Equivalent Terms in the

Translation
sub- ST TT
No
strategy
categories Transliteration Arabic Page Translation Page

Script

1. Ecological [3allan] ْ‫ػال‬ 7 Allan 23 Transliteration

culture 61 Rainbow 56 Cultural equivalent

2. [3uthrop] ‫ػثؽة‬ 110 Plants 90 A more general word

110 Twigs 90 Cultural equivalent

3. [qaDaaD] ٌ‫لُب‬ 13 Cement 27 Substitution

4. [manTharah] ‫ِٕظؽح‬ 32 The top most 39 Componential

analysis
room
33 Room 43 A more general word

146 The upper room 112 Componential

analysis
5. [safel] ِ‫ف‬
‫ـَي‬ 14 The lower part of 28 Componential
the house analysis
Omission
6. [shadhrwaan] ْ‫ا‬ٚ‫نػؼ‬ ---------------------- 124

Omission
7. [khalwah] ‫ح‬ٍٛ‫ض‬ 89 ---------------------- 76

8. Material [sharshaf] ‫نؽنف‬ 70 "Black" Cloak 62 A more general word

culture 72 ………………… 64 Omission

9. [miazar] ‫ِئؿؼ‬ 29 ….
Cloak 38 A more general word

10. [3imama] ‫ػّبِخ‬ 92 White Cloak 77 A more general word

28 Turban 37 A more general word

- 75 -
S. Cultural Culture–Specific Terms in the Equivalent Terms in the
Translation
sub- ST TT
No
strategy
categories Transliteration Arabic Page Translation Page

Script

11. [jarrah] ‫خؽح‬ 141 Jug 109 A more general word

12. [jambiya] ‫خ‬١‫خّج‬ 29 Dagger 37 A more general word

29 --------------- 38 Omission

13. [ras sayfani] ‫ؼاـ‬ 29 Sayfani blade 37 A more general word

ٟٔ‫فب‬١‫ي‬

14. [ras------] ----‫ؼاـ‬ 29 ……Blade 37 Omission

15. [kodam] َ‫وع‬ 67 Stale bread 61 Componential

analysis

16. [qadah] ‫لعذ‬ 180 a sack 133 Substitution

17. [M3qel] ً‫ِؼم‬ 58 Home 55 Cultural equivalent

18. [Jamanah] ‫خّٕخ‬ 24 Coffee pot 34 Componential

analysis

19. [mad3ah] ٗ‫ِعاػ‬ 156 Nargila 117 Cultural equivalent

156 Water pipe 117 Componential

analysis

20. [al-Bundoq ‫اٌتٔعق‬ 25 ---------------------- 35 Omission

al-bashli] ٍٟ‫اٌجه‬

21. [Bwari] ٞ‫اؼ‬ٛ‫ث‬ 155 --------------------- 116 Omission

22. [jefnah] ‫خفٕخ‬ 24 -------------------- 34 Omission

- 76 -
S. Cultural Culture–Specific Terms in the Equivalent Terms in the
Translation
sub- ST TT
No
strategy
categories Transliteration Arabic Page Translation Page

Script

23. Social [ar-Rahinah] ‫ٕخ‬١٘‫اٌؽ‬ 7 The hostage 23 Cultural equivalent

A more general word

24. culture [3ukfah] ‫ػىفخ‬ 7 Soldiers 23
A more general word
112 Guards 91

122 Private guards 97 Componential

A more general word

analysis
25. [sina] ‫ٕب‬١‫ق‬ 9 Sir 25
A more general word
[sayyid] ‫ع‬١‫ق‬ 10 Sir 25
A more general word
83 Aristocrat 72
A more general word
199 Master 146

26. Religious [al-Wali] ٌٌٟٛ‫ا‬ 180 Saint 132 Cultural equivalent

27. culture [al-Faqih] ٗ١‫اٌفم‬ 10 The faqih 24 Transliteration

10 A religious 24 Componential

analysis
39 Learned men
teacher 44 Substitution

28. [al-Mawaled] ‫اٌع‬ٌّٛ‫ا‬ 61 Birth(s) 57 A more general word

Cultural equivalent
29. [azZakat] ‫اٌؿوبح‬ 74 alms tax 65
Cultural equivalent
30. [al-Furud] ٌٚ‫اٌفؽ‬ 9 duties 24

Table No. (5-1) shows the cultural sub-categories of culture-specific terms identified in

ST and TT.

- 77 -
5.2.1.1 The Translators' Treatments in Dealing with Culture-Specific Terms

The translators' treatments in dealing with the problems of culture-specific terms

in the TT are achieved by employing several translation procedures such as cultural

equivalent, substitution and transliteration; in addition to, translation by a more general

word (superordinate) and translation by omission.

5.2.1.1.1 Ecological Culture Terms

Every language tends to have terms that are well embedded in its people‟s

environment. These terms are better understood in the setting where they are originated.

Whenever they are used in a different context to fit another language culture, they may

lose some of their original value. Understanding culture of a particular community

enables the translator to treat adequately with the whole aspects of that culture i.e.

environment, plants or building …etc.

5.2.1.1.1.1 Translation Procedures of Ecological Culture Terms.

In translating ecological culture terms, different procedures have been applied by

the translators such as cultural equivalent, translation by a more general word,

substitution, transliteration, omission and componential analysis. The examples bellow

illustrate how the translators use these procedures and that as follows:

5.2.1.1.1.1.1 Cultural Equivalent

Ecologically, the term " ْ‫[ "ػال‬3allan], for example, is the first month in winter i.e.

the month of harvest where farmers start gathering their harvests. While farmers are

reaping the harvests, they sing some of the folkloric songs happily (al-Eryani,

1996:652-3). The ST term [3allan] is translated into the TL in two different ways; on

the one hand, it is transliterated as [Allan] and on the other hand it is rendered by

finding a cultural equivalent i.e. "rainbow". Although, two different procedures of

- 78 -
translation are used by the translators to overcome the cultural gap that they face, the

connotative embedded and intended meaning by the ST author is not transferred to the

TT reader. Hence, "rainbow" as an equivalent term means for the TT reader (a large

curve of different colors that can appear in the sky when there is both sun and rain)

(Longman Dic.1995:1165); in other words, the equivalent transferred by the translators

does not convey the cultural privacy for this term particularly when the farmers in the

countryside celebrating happily about the harvest process during the whole month.

Hence, the embedded meaning intended by the ST author is distorted. Perhaps,

reserving the transliteration method will make the TT reader approximately close to the

ST environment.

5.2.1.1. 1.1.2 Translation by a More General Word (Superordinate)

Besides, the translation of the term “ ‫[ ”عُثشُة‬3uthrop] into English as “plants”

shows the gap between the two cultures. The translators opt for a translation by a more

general word (superordinate) to overcome the possible lack of specificity in the target

language. The two words do not refer exactly to the same thing; this indicates the loss of

cultural meaning. [3uthrop] is a particular wild plant which grows in winter season in

Yemeni valleys; sometimes it is as high as a pomegranate tree. Medically speaking, it is

used as a medicine for sun struck, headache and as bondage for wounds (al-Eryani,

1996:607-8). The translators resort to another choice in rendering the ST term hopping

to transfer the cultural privacy and that by using a cultural equivalent as "twigs".

However, the embedded meaning intended by the ST author is not conveyed to the TL

reader; so, a footnote to explain this term is in order.

- 79 -
5.2.1.1. 1.1.3 Translation by Substitution

Moreover, the translation of the term " ‫[ "لضبض‬qaDaaD] into English as “cement”

shows the gap between the two cultures. The translators employed a translation strategy

by substitution to overcome the possible lack of specificity in the target language.

Actually, there is a huge difference between the two terms; in case of final function of

both terms, perhaps there is little similarity. For example, "cement" as the equivalent

term employed by the translators means (a grey thick sticky substance that becomes

very hard when it dries and used in building. It is made from lime and clay), (Longman

Dic., 1995:203); however, the SL term " ٌ‫[ "لُب‬qaDaaD] means "A white thick sticky

substance made from lime and fine sands. It is mixed with water for at least a week and

through that it gets special treatment before it is used for building. This substance is

used by ancient Yemeni civilizations for building water tankers, dams, water cannels

and even palaces. The process of serving this substance during the process of building

either i.e. in filling small holes or after finishing where they used to rub the walls and

surfaces down with grease substance for many days; yet they become so smooth. It

resists all elements of nature for hundreds of years without change"5. (al-Eryani,

1996:724-6). Hence, rendering this term into the TL in such manner does not only

distort the meaning but also leads to the loss of cultural privacy that the term connotes.

The TL reader can not grasp all these specifically culture details. In order to avoid this

cultural gap, the translators should have added a foot note/or a foot end to explain this

term particularly when it is repeated in the text.

5.2.1.1.1.1.4 Componential Analysis

The translators employ componential analysis, i.e. translating the sense

components, which excludes culture and highlights the message. For example, in

5
The Arabic quoted texts are translated by the researcher.
- 80 -
rendering the culturally specific term " ‫[ "ِٕطؽح‬manTharah] into the TL, the translators

resort to use three translation choices in order to overcome the cultural gap that this

term has; either by translating it as " the top most room" , "room" or the upper room",

the cultural privacy of the word is excluded. The cultural message and the embedded

meaning are lost. This asserts that the cultural gap between SL and TL is huge.

Analytically speaking, the first and third equivalents denote to the place in terms of

highness only; while, the second equivalent i.e." room", as it is dominantly used along

the novel, does not supply any denotation. However, the term [manTharah] in Yemeni

culture expresses a lot. It is not only an ordinary room in the top most of the house as

allocation but also it is a mirror-like that reflects aristocratic life of the house owner; the

luxurious furniture, gypsum decorations of the walls and ceiling in addition to the city

view, especially in the evening. All of these features can not be rendered and the TL

reader might not grasp them. So, culture-specific terms which are rooted in the Yemeni

society and culture represent a crucial problem for the translators. See appendix 3, p:

169 picture:7).

Likewise, in rendering the culture-specific term in the ST "ِ‫ف‬

‫ "ـَ ي‬into the TL as "the

lower part of the house", the translators resort to componential analysis strategy in order

to overcome the cultural gap that this term has; the cultural privacy of this term has

been excluded. The cultural message and the embedded meaning are lost. Analytically

speaking, the translation denotes only to the location in terms of house parts only.

However, the term [safel] in Yemeni village culture expresses a lot. It is not an ordinary

part in the house where it reflects the land-owner's life in the villages; it consists of

many rooms in the lower part of the house; it is used for many purposes i.e. as stores for

harvested grains and dry fodders as well as it is used as stables for animals and birds

such as cows, bulls, donkeys and hens. Yet, the bad smell caused by these animals and

birds, in addition to the simple and humble life of the land-owner, all of these aspects
- 81 -
can not be rendered and the TL reader might not grasp them. So, culture-specific terms

which are rooted in society and Yemeni culture represent a crucial problem for the

translators.

5.2.1.1.1.1.5 Translation by Transliteration

Transliteration procedure, however, is employed when rendering culture-specific

terms that are related to ecological culture and does not exist in the TL. This method

enables the translators, to some extent, to foreignize some culture items by transferring

them into the TL as they are in the SL. The TL reader by this procedure gets closer to

the novel setting. This method enables the translators to transfer culture items as they

are to the TL and to give a local color to the translation though at the expense of

meaning. The table below shows some of these ecological terms rendered by a

transliteration procedure:

- Al-Qahira6 ٖ‫ اٌمب٘ؽ‬-

- Toulqa7 ‫ٌك‬ٛ‫ط‬
ٖ -

- Allan ْ‫ ػال‬-
- Houban8 ْ‫ثب‬ٛ‫ اٌس‬-

- Qat ‫ لبد‬-
Table No. (5-2) Transliteration strategy in rendering ecological terms

Despite the fact that the transliteration strategy is applied by the translators to

translate culture-specific terms as a foreignization strategy; however, this strategy has

failed partially in transliterating some proper nouns as in the following examples:

6
See appendix 3, Picture No. 8, page: 169.
7
Mis -transliteration in the term [Toulqa], to be corrected as [Toulqah].
8
Mis -transliteration in the term [Houban], to be corrected as [Hawban].
- 82 -
 - Al-Qutabi9 ٟ‫ اٌمؼطج‬-

- Al-Awtari10 ٞ‫ اٌؼٕزؽ‬-

Table No. (5-3) Mis-transliteration in rendering the proper nouns of singers

In other words, it is important to say that this translation procedure changes the

meaning intended by the author and understood by the SL reader because these are

names of two famous singers in Yemen during the Imamate era, but transliterating them

like this resulting in giving them new names that do not exist and no one knows them.

Hence, transliterating them correctly and adding a footnote is in order.

5.2.1.1.1.1.6 Translation by Omission

Alternatively, omission strategy was rarely employed over the text i.e. the

ecological culture terms. The following examples below show these ecological terms

rendered by omission strategy as follows:

- Blank ْ‫ا‬ٚ‫ اٌهػؼ‬-

- Blank ‫ح‬ٍَٛ‫ اٌط‬-

Although the translators use the translation strategy of omission in rendering some

of the culture specific ecological terms, however, they might have used another

translation strategy in order to clarify the ambiguity for the TL reader. For example, the

culture specific material term" ْ‫ا‬ٚ‫ "اٌهػؼ‬can be translated into the TL as "a fountain" by

using a more general word translation strategy; although the cultural privacy may be

lost partially, but the TL reader will be closed and aware about the SL author's intended

meaning. See appendix 3, p: 167, picture: 4).

9
Mis -transliteration in the term [al-Qutabi], to be corrected as [al-Qatabi].
10
Mis -transliteration in the term [al-Awtari], to be corrected as [al-Antari].
- 83 -
 Moreover, the culture specific term " ‫ح‬ٍٛ‫[ "ض‬khalwah] which means a private room

for a married woman in the house where precious things used to be saved in special

closets ( See appendix 3, p: 167, picture: 3).; also, sometimes, it is not allowed to any

body to inter to it except the husband if he is alive. So in this case, there are two

translation strategies that could have been used to convey the intended meaning either

by applying a componential analysis strategy or a more general word strategy i.e. "a bed

room" or " a private room".

- 84 -
5.2.1.1.2. Material Culture Terms

„Ar-Rahinah’ represents the specificities of a particular people‟s culture in

relation to behaviour, food, clothes, etc. So, a term that refers to a particular reality may

not be fully understood when separated from the reality it represents. Every culture-

specific term has a certain expressive meaning that cannot be understood by an audience

for whom the text is not intended.

5.2.1.1.2.1 Translation Procedures of Material Culture Terms

In rendering the material terms, the translators opt for many procedures in order

to overcome the cultural gaps as shown bellow:

5.2.1. 1.2.1.1 Translation by a More General Word

For instance, the term “ ‫[ "شششف‬sharshaf] in the SL means (black pieces of cloth

that women, in the north governorates of Yemen used to put on over their clothes to

cover themselves from head to feet). It consists of three separate pieces to cover the

head, the bosoms and the third is tied around the waist until the feet). Thus, [sharshaf] is

different from the cultural equivalent used by the translators as “cloak”. The “cloak” is a

warm piece of clothing without sleeves that hangs loosely from the shoulders; it is used

by both men and women in the Arab Gulf countries and they call it [besht]. And so, the

translators face a cultural gap in treating this culture-specific term. Firstly, they render

the term [sharshaf] by using a more general word as "cloak" which distorts the

denotative and connotative meanings of the term i.e. its three- pieces form in terms of

structure and its social and religious function in terms of usage. Secondly, they changed

their decision in order to overcome this cultural gap by using a different strategy i.e.

omission. Therefore, keeping the term [sharshaf] un-translated and supplying a footnote

- 85 -
would give the target reader the opportunity to familiarize himself with the foreign

culture.

Moreover, the material culture-specific terms used by the author are part of the

cultural heritage of the society. Such cultural terms refer to the conventions of clothing.

The term “ ‫[ ”ِئضس‬miazar] is a conventional piece of cloth in Yemen that men used to

wear around their loins i.e. the part from the waist until the knees. This culture-specific

term is rendered into TL as a “cloak” too; however, the term “cloak” in English as we

mentioned earlier means in Arabic a warm piece of clothing without sleeves that hangs

loosely from the shoulders. Therefore, this cultural difference between the two cultures

is not solved and the gap gets wider. Perhaps, making a decision by using the equivalent

term" loincloth'' as a cultural equivalent for “ ‫[ ”ِئضس‬miazar] might partially make the

target reader close to the society of the novel. See appendix 3, p: 170, picture: 9).

Likewise, the term “ ‫[ ”عّاِح‬3imama] is rendered into English in two different

ways: “turban” and “cloak”. The translators use two different cultural equivalents to

refer to [3imama] in Arabic in spite of the fact that the two terms in English do not refer

to the same clothes. The translators do not keep the same translation of the term

[3imama] as “turban” thinking that the two terms refer to the same piece of clothes used

to be worn by men. (See appendix 3, p: 168, picture: 6)

On the other hand, we can point up that with the Arabic term " ‫[ "جشح‬jarrah]

which means (a jar made out of baked clay for serving and keeping water cold). No

English term is exactly equivalent to it. The translators used “water jug” as an

equivalent term by employing a more general word strategy, but the two terms do not

mean the same thing. This term is linked culturally to an integrated living pattern of

people's lives in a certain time and specific place. Therefore, rendering the term [jarrah]

in this manner into the TL culture ignores the social colors and specificities that

- 86 -
distinguish it i.e. its shape, color, the way it is used in service water as well as the

materials it is made of. The target text reader and the source reader will have different

conceptions of the same device. Every term in the text only makes sense within a given

frame of reference or culture. If we make a link between terms and the world they

describe, we may notice the existence of gaps between different representations. So, this

makes it difficult for the target language reader to experience the same mental

representation of things. Using footnotes is useful in the sense of preserving cultural

features of the ST so that the translation reveals the text as a part of the culture to which

it belongs.

A more general word procedure is applied by the translators in rendering the

[Janbiya11] or ‎ [jambīyah] " ‫خ‬١‫ "خٕج‬in the ST into "dagger" in the TT, but [jambīyah]

generally used to describe a specific type of dagger with a short curved blade that is

fixed to a belt and worn by a man around the waist. The TL reader could not grasp the

embedded meaning of this term. Although, the term [jambīyah] is also used in other

Arab countries, it is mostly associated with people of Yemen. Men typically above the

age of 14 wear it as an accessory to their clothing. Jambīyahs constitute of a hilt or a

handle, a blade, and a sheath in which the blade is held. It is made of a certain sort of

wood, to hold the blade that is fixed to the waist from underneath with an upward

curved sheath. The belt that holds the jambiya is made of tanned leather, or some thick

cloth. There are specialized markets and handicraft markets that decorate it with golden

wires. Jambiyas come in brands. The price of a jambiya varies between 500 Yemeni

Rials to 200 million Yemeni Rials. The brand of a jambiya is associated with the

material with which it is made as well as its quality and design. It is composed of four

parts i.e. (the hilt or handle, blade, sheath and belt); however, the most significant part

of a jambiya is its hilt or handle. In fact, the price of a jambiya is in most cases

11
[Janbiya] is also spelled also ‎[jambīyah].
- 87 -
determined by its hilt. The sayfani handle is known to be the most famous and is found

on the daggers of wealthier citizens. The sayfani handle is made of rhinoceros's horns,

which can cost up to $1500 per kilogram. Different versions of sayfani handles can be

distinguished by their color. Most other janbiya handles are made of different types of

horns or wood. Apart from the material used for the handle, the design and detail on the

handle describe its value and the status of its owner. Preserving the cultural specificity

of this term may be done by using the transliteration strategy which will make the TL

reader aware about the SL reader's experiences. www.vikingsword.com. Bellow, the

figure shows Janbiya's different parts:

Picture No. (5-1) shows the different parts of Janbiya.

However, rendering the expression " ٟٔ‫فب‬١‫[ "ؼاـ ي‬ras sayfani] into the TL as

"sayfani blade" is inadequate translation since it distorts the cultural specificity of the

ST embedded meaning. Blade is, in the majority of cases, the double-sided blade of the

[jambiya] and it is constructed of steel. The blade is stored in a sheath, usually made of

wood. While, " ‫" اٌؽاـ‬i.e. "the hilt" or the "handle" is the most significant part of a

jambiya and it is made of rhinoceros's horns and the price of a janbiya is in most cases

determined by its hilt. The saifani handle is known to be the most famous and is found

on the daggers of wealthier citizens. The saifani handle can cost up to $1500 per

kilogram. Different versions of sayfani handles can be distinguished by their color. The

translators are not aware about the different components of the term [jambiya]. So,

rendering this culture-specific expression " ٟٔ‫فب‬١‫ "ؼاـ ي‬as "sayfani hilt" or "sayfani

- 88 -
handle" may solve the cultural gap in some way. Bellow, the figure shows the hilt and

blade:

Picture No. (5-2) shows the hilt and blade of Janbiya.

5.2.1.1.2.1.2 Translation by Substitution

Substituting one term in the SL for another in the TL is a translation procedure

that makes the alien original term familiar, accessible and readable to the intended

cross-cultural readers. However, rendering the term “ َ‫[ ”وع‬kudam] into English as “stale

bread” causes a cultural distort and loss to the expressive meaning intended by the ST

author. In fact, the translators wanted to reduce the marks of translation through

adapting things to the target culture like the translation of “ َ‫[ ”وع‬kudam] into “stable

bread” which refers to "un-fresh bread" in general. Generally speaking, this type of

bread looks like western bread rolls; they produce it from mixed grains and bake it in

large ovens as a commercial product. Turkish brought this type but Yemeni people

change the ingredients to fit their choices. It is preferred by many Yemeni people.

http://www.ghaylan.8k.com/YemeniFood-3.htm

Nevertheless, the term [kudam] in the novel refers to (bad bread made from a

collection of low-level cereals and made for the army in special clay and stone ovens

where soldiers and students in schools are imposed to have with meals, (al-Eryani,

1996:763-4). Yet, the word “stable bread” seems not to be an equivalent to ST term

[kudam]. The referential specificity conveyed by the SL is not rendered. The ST term

connotes an ordinary popular food served to soldiers and students in particular districts

in specific time, whereas the English word may be associated with a different setting

- 89 -
where it is made and sold. Hence, the two terms may not express the same sociocultural

environment. Nida (1964:130) states that, "Differences between cultures may cause

more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structures".

Thus, translating by paraphrasing will help to make the TL reader capture the intended

meaning.

Inter-cultural translation problems also arise from differences in conventions

related to the two cultures involved. Measurements of unit are a case in point. The

translators of „ar-Rahina ‟ opted for cultural substitution by translating the term " َ‫"قَدَح‬

[qadah] as a conventional measuring unit into the TL reader as “sack”; however, the two

terms do not mean the same thing. [qadah] is a measuring unit for cereals. It is the

biggest measuring unit in Yemen and it equals around 32 kgs i.e. [qadah] is composed

of 64 cans" ‫ "ٔفؽ‬and every can weight about 500 gs so the [qadah] equals 32 kgs (al-

Eryani, 1996:711); whereas, a “sack” i.e. " ‫ف‬١‫ و‬/ ‫ايح‬ٛ‫[" ن‬showala] is a different unit of

measure and it does not have a fixed measure where its measures are around 10 to 50

kgs. Therefore, the two terms are not equivalents in spite of the fact that they have the

same function. This is because every language has lexical terms that express its

speakers‟ mode of life. Hence, translating the term [qadah] into the TL as a

"bushel" might bridge the cultural gap partially in terms of measuring. "Bushel" is a

unit of capacity which equals about 33 kgs. (Al-Mawrid Dic. 2004: 137).

5.2.1. 1.2.1.3 Cultural Equivalent

The investigation of translation of culture-specific terms reveals the referential

relation of the TT to the ST. The specificity of translation lies in the hybridity of its

referents. For example, the author used some elements to create a certain atmosphere

related to the harsh circumstances of the fortress of hostages. Among these elements, he

- 90 -
used the term “ ‫[ ”معقل‬M3qel] to refer to a fortress or a bastion which is a large, strong

building used for arresting young boys by the Imam and his soldiers . The translators

used “home” as a cultural equivalent for the term [M3qel] but the meaning that is

associated with the fortress life that the term carries is not well expressed in the TT. So,

the target reader is going to understand the referent of the term “home” according to his

experience and prior knowledge. The term “home” is a more expressive symbol.

“Home” refers to inside to connote security and comfort. Besides, the choice of terms

made by the author aims at matching the subject and creating a certain mood and

feeling. That is why, translation is supposed to communicate not only the informational

content, but also the feelings and attitudes of the original text. The flavor and impact of

the original should ideally be re-expressed in the receptor language. The translators

managed, to some extent, to establish some kind of balance between remaining faithful

to the original text and producing a text that fits into the new cultural context of the

target language. See appendix 3, p: 169, picture: 8).

5.2.1.1.2.1.4 Componential Analysis

Whatever the translators do to be faithful in the translation of this novel; they

will not succeed in the transfer of the complete privacy. The culture-specific terms

definitely sketch the specificity of the real life of Yemeni culture people i.e. traditions

and customs in clothing and food serving at that specific period of time. For example,

the term" ‫"خّٕخ‬, [Jamanah] refers to a classic Yemeni coffee cattle Potter. It is linked

culturally to an integrated living pattern of people's lives in a certain time and specific

place; moreover, it is related to the building design and method of clothing where it is

used to be served. Consequently, the translation of the term " ‫[ "خّٕخ‬Jamanah] into the

TT reader as "Coffee pot" ( ‫ح‬ٛٙ‫ػبء اٌم‬ٚ) is inadequate translation because it does not show

the form of the container and its belongings i.e. the provider of the [Jamanah], the smell

- 91 -
of coffee, the fireplace, nature and form of furniture of '' the reception room'' ْ‫ا‬ٛ٠‫اٌع‬...

etc., so that it is difficult to find an equivalent for the term. So in order to overcome this

cultural gap, the translators resorted to a componential analysis technique to render the

term [Jamanah] into the TT reader as "Coffee pot" where the meaning is partially

conveyed. The picture bellow shows the [Jamanah]:

Picture No. (5-3) shows [Jamanah] or a coffee pot.

Likewise, the term" ‫"ِعاػخ‬, [madaah] is linked culturally to an integrated living

pattern of people's lives in Yemeni culture; the translators resort to two strategies in

order to overcome the cultural gap that this term represents. The term " ‫[ "ِعاػخ‬madaah]

is translated into the TL reader once as "nargila" ( ‫هخ‬١‫)ن‬. Hence, it is inadequate

translation because it does not show the form of the [madaah] and its belongings i.e. the

provider of the [madaah], the smell of tobacco, the fireplace, the stem, the nature and

form of furniture of '' the saloon'' ْ‫ا‬ٛ٠‫اٌع‬... etc., so that it is difficult to find an equivalent

for this term; so in order to overcome this cultural gap, the translators resort to a

componential analysis technique to render the term [madaah] into the TT reader as

"water pipe" where the meaning is partially conveyed although there is another

equivalent that may express this cultural privacy better i.e. to use the cultural equivalent

" hubble bubble". (See appendix: 3, page: 169, picture: 7).

- 92 -
5.2.1. 1.2.1.5 Translation by Omission

Nevertheless, some of the culturally specific material terms which are colored

with cultural privacy do not help to translate them into TT. In spite of that the

translation strategy of omission was hardly ever employed over the text, especially over

material terms where both content and message are excluded. Although, the translators

use translation strategy of omission; however, they may use another translation strategy

in rendering the culture-specific material terms in order to explicit the ambiguity for the

TL reader. Using componential analysis translation strategy, i.e. translating the sense

components even though it excludes culture and highlights the message will be in order.

For example, the culture specific material term" ٞ‫اؼ‬ٛ‫ "اٌج‬can be translated into the TL

reader as "clay bowls"; moreover, using the strategy of transliteration for "al-bashli

rifle" as the SL term " ٍٟ‫ "اٌجٕعق اٌجه‬may partially convey the meaning to the TL reader;

particularly, this kind of rifles is rooted in Yemeni and Arab traditions in which it is

weapon used as anti air-armed planes. http://www.alwahamag.com/?act=artc&id=602.

In other words, the culture specific term " ‫[" خفٕخ‬jefnah] is a deep masticating pot,

made of engraved wood; it is a unique Yemeni pot. So, instead of applying the strategy

of omission, the translation strategy of transliteration or componential analysis may be

in order.

- 93 -
5.2.1.1.3 Social Culture Terms

Domesticating the source cultural terms would be possible when the experiences

tend to overlap between cultures and the same situations can be reproduced in the target

culture. When regarding translation not only as the transmission of knowledge and the

creation of understanding, but also the transmission of culture, the translator has to

reflect the cultural aspects of the source text through making the target language reader

feel that he is reading a text that contains features pertaining to a foreign culture whose

understanding should be accomplished with reference to a particular setting. Most of the

terms used in the novel „Ar-Rahinah’ express truly the brutal exploitation of human life

as it appears entirely in the hands of others in Yemen during the Imamate era. In

rendering the social culture terms, the translators opt for many strategies in order to

overcome the cultural gaps.

4.2.1.1.3.1 Translation Procedures of Social Culture Terms

4.2.1.1.3.1.1 Cultural Equivalent

Socially and historically speaking, the term “ ‫ٓح‬١٘‫[ ”اٌؽ‬Ar-Rahinah] is used in the

novel to refer to "A young boy who was taken by the ruling Imam from his family as a

hostage in order to secure the obedience of his father, tribe or village; the boy lived

together with other hostages in a prison in a very protected fortress, often in harsh

circumstances, separated from family and childhood friends for many years" (Burrowes.

R. (1994:1). However, a ''hostage'' for a foreign reader means (someone who is kept as a

prisoner by an enemy so that s/he will do what the enemy demands) (Longman Dic.,

1995:691).Thus, the historical aspect might not be rendered when using “a hostage” as

an equivalent term. The term [Ar-Rahinah] in Yemeni culture revives in the reader

certain feelings and attitudes towards the ruling Imam because of the evil atrocity,

- 94 -
oppression, individual salvation and the total exploitation the hostages used to suffer.

This historical and cultural meaning is not rendered by using the equivalent term i.e.

"The Hostage".

The understanding of the ST is based on the culture that underlies it, so the

translator must understand the interaction between all the elements of the text and

translate them as a unified whole reproducing some kind of unity whose elements match

each other. Translation of cultural terms that have no equivalents in other cultures

requires a special treatment that takes into account their occurrence in time and space.

Adaptation may not reproduce faithfully the source text situation expressing the

idiosyncrasy of a foreign culture. If the translator does not understand well the cultural

context and cultural meaning behind terms, s/he will end up with a translated version

with different social values and this may be regarded as a deviation from the source

text. This is what makes some translators refuse to let the target readers steer them away

from pursuing faithfulness to the cultural significance of culture-specific terms used in

the original text. Translation is judged successful if the target language audience has

come to understand what a source language audience should have understood. This

could be achieved when the translator‟s priority is given to intentionality, feelings and

attitudes over obvious informational content.

Likewise, if the ST is said to belong to certain people or a certain context, it

undergoes changes when being translated into a foreign language. Its nature changes as

it is adapted to fit a new social environment. The term “‫ػىف‬

ٖ ” [Aokfah] means (a

reserved private soldier who belongs to a reliable, loyal and defendant tribe to the

Imam. (Al-gomhoria newspaper, issue No.:15627, Sep., 2012), and (al-Eryani,

1996:648). The Imam used these loyal soldiers to protect him as well as to fulfill some

administrative tasks, but mainly to collect Zakat from the populace and to keep order.

- 95 -
The term [Aokfah] was translated into the TL as “soldiers” on page (23) as a cultural

equivalent term; however, the historical aspect might not be rendered when using

“soldiers” as an equivalent term. Moreover, the translators change their decision on

page 91 and translate the term [Aokfah] as “guards”. The term provokes to the Arabic

reader certain feelings and a bad attitude towards these brutal soldiers with blue

uniforms who support the Imam and crush the populace. The most appropriate

rendering of the term [Aokfah] into English would be “private guards” or “private

soldiers” instead of “guards” or “soldiers” alone in which they refer to both regular and

reserved soldiers.

5.2.1.13.1.2Translation by Substitution

The translation of the term " ً‫ع‬١‫[ "ق‬sayyid] into English as “Sir” is not only

inadequate translation but also it distorts the religious and social connotations of the

term. The term [sayyid] is a title applied for a man of noble birth, claiming descent from

the prophet Mohammad, (PBUH) (Ghazala, 2008:96). Primarily, Sunnis in the Arab

world reserve the term sharif for descendants of Hasan ibn Ali, while sayyid is used for

descendants of Husayn ibn Ali. Both Hasan and Husayn are grandchildren of Prophet

Muhammad, through the marriage of his cousin Ali and his daughter Fatima. However

ever since the post-Hashemite era began, the term sayyid has been used to denote

descendants from both Hasan and Husayn. Arab Shiites use the terms sayyid and habib

to denote descendants from both Hasan and Husayn. Therefore, the term [sayyid]

represents the highly aristocratic status of the community; the duty of legalization,

upbringing and teaching religion i.e. Holy Quran and the Prophet's Traditions are

devoted to those men during the imamate era. Yet, the term in the ST is used to refer to

a social and religious status. However, the term ''Sir'' in English is used by children at

school as a way of addressing or talking about a male teacher. Alternatively, the

- 96 -
translators opt for another choice to overcome this problematic item in which they

render the term [sayad] into TL reader as "Master". Therefore, this treatment does not

convey the connotative meaning intended by ST author. The chosen equivalent as

"Master" denotes only a social status. Therefore, the translation by employing a cultural

equivalent as ''Sir'' and "Master" shows only the denotative meaning while the

connotative meaning is lost. Thus, the TL reader can not capture the embedded meaning

associated with the ST; alternatively, a brief footnote may be in order.

5.2.1. 1.3.1.4 Translation by Transliteration

The translation by transliteration is used when dealing with culture-specific

terms that do not exist in the TL. Applying this technique enables the translator to

convey culturally social terms as they are to the TL and to give a local color to the

translation as it is shown in the table below:

- al-Bourezan ْ‫ؼؾا‬ٛ‫ اٌج‬-

- al-Tawshiyeh ٟ‫ان‬ٛ‫ اٌط‬-

- al-Shaykh ‫ص‬١‫ اٌه‬-

- Sayf al-Islam12 َ‫ف االقال‬١‫ ق‬-

- Al-Sharifa13 ‫فخ‬٠‫ اٌهؽ‬-

- Duwaydar 14 ‫عاؼ‬٠ٚ‫ اٌع‬-

- Al-tabashi15 ٟ‫ اٌطجه‬-

- Ustadh 16 ‫ اقزبغ‬-

Table No. (5-4) Transliteration strategy in rendering social terms

12
The term[Sayf al-Islam] is translated freely as "royal prince" on page( ST : 81 – TT:70)
13
The term [Al-Sharifa] is rendered by adding a foot note (TT: 29), so to be corrected as
[as-sharifa].
14
The term [Duwaydar] is rendered by adding a foot note in the TT, p:24)
15
[Al-Tabashi], it is mis-transliterated, so to correct the term as [Attubshi].
16
The term [ustadh] is rendered by adding a footnote on page( ST:128- TT:101]
- 97 -
 Transliterating some of the social terms, as in table No. (5-4), does not only

change the meaning associated with the ST, but also creates new terms that does not

exist in the novel setting. Socially speaking, these terms represent different status in the

Yemeni culture and society during the Imamate era.

Alternatively, to make it more explicit, the culture specific terms i.e. (al-

Duwaydar, al-Tobshi, Tawshiyeh and Bourazan) are "Turkish terms adopted in

Yemeni Arabic especially in the army from the days of the Ottoman's Rule". Enani, M.

(2001:161).

- 98 -
5.2.1.1.4. Religious Culture Terms

5.2.1.1.4.1 Translation Procedures of Religious Culture Terms

Two translation procedures have been applied in rendering religious cultural

terms. They are as follows:

5.2.1.1.4.1.1 Cultural Equivalent

The successful translation is the one where ideas match and cohere. Nothing

seems to be odd or irrelevant. The cultural equivalent term “saint” for the term “ ٌٟٚ”

[Wali] does not fit the whole because the ST expresses a specific religious spirit. The

term [Wali] in Arabic means "a person whose soul is purified from the impurity of life,

and thus his behaviour becomes right and he is characterized by sincere obedience to

Allah, so he is guarded and protected by Allah"17. AnNabahani, Y. (1992:7-14 &33).

But “saint” means a person who is recognized after death as being holy and worthy of

honour in the church. As the two terms represent different religions, they may not be

equivalents because they carry different connotations. The term “saint” as it is used in

Christianity is usually translated into “ ‫ف‬٠‫[ ”لع‬qiddiis] in Arabic. As long [Wali] is a

close man to God, so the appropriate rendering of the term [Wali] into English is "holy

man" or "God's man" instead of "saint" which refers to Christianity. Hans-Wehr,

1976:1100). The overall meaning of the original that the translator is supposed to render

in the target language is expected to be related to all the unity of the constituent parts of

the ST in order to produce a coherent whole conveying the same information as the

original.

A cultural term cannot be dealt with in isolation from its social, cultural, and

religious context and other terms around it. For example, the term " ٗ١‫[ "فم‬faqih] means a

17
The original text is a translated from Arabic by the researcher.
- 99 -
person who is well versed in the holy Quran and religious duties or jurisprudent. (Hans

Wehr Dic.1976:723). The translators follow different strategies in rendering this term

into the target reader because of the cultural specificity to it. The term [faqih] was

rendered into English in three different ways: firstly, by paraphrasing the term in the

foot note as “a religious teacher”; secondly, as a “learned man” and thirdly by

transliterating the term as [faqih].The translators used the first two different translations

to refer to [faqih]; however, the two terms in English do not refer to the same proper

noun. In the one hand, the equivalent term “a religious teacher” has some aspects of

similarity in its denotative meaning, but it also refers to a religious man who preaches

and teaches religion in Christianity; on the other hand, a term “learned man” expresses

any educated man in general. Because of the cultural, religious and social specificity to

the term [faqih] in the source text, keeping the term [faqih] untranslated, and supplying

an explanatory footnote or a glossary would make reading awkward but it permits the

reader to understand it in its socio-cultural context. Caution should be exercised when

matching culture-specific terms from two different languages. The choice of a term in

the target culture would greatly depend on the degree of its correspondence with the

term in the source culture. (See appendix: 3, page: 168, picture No.6).

The translators also use a comparable term in the TL culture i.e. “alms tax” as a

cultural equivalent for the term “ ‫[ ”اٌضوبح‬azZakat]; however, this translation is partially

incorrect. For, " ‫[ "صوبح‬Zakat] means (an obligatory charity) or (an obligatory donation of

foodstuff required at the end of Ramadan, the month of fasting) (Hans Wehr

Dic.1976:609). [Zakat] in Islam is of many types i.e. Zakat of fasting, agriculture, cattle,

and money, etc. This definition for the term [Zakat] does not fit the whole because the

original text expresses a specific religious worship for Muslims. But “alms tax” means

(old fashioned, money, food, and clothes etc. that are given to poor people voluntarily.

(Longman Dic., 1995:35).

- 100 -
 As the two terms represent different cultures, they are not equivalents because

they carry different denotations and connotations. In terms of obligation, the "tax" is

obligatory by government, but [Zakat] is obligatory by God. In order to make a close

equivalent in the translation of this term from the SL into the TL as Ghazala, (2004:84-

85) states that, "The appropriate rendering of the term [Zakat] into the TL is by adding

the term "compulsory" or "obligatory" to the English term "alms" or "charity" and it will

become “compulsory alms” or “compulsory charity” which means ‫خ‬١ِ‫ اٌؿا‬ٚ‫َخ أ‬ٚ‫يعلخ ِفؽ‬

instead of “alms tax”". However, the TL reader may not accept the idea of being

obligatory and this represent additional cultural gap.

Moreover, the religious term " ٌٚ‫[ "اٌفؽ‬al-Furud] i.e. plural of [fardh] is

rendered into the TL as "duties". [Furud], in the context, means the five religious duties

i.e. (prayers, fasting, paying azZakat and pilgrimage…etc.), in addition to the prophet's

traditions i.e. deeds and sayings. Hence, the appropriate rendering of the term [Furud]

into the TL is by adding the term "religious" to the English term "duties" and it will

become “religious duties” which means ‫خ‬١ٕ٠‫ٌ ظ‬ٚ‫ فؽ‬instead of “duties”". (Ghazala,

2004:84-85).

5.2.1.1.4.1.2 Translation by a More General Word

The process of translation can not be done in isolation from its cultural and

social environment. The translation of the term “ ‫اٌع‬ِٛ” [Mawaled] in its plural form into

the TL as "births" reflects the cultural gap between the two cultures. The translators

opted for a translation by a more general word (superordinate) to overcome the possible

lack of specificity in the target language. The fact that the two terms do not refer exactly

to the same thing indicates the loss of cultural meaning. [Mawled] in its singular form

means a ritual to celebrate the birth of the Prophet Mohammad (PBUH); culturally, it is

linked to an integrated chanting pattern of people in a certain time and specific place

- 101 -
reading some religious poems in which they glorify Allah and praise the Prophet

Mohammad's deeds and virtues and to review his biography. Moreover, this term

[mawled] is religiously associated with Sufism i.e. an Islamic doctrine whose followers

are devoted to purify their souls from the impurity of life, and thus their behaviours

become right and they are characterized by sincere obedience to Allah. However, the

term "birth" means "the time when something new starts to exist" (Longman

Dic.1995:117); so it is not linked to a particular occasion. This connotative association

is not rendered in translation while it is important in the original text. So, religious

culture-specific terms may refer to the notion of time which is neglected when

providing equivalent terms. It is also important in the process of translation to be aware

of “realities” to which cultural terms refer and of the cultural implications they contain;

hence, the translation strategy by explanation and supplying a foot note is crucial for

solving this problem.

- 102 -
 5.3 Culture-Specific Metaphors and Idioms

In this section, the researcher identifies metaphors and idioms separately; then, he

analyzes and describes them under the same heading because of two reasons: on the one

hand, they are interrelated in nature since metaphor is a common base for idioms. On

the other hand, rendering these two figures of speech into another language reveals

problems of the same nature.

First, the identified culture-specific metaphors are shown as follows:

S Culture–Specific Metaphors in
Equivalent Metaphors in the TT
Translation
No. the ST
Strategy
Page Arabic script Page Translation

31. 90 ‫ٔهف‬ٚ ٟ‫ف ظق ٌٗ لٍج‬ٛ‫ ض‬ٟٔ‫اػزؽا‬ٚ 77 The fear sweeping through me, Literal

ٟ‫م‬٠‫ٌٗ ؼ‬ makes my heart beat quicker and translation

my mouth grow dry

32. 47 ‫خ‬٠ٚ‫ خػع ٔطٍخ ضب‬....ٗٔ‫وب‬ 49 …like the stump of a palm Literal

translation

33. 65 ‫ِظخ ثشق‬ٛ‫و‬ 60 In the twinkling of an eye Substitution

34. 49 ٌٝ‫ٔٗ ا‬ٍٛ‫عض‬٠ ‫ؼ ٔبظؼ‬ٛ‫ ػًف‬ٟٕٔ‫وب‬ 50 Like a rare bird about to be put Literal

‫بح‬١‫ اٌس‬ٜ‫ ِع‬ٟ‫لفًٗ اٌػ٘ج‬ in a golden cage for life. translation

35. 189 .‫ه‬٠‫ُخ اٌع‬١‫خ وج‬٠‫ زىب‬ٟ٘ٚ 139 ---------------------- Omission

Table No. (5-5) Culture-specific metaphors identified in ST and TT

- 103 -
 Secondly, the identified culture-specific idioms are illustrated as follows:

S Culture–Specific Idioms in the ST Equivalent Idioms in the TT

Translation
No.
Strategy
Page Arabic script Page Translation

36. 127 ‫ب‬ٍٙ‫ب ثى‬١ٔ‫ؽاٖ اٌع‬٠ ٞ‫اٌػ‬ٚ.... 101 The boy was the son of the Free translation

Crown Prince "and the apple of

his eye"

37. 144 ‫ب‬ٍٙ‫ب ثى‬١ٔ‫ؽاٖ اٌع‬٠ ٞ‫اٌػ‬ٚ.... 111 The Crown Prince thinks the Literal translation

whole world of him.

38. 185 ‫د‬ٌّٛ‫ فؽال ا‬ٍٝ‫ػ‬ 136 …even "dying" Free translation

39. 186 ْ‫ضػال‬ٚ ُ‫غ‬ٚ ًِ‫جخ ا‬١‫ض‬ 137 That's a bitter blow Free translation

40. 13 ٗ١‫ُسه ًِء نعل‬٠ ... 27 .."grinning from ear to ear". Free translation

41. 28 ‫خ‬١‫ اٌؽػ‬ٍٝ‫ ارٕفػ ػ‬.... 37 "Using my authority over the Paraphrasing

populace".
42. 74 .ُٙ‫ة ث‬ٛ‫ؽ ِؽغ‬١‫ف غ‬ٛ١َ 65 Unwelcomed guests. Literal translation

43. 23 ..ٞ‫ عثبد‬...ٞ‫عجبد‬ 33 "My love... my handsome one". Free translation

.ٌٟ‫بزب‬٠َ‫ب‬٠‫اال‬
...ٞ‫بعجبد‬٠ Paraphrasing
44. 30 ‫خ ثعلخ‬٠‫اٌمّش‬ ‫رسفع‬ 38 "She knows all there is to know

about the human mouth".

45. 26 ‫ُبء‬١‫ؽح ث‬١‫لجخ يغ‬ 35 …small white dove. Literal translation

46. 52 ‫ األسشح‬ٟ‫اٌؼدبئؿ ف‬ 52 … the old women of the family. Literal translation

Paraphrasing
47. 133 ‫اٌؼهبء‬ٚ ‫لذ يالح اٌّغؽة‬ٚ 105 The two evening prayers.

48. 55 ‫اٌمضبء‬ٚ ‫ اٌششع‬ٟ‫بء ف‬ٙ‫اٌذىبَ اٌفم‬ 58 […] Legal experts. Substitution

49. 133 ‫ض‬٠‫جخ عض‬ٚ‫ ص‬,‫طب‬١ٌ‫ ثبٔه اٌؿ‬ٞ‫ال رغزؽ‬ 104 Don't take yourself for Literal translation

‫ِصش‬ Zulaykha, the pharaoh's wife.

50. 99 "‫ٌمُبء "اٌسبخخ‬ 82 …to satisfy "a call of nature" Paraphrasing

- 104 -
S Culture–Specific Idioms in the ST Equivalent Idioms in the TT
Translation
No.
Strategy
Page Arabic script Page Translation

51. 95 ‫ح‬ٛ‫ خط‬.‫بِؽزجب ثه‬٠ .ً‫ال‬ٙ‫ق‬ٚ ً‫ا٘ال‬ 80 Welcome. How nice to see you. Omission

.‫ضح‬٠‫عض‬

52. 173 .‫الٔب إٌبئت‬ِٛ َ‫بضبظ‬٠ ,‫ضح‬٠‫ح عض‬ٛ‫خط‬ 128 To what do I owe the privilege Paraphrasing

of this visit from the servant of

our Master the Governor?

53. 71 ‫ثّبغا ال قّر اهلل؟‬ 63 How in heaven's name? Free translation

54. 62 ‫ عمت‬ٍٝ‫بح إٌبـ ساسًب ع‬١‫مٍت ز‬٠ 58 Life's turned upside down Literal translation

91 ‫ عمت‬ٍٝ‫ْ ساسًب ع‬ٛ‫اْ الٍت اٌى‬ 78 Turned the whole world upside Literal translation

down

55. 82 ْ‫زب‬ٙ‫ث‬ٚ ‫ ُس‬ٚ‫ب ص‬ٍٙ‫اثزكبِبد و‬ 71 …. shallow smiles Free translation

91 ‫س‬ٚ‫ص‬ٚ ْ‫زب‬ٙ‫ث‬ 78 Theatrical and fake Literal translation

56. 67 ٗ‫خ‬ٌٛ‫زفع ِبء ا‬ 60 To preserve my dignity Paraphrasing

80 70 To preserve my self-respect Paraphrasing

57. 68 ‫اٌّشج‬ٚ ‫شج‬ٌٙ‫وثؽ ا‬ 61 The turmoil was growing Free translation

58. 98 ‫بذ‬١ًٌ‫ا‬ٚ ‫ؽج‬ٌٙ‫ا‬ 82 …the din and the laugher Literal translation

59. 49 ‫ؽ‬١‫كزظً اٌط‬٠ ‫ب‬ٙ‫ ؼزبث‬ٟ‫فف‬ 50 She is the soul of generosity Paraphrasing

60. 47 ً‫ة ضشثبً ِجشدب‬ٚ‫ُِؽ‬ 49 You had beaten black and blue Free translation

61. 174 ‫ن اٌفدؽ‬ٛ٠‫ظ‬ 129 The roosters of the morning Literal translation

62. 186 ٍٝ‫ف اٌّسٍط ع‬١‫ع اٌس‬ٙ‫ اٌؼ‬ٌٟٚ 137 The tyrannical Crown Prince Free translation

63. 45 ‫سلبثٕب‬
‫ؼ‬ٛٔ ِٓ ‫ى‬١ً‫ث‬ ‫ال‬ 48 …………………. Omission

64. 83 ْ‫ ػع‬ٟ‫ٓ ف‬١١ّٕ١ٌ‫االزؽاؼ ا‬ 72 Free Yemenis in Aden Literal translation

- 105 -
S Culture–Specific Idioms in the ST Equivalent Idioms in the TT
Translation
No.
Strategy
Page Arabic script Page Translation

65. 60 ‫اٌّغفشح‬ٚ ‫ش‬١‫ اٌخ‬ٟ‫طبٌج‬ 56 Those seeking forgiveness for Paraphrasing

the dead and heavenly reward

for themselves

66. 200 ‫ً األجش‬١ٌٕ ‫رجؽع ثؼٍ اٌّبؼح‬ 146 To win favor from God Literal translation

‫اة‬ٛ‫اٌث‬ٚ
67. 200 .‫ػظُ اهلل ٌه األخؽ‬ 147 May God grant you patience Paraphrasing

68. 28 ‫خ‬١ٌ‫خ ٘ال‬٠‫ثعٕزش‬ 37 ................................. Omission

Omission
69. 47 .‫ اٌؼكىؽ اٌّجخشح‬ٟٔ‫ا‬ٚ‫ أ‬- 49 The soldiers' jugs
Omission
70. 44 ‫٘زا اٌضجش؟‬ٚ ,ٍٗ‫ٌّبغا ٘ػٖ اٌؼد‬ٚ 47 Why are you in such a hurry?

71. 90 ٟٙ‫خ‬ٚ ‫ب رٍكغ‬ٙ‫وبظد أفبق‬ 77 Her breath was almost burning Literal translation

my face now.
72. 74 ‫ دجش فه‬ٌٝ‫ ازع اٌؼكىؽ ا‬ٟٔ‫الزبظ‬ 65 The room where the chains Literal translation

‫د‬ٛ١‫اٌم‬ were to be removed

73. 167 ِٓ ٟ‫ ٘ؽثذ ث‬ٟ‫ اٌز‬ِٟ‫رػوؽد ا‬ 125 I remembered my mother who'd Literal translation

‫ٓ ِضاسع اٌمصت‬١‫[ ث‬....] ‫اٌؼىفخ‬ fled with me from the guards

‫اٌػؼح‬ٚ […] through the plantations of

corn and sugar-cane.

74. 112 ْ‫ٌعا‬ٌٛ‫ت ٌٗ ا‬١‫ش‬٠ ‫ع‬ٙ‫ِه‬ 91 A sight would […] turn young Literal translation

children's hair white.

Table No. (5-6) Culture-specific idioms identified in ST and TT

- 106 -
5.3.1 Translation types and strategies of culture-specific metaphors and idioms

In translating metaphors and idioms, the translators resort to two translation types

and two strategies in translating Ar-Rahinah novel into the TL. Translation types are

literal and free translation; whereas, the translation strategies are paraphrasing and

omission.

5.3.1.1 Literal Translation

The translators employ a literal translation when there is no comparable metaphor

or idiom available in the TL. The translators are restricted to this type of translation

when they expect that the ST image can be easily understood by the TT readers. Some

examples of this category are as follows:

Metaphorical examples are selected randomly from (table 5.5) above:

‫خ‬٠ٚ‫ خػع ٔطٍخ ضب‬....ٗٔ‫وب‬ -

- …like the stump of a palm tree.

‫بح‬١‫ اٌس‬ٜ‫ ِع‬ٟ‫ لفًٗ اٌػ٘ج‬ٌٝ‫ٔٗ ا‬ٍٛ‫عض‬٠ ‫ؼ ٔبظؼ‬ٛ‫ ػًف‬ٟٕٔ‫وب‬ -

- Like a rare bird about to be put in a golden cage for life.

‫سخ‬٠‫خ خؽ‬١‫وس‬ -

- Like a wounded snake.

ٟ‫م‬٠‫ٔشف ٌٗ ؼ‬ٚ ٟ‫ف ظق ٌٗ لٍج‬ٛ‫ ض‬ٟٔ‫اػزؽا‬ٚ -

- The fear sweeping through me, makes my heart beat quicker and my mouth grow

dry.

- 107 -
Idiomatic examples are selected randomly from (table 5-6) above:

ٓ١١ّٕ١ٌ‫األزؽاؼ ا‬ -

- Free Yemenis.

‫ن اٌفجش‬ٛ٠‫د‬ -

- The roosters of the morning.

ُٙ‫ة ث‬ٛ‫ش ِشغ‬١‫ف غ‬ٛ١‫ض‬ -

- Unwelcomed guests.

‫اة‬ٛ‫اٌث‬ٚ ‫ً األجش‬١ٌٕ ‫رجؽع ثؼٍ اٌّبؼح‬ -

- To win favor from God.

ْ‫ٌعا‬ٌٛ‫ت ٌٗ ا‬١‫ش‬٠ ‫ع‬ٙ‫ِه‬ -

- A sight would […] turn young children's hair white.

‫ األسشح‬ٟ‫اٌؼدبئؿ ف‬ -

- The old women of the family.

‫ي ثبٌسدبؼح‬ًٍِٛ ‫اق‬ٚ‫ؼ‬ٚ ,‫ضبء‬١‫شح ث‬١‫ٖ لجخ صغ‬ٍٛ‫ً ِبء رؼ‬١‫قج‬ -

- A fountain topped by a small white dove and also small paved area.

Some idiomatic expressions are literally rendered inadequately and this is because

of misinterpreting the SL idioms and metaphors while they have comparable

counterparts in the TL as in the following examples:

ْ‫ٌعا‬ٌٛ‫ت ٌٗ ا‬١‫ش‬٠ ‫ع‬ٙ‫ِه‬ -

- A sight would […] turn young children's hair white.

‫ األسشح‬ٟ‫اٌؼدبئؿ ف‬ -

- The old women of the family.

‫ي ثبٌسدبؼح‬ًٍِٛ ‫اق‬ٚ‫ؼ‬ٚ ,‫ضبء‬١‫شح ث‬١‫ٖ لجخ صغ‬ٍٛ‫ً ِبء رؼ‬١‫قج‬ -

- A fountain topped by a small white dove and also small paved area.

- 108 -
 ‫اٌػؼح‬ٚ ‫ٓ ِضاسع اٌمصت‬١‫ث‬ -

- Through the plantations of corn and sugar-cane.

‫ظ‬ٛ١‫دجش فه اٌم‬ -

- The room where the chains were to be removed.

‫ض ِصش‬٠‫جخ عض‬ٚ‫ ص‬,‫خب‬١ٌ‫ ثبٔه اٌض‬ٞ‫ال رغزؽ‬ -

- Don't take yourself for Zulaykha, the pharaoh's wife.

The meaning suggested here is extraordinary jealousy.

The translation of the religious expression in the SL " ‫ؿًِؽ‬٠‫خخ ػؿ‬ٚ‫[ "ؾ‬zawgat aziz

masr] into the TL as "the pharaoh's wife" distorts the historical, religious and cultural

connotation of this idiomatic expression in the context. According to "Hans Wehr

Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, 1976:609)" the word " ‫ؿ‬٠‫[ "ػؿ‬aziz] means

"mighty, strong, respected or great; whereas, it is translated into "pharaoh". So, this

might be regarded as inadequate translation caused by misinterpreting SL text idiom

along with its cultural context. The recommended translation should be adopted from

The Noble Quran as it is presented in the footnote and that as follows:

"Don't take yourself for Zulaykha, the wife of the (great) Aziz." 18

Or by transliteration as "Don't take your self for Zulaykha, "the wife of ".19

Culture is largely determined by language (linguistic relativity). Different

cultures perceive the world in different ways. For example, the translators render

literally the verb " ‫ت‬١‫ه‬٠" in the ST idiomatic expression " ْ‫ٌعا‬ٌٛ‫ت ٌٗ ا‬١‫ه‬٠" into the TL as

18
Adapted from "The Meanings of the Holy Quran", Sura: Yusuf ,Sec.12, verse:30)
"ٗ‫ظ فزب٘ب ػٓ ٔفك‬ٚ‫ض رؽا‬٠‫ٕخ إِشاءح اٌعض‬٠‫ اٌّع‬ٟ‫ح ف‬ٛ‫لبٌذ ٔك‬ٚ" (Ali,M.: 1994:84)
19
Adapted from "The Translation of the Meanings of the Noble Quran", Sura: Yusuf,
Part.12, verse: 30) " ٗ‫ظ فزب٘ب ػٓ ٔفك‬ٚ‫ض رؽا‬٠‫ٕخ إِشاءح اٌعض‬٠‫ اٌّع‬ٟ‫ح ف‬ٛ‫لبٌذ ٔك‬ٚ" (al-Hilali, M. &
Khan, M.:1982:307).

- 109 -
"turn […] hair white". Therefore, rendering the idiomatic expression into (white hair)

literally is inadequate because this leads to omitting the distinction drawn in the original

text. In terms of collocation, first, the TL reader uses “grey hair” instead of "white hair".

Secondly, it may be adopted from The Noble Quran as it is presented in the footnote

and that as follows:

A sight would […] turn young children's hair grey20.

Moreover, in translating literally the SL idiomatic expression " ‫ األقِؽح‬ٟ‫"اٌؼدبئؿ ف‬

into the TL as "the old women of the family", the translators mislead the TL reader. The

term "ٖ ‫[ "أقِؽ‬asirrah] in the SL is a plural form from [sareer] i.e. "bed" and it is different

from the term " ‫[ "األًقؽح‬al-osra] i.e. "family". Therefore, the translation of the term

[assira] into [al-osra] in the TL is wrong translation since the embedded meaning is

distorted. The author refers to the disabled, old and unmarried women of the palace who

are lying on beds. Despite the fact that the denotative meaning is obvious; however, the

connotative one can not be captured easily from the context.

Likewise, rendering the term " ‫[ "لجخ‬Qubba] into "dove" i.e." ‫ "لجؽح‬or " ‫ "زّبِخ‬in the

expression " ‫ؽح‬١‫ٖ لجخ يغ‬ٍٛ‫ " رؼ‬where it is rendered as "topped by a small white dove".

This can not be acceptable to the TL reader since there is no any indication of the term

"dove" i.e." ‫ "زّبِخ‬in the context. Perhaps, as ST reader, if we justify that there is an

error resulted by mistyping the correct term i.e. "dome" instead of "dove".

To go further, in the SL idiomatic expression" ‫د‬ٛ١‫"دجش فه اٌم‬, the word " ‫"دجش‬

which means a "stone" is rendered into the TL as "room". However, the word in the SL

is not an ordinary stone. It is a fixed one rooted in the ground and located at the middle

20
Adapted from "The Translation of the Meanings of the Noble Quran", Sura: Maryam
(Mary), Part.19, verse: 4) "‫ب‬١‫ نم‬ٟ‫ٌُ اوٓ ثعػبئه ؼث‬ٚ ‫جب‬١‫اشزعً اٌشاط ش‬ٚ ِٟٕ ُ‫٘ٓ اٌؼظ‬ٚ ٟٔ‫ ا‬ٟ‫( "لبي ؼث‬al-
Hilali, M. & Khan, M.:1982:402)

- 110 -
 of the palace square where chains used to be removed. This expression is rendered into

the TL reader inadequately. The cultural privacy of this expression is lost. The

translators follow the literal translation strategy.

As a final point, in the SL idiomatic expression" ‫"ِضاسع اٌمصت‬, the word " ‫"اٌمصت‬

which means a "fodder21" is rendered inadequately into the TL as "sugar-cane". Hence,

misinterpreting the SL message leads to mistranslation. The TL reader might not be

fully aware of the SL author's intended meanings. Also, he might not experience the SL

reader's feelings. Culturally speaking, in the novel environment, "sugar-cane" is not

planted. This translation changes the reality and misleads the TL reader. The suggested

translation might be "Through the plantations of corn and fodders".

5.3.1.2 Free Translation

Here, the translators employ TL metaphors and idioms which are referentially and

pragmatically comparable to those of the ST. However, the translators detach

themselves from the ST form and lexical items and express the meaning using different

TL forms and words. This translation type is not used very often by the translators. This

is owing to the vast linguistic and cultural gap between Arabic and English. Some

examples are as follows:

Idiomatic examples are selected randomly from table (5.6)

‫ب‬ٍٙ‫ب ثى‬١ٔ‫شاٖ اٌذ‬٠ -

- The apple of his eye.

‫ ثّبرا ال سّخ اهلل؟‬-

- How in Heaven's name?

21
On page"14" in the SL and "28" in the TL, the SL term" ‫ "لًت‬is rendered into
fodder.
- 111 -
 The translators realize that the idiom " ‫ب‬ٍٙ‫ب ثى‬١ٔ‫ؽاٖ اٌع‬٠"" works well with context; it

expresses something extremely precious to one, so they render this idiom into the TL by

using a culture-specific idiom which is similar in meaning and form " "[He sees him]

the apple of his eye" (V L Collins .A book of English Idioms, 1972:33)

However, this idiomatic expression is one of the outdated expressions used in the

TL at the present time. So, Watson (2001:21) comments on the translation of such

idiomatic expressions by saying, "Ironic addresses are far less frequent in English than

in a comparable Arabic text […] the idiomatic expression "the apple of my eye" i.e.

" ٟٕ١‫ازخ ػ‬
‫ "دف‬which can be used in ironic context is outdated and comical in English.

Therefore, Watson in her translation to Musaid and Musaida leaves these terms

untranslated in most of the episodes. Barakat (2008:86).

Similarly, " ‫ "ثّبغ ا السّخ اهلل؟‬implies that one can be surprised with unexpected

things. The holy name "Allah" is used to emphasize purity and virtuousness as a matter

of adjuration. The translators render this idiomatic expression into the more appropriate

English idiom, "How, in Heaven's name" which employs the "heaven", i.e. purity,

virtuousness and innocence from which nothing unusual is expected, to communicate

the element of surprise. (V L Collins .A book of English Idioms, 1972:91)

Free translation as a translation type has been applied by the translators to render

nonreligious idiomatic and metaphorical expressions into English and that as follows:

ٗ١‫ُسه ًِء نعل‬٠ ... -

- .."Grinning from ear to ear".

‫ سلبثٕب‬ٍٝ‫ف اٌّسٍط ع‬١‫ع اٌس‬ٙ‫ اٌؼ‬ٌٟٚ -

- The tyrannical Crown Prince.

‫ؽ‬١‫كزظً اٌط‬٠ ‫ب‬ٙ‫ ؼزبث‬ٟ‫فف‬ -

- She is the soul of generosity.

- 112 -
 ْ‫ضػال‬ٚ ُ‫غ‬ٚ ًِ‫جخ ا‬١‫ض‬ -

- That's a bitter blow.

ْ‫زب‬ٙ‫ث‬ٚ ‫ ُس‬ٚ‫ب ص‬ٍٙ‫اثزكبِبد و‬ -

- Shallow smiles.

‫س‬ٚ‫ص‬ٚ ْ‫زب‬ٙ‫ث‬ -

- Theatrical and fake.

ً‫ضشثبً ِجشدب‬ -

- You had beaten black and blue.

ٗ‫خ‬ٌٛ‫زفع ِبء ا‬ -

- To preserve my dignity.

- To preserve my self-respect.

ٌٟ‫بدب‬٠...ٞ‫بعجبد‬٠ ..ٞ‫ عجبد‬...ٞ‫عجبد‬ -

- "My love... my handsome one".

‫اٌذ اٌعالِخ‬ٌٛ‫ٍخ ا‬١‫ فض‬ٞ‫ذ‬١‫بس‬٠ ‫ِعبر اهلل‬ -

- Of course not.

‫اٌّشج‬ٚ ‫شج‬ٌٙ‫وثؽ ا‬ -

- The turmoil was growing.

‫بح‬١‫اٌص‬ٚ ‫شج‬ٌٙ‫وثؽ ا‬ -

- The din and the laugher.

5.3.1.3 Translation by Paraphrasing

The translators, instead of using metaphors or idioms, offer only the meaning

using a non-figurative language. On the one hand, by employing paraphrasing the

translators sacrifice the form and style of the ST and lose the pragmatic force of the

original metaphorical expressions. On the other hand, it is insured that the correct

- 113 -
interpretations of these expressions will be communicated to the target text reader.

Some examples are as follows:

‫اٌّغفشح‬ٚ ‫ش‬١‫ اٌخ‬ٟ‫طبٌج‬ -

- Those seeking forgiveness for the dead and heavenly reward for themselves

.‫ػظُ اهلل ٌه األخؽ‬ -

- May God grant you patience.

These are direct explanations of the idioms and metaphors. However, the

translators need to concentrate on translating, not explaining Arabic idioms and

metaphors into English equivalents. Explanation is acceptable only when translation is

not possible for a good reason.

By and large, misinterpreting the message in the ST leads to mistranslation which

causes a distortion of the intended meaning by the ST author and ignores the cultural

heritage of the novel. Therefore, the result is an inadequate or unacceptable translation

as in the following examples:

‫خ ثذلخ‬٠‫بَ اٌمّش‬٠‫رذفع اال‬ -

- She knows all there is to know about the human mouth.
"‫لضبء "اٌذبجخ‬ -
- To satisfy "a call of nature".
‫خ‬١‫ اٌؽػ‬ٍٝ‫ارٕفػ ػ‬ -
- Using my authority over the populace.

In the first example above, the main idea of the metaphorical expression َ‫ب‬٠‫رذفظ اال‬

" ‫خ ثذلخ‬٠‫ " اٌمّش‬is originally about the precise knowledge of women about fertility period;

it has clearly pointed out to that by using " ‫خ‬٠‫بَ اٌمّؽ‬٠‫[ "اال‬alayyam alqamaria] i.e. "lunar

days" which is regular with the culture of that historical period of the novel. However,

the translation here talks about women's knowledge of "the human mouth" " ْ‫"فُ االٔكب‬.

- 114 -
Accordingly, it is quite clear that this should be regarded as a case of mistranslation

caused by misinterpreting SL text metaphorical idiom along with its cultural context.

The TT reader can not grasp the author's intended meaning because the translation is

distorted. (Al-Maqaleh, A., op. cit: 126-7). The recommended translation for this

idiomatic expression can be paraphrased by using the contemporary medical expression

i.e. "she knows the reproductive days or the fertility days".

In other words, the translation of the idiomatic expression " ‫ "لُبء اٌسبخخ‬into the

TL as "to satisfy a call of nature" shows the translator's concerns to free themselves

from the restrictions of the SL formal and stylistic norms. So, they render the intended

meaning of the idiomatic expression in a manner convenient to TL norms. They evoke a

pragmatic effect comparable to that created by ST.

Ideally speaking, the translator's concerns when dealing with metaphorical idioms

in translation should be to communicate the meaning of the ST by using natural lexical

items of the TL. In other words, the translator is recommended to free himself / herself

from the restrictions of the SL formal and stylistic norms and his/her aim should be to

render the intended meaning of the metaphorical idioms in a manner convenient to TL

norms and in such a way that TL version evokes a pragmatic effect comparable to that

created by ST. The translators of Ar-Rahinah are aware of this fact; however, they are

able to apply this translation strategy only occasionally. This is something that they

should not be blamed for since the cultural gap between SL and TL is large and culture-

specific terms and metaphorical idioms which convey the same idea in both languages

are few.

- 115 -
5.3.1.4 Translation by Omission

Some expressions are omitted in translation particularly when they are juxtaposed

with other expressions that convey the same idea. Sometimes the idea is incorporated in

the context of translation. For example, the expression " ‫خ‬١ٌ‫خ ٘ال‬٠‫ "ػٕزؽ‬in the following

sentence is not directly translated i.e.

.‫غبً ثبٌسٕب‬ٛ‫خ فمع وبْ ًِج‬١ٌ‫خ ٘ال‬٠‫ أِب نبؼثٗ اٌّطزبي ثعٕزش‬.ٓ‫ك اٌػل‬١ٍ‫ع ز‬١‫ز‬ٌٛ‫ وبْ ا‬-

- He was the only man without a beard, and his proud mustache was dyed with henna.

The same could be said about the following examples:

‫ضح‬٠‫ح عض‬ٛ‫ خط‬.‫بِؽزجب ثه‬٠ .ً‫ال‬ٙ‫ق‬ٚ ً‫ ا٘ال‬-

- Welcome. How nice to see you.

‫عح‬١‫َ اٌجؼ‬ٛ‫اء إٌد‬َٛ‫ ا‬ٜٛ‫س ق‬ٛٔ ِٓ ‫ص‬١‫ الثص‬,ً‫ وبْ اٌظالَ ظاِكب‬-

- But it was pitch black, except for the glow of the distant stars.

The meaning is incorporated in translating the whole sentence in which it seems as

an evident that the TT version is functionally than pragmatically comparable to the ST.

However, some metaphors and idioms are omitted in translation and the meaning

is not included in the context of translation.

.‫ اٌؼكىؽ اٌّجخشح‬ٟٔ‫ا‬ٚ‫ أ‬-

- The soldiers' jugs.

‫٘زا اٌضجش؟‬ٚ ,ٍٗ‫ٌّبغا ٘ػٖ اٌؼد‬ٚ -

- Why are you in such a hurry?

- 116 -
5.3.1.5 Translation by Substitution

The idea of substitution is to look for the expression in the TL which is used in

the same context in the ST to give a meaning that can convey the intended meaning

by the SL author into the TL reader. The following metaphorical expressions show

that:

‫ِظخ ثشق‬ٛ‫ و‬-

- In the twinkling of an eye.

‫اٌمضبء‬ٚ ‫ اٌششع‬ٟ‫بء ف‬ٙ‫ اٌذىبَ اٌفم‬-

- Legal experts.

In the first example, despite the surface contrast between the two images of the

"twinkling of an eye" and " ‫ِظخ ثؽق‬ٛ‫( "و‬the lighting), a substitution strategy is applied,

for the concept of speed is perfectly expressed in the same way in both languages.

Likewise in the second example, using the TL idiomatic expression i.e. "legal

experts" to stand for the SL expression i.e." ‫اٌمضبء‬ٚ ‫ اٌششع‬ٟ‫بء ف‬ٙ‫ "اٌذىبَ اٌفم‬is an

acceptable translation. The TL reader is familiar with the word "legal experts" as ‫"ضجؽاء‬

" ْٛ١ٔٛٔ‫ لب‬in the courts and in time of disputes so he will not find any difficulty to capture

the connotative meaning of this idiomatic expression. The SL text deals with scholars

who have well knowledge in Islamic judiciary.

- 117 -
 5.4 Culture-Specific Proverbs

Proverbs, as idiomatic expressions, are one of the issues that embody the cultural

privacy of Ar-Rahinah novel. They are subjected to analysis and description by the

researcher. In addition, the possible translation strategies employed and the difficulties

that appear as problematic areas are traced by the researcher. The identified proverbs are

illustrated as follows:

S Culture–Specific Proverbs in Equivalent proverbs in the TT Translation

No. the ST Strategy

Page Arabic script Page Translation

75. 20 ‫ف‬١ٌُّ‫ زىُ ا‬ٟ‫ف ف‬١ٌُ‫ا‬ 32 It is for the host to decide where the Literal

guest goes. translation

76. 94 ُٙ‫ف‬ٛٔ‫َ ٌُ رّؽؽ ا‬ٛ‫ ِٓ "ل‬ٟٕٔ‫ثب‬ 79 [I didn't come from] People whose Literal

"‫ اٌزؽاة‬ٟ‫ف‬ noses could be simply rubbed in the translation

dirt.
Paraphrasing
77. 71 ‫ ثكجٍخ‬ٍٟ١‫لج‬ 63 Like some ignorant tribesman.

78. 202 ‫ِبفبد ِبد‬ 147 It is all over now. Free translation

79. 101 ‫ائع‬ٛ‫َ ف‬ٛ‫َ ػٕع ل‬ٛ‫ًِبئت ل‬ 84 One man's bad luck,[so it is said] is Free translation

another man's good luck.

80. 107 ٌٗ‫ٌىً ػًؽ ؼخب‬ 88 Every man has his day. Free translation

81. 193 ٗ١ّ‫س‬٠ ‫ذ ؼة‬١‫ٌٍج‬ٚ ٍٟ‫أب ؼثخ اث‬ 142 I have to think of my self. God will Paraphrasing

care of the country.

- 118 -
S Culture–Specific Proverbs in Equivalent proverbs in the TT Translation

No. the ST Strategy

Page Arabic script Page Translation

82. 194 ٟٕ‫ز‬١ٌ ‫ب‬٠ ‫ي‬ٛ‫م‬٠ ٞ‫اظ‬ٌٛ‫ ا‬ٟ‫ ف‬ٛ٘ ِٓ 142 The man who is down in the valley Literal

ً‫ اٌدج‬ٟ‫ ف‬ٛ٘ ِٓٚ , ً‫ اٌدج‬ٟ‫ف‬ … wants to be up in the mountains. translation

.ٞ‫اظ‬ٌٛ‫ ا‬ٟ‫ ف‬ٟٕ‫ز‬١ٌ‫ب‬٠ ‫ي‬ٛ‫م‬٠ And the man who's up in the

mountains wants to be down in the

valley.

83. 62 ٍٝ‫بح إٌبـ ؼاقبً ػ‬١‫مٍت ز‬٠ 58 Life's turned upside down. Literal

‫ػمت‬ translation

84. 84 ‫ ازؽ ِٓ اٌدّؽ‬ٍٝ‫ػ‬ 73 Very concerned Free translation

85. 189 ‫ اوثؽ ِٓ اٌٍّه‬ٟ‫ٍِى‬ 139 He is royalist more than the Imam Literal

himself. translation

86. 101 [ ‫اج‬ِٛ‫ك ]ايبؼع األ‬٠‫غش‬ 84 A drowning man who clutches at Free translation

‫ِزشجثًب ثمشخ‬ [his piece of] straw [as he fights

the waves.]

Table No. (5-7) Culture- specific proverbs identified from ST and TT

5.4.1 Translation Strategies and Types of Culture-Specific Proverbs

Actually, translating the popular proverbs has raised so many difficulties for the

translators. This is due to the fact that Arabic has a large number of proverbs unlike

English. Watson (2001:20) urges that "proverbs are far more common and far better

known in Arabic than in English. Thus a number of Arabic proverbs and sayings remain

untranslated". Hence, proverbs can be classified into two categories as follows:

A. Proverbs that have no direct equivalent in the TL culture

B. Proverbs that have direct equivalent in the TL culture

- 119 -
5.4.1.1 Proverbs that Have no Direct Equivalent in the TL Culture

Translation types and strategies are used to render proverbs that have no direct

equivalent in the TL culture i.e. by applying literal translation and paraphrasing and that

as follows:

5.4.1.1.1 Literal translation

This type of translation has been selected by the translators when there is no

comparable proverb in the TL. In most cases the outcome of this technique is

functionally comparable translations lacking aesthetic and pragmatic effects of the

source text. For example:

‫ف‬١‫ دىُ اٌّض‬ٟ‫ف ف‬١‫ اٌض‬-

- It is for the host to decide where the guest goes.

‫ اٌزشاة‬ٟ‫ُ ف‬ٙ‫ف‬ٛٔ‫َ ٌُ رّشغ ا‬ٛ‫ ِٓ[ ل‬ٟٕٔ‫ ]… ا‬-

- I didn't come from "People whose noses could be simply rubbed in the dirt".

.ٞ‫اد‬ٌٛ‫ ا‬ٟ‫ ف‬ٟٕ‫ز‬١ٌ‫ب‬٠ ‫ي‬ٛ‫م‬٠ ً‫ اٌجج‬ٟ‫ ف‬ٛ٘ ِٓٚ ,ً‫ اٌجج‬ٟ‫ ف‬ٟٕ‫ز‬١ٌ ‫ب‬٠ ‫ي‬ٛ‫م‬٠ ٞ‫اد‬ٌٛ‫ ا‬ٟ‫ ف‬ٛ٘ ِٓ -

- The man who's down in the valley … wants to be up in the mountains. And

the man who's up in the mountains wants to be down in the valley.

Using literal translation allows the translators to maintain the forms of the ST as

much as possible, even if those forms are not the most natural ones in the TL. On the

one hand, the translators stick to the original wording; therefore, some of the ST

meaning is lost. Meaning does not exist in the forms of individual words, but also it

exists in relationships among words, phrases, cultural and historical contexts. Hence,

this strategy serves to maintain the form of the SL proverbs and transferring SL social

phenomena and ways of expressing them in a figurative proverbial manner. On the

- 120 -
other hand, literal renderings may not be fully understood by the TL readers because the

element opted for the extra linguistic environment to convey the message does not exist

in the TL or the connection between this element and the idea intended by the proverb is

not found in the TL. This problem gets worse when we consider the short uses of

explanatory notes that provide the TL reader with the main information about each

proverb meaning, usage and function.

The literal rendering applied by the translators to convey the proverb " ٟ‫ف ف‬١‫اٌض‬

‫ف‬١‫ "دىُ اٌّض‬into the TL as "It is for the host to decide where the guest goes" might

partially maintain and convey the intended meaning to the TT reader. This proverb has

no equivalence in the TL. At this point, it is important to say that this proverb is always

said by the guest and not the host. In other words, the proverb reveals one of the

traditional habits of Yemeni people represented in the good hospitality and generosity

towards the guests. Thus, there are two readings by which the proverb can be

understood. First, it means that the guest should respect the host by following his

directions as long he is a guest and he does not need to behave freely according to his

wishes. For example, the guest might sit in the place which disturbs the host (Al-

Adeemi M., 1989:59). The second reading of the proverb is that the guest might behave

freely in the host's house as if he is in his own house. However, the form " ُ‫ دى‬ٟ‫["ف‬fi

hukmi] here means "as good as" which certifies correspondence and likeness (Hans-

Wehr, 1976: 196). So, if we render the proverb as "the guest is as good as the host" this

will reveal the denotative and connotative meaning of the proverb which emphasizes the

good hospitality.

Some proverbs are literally rendered while they have comparable counterparts in

the TL. The translators can use a proverb in the TL which conveys the meaning of the

- 121 -
ST idiomatic expression using the same lexical items i.e. similarity in meaning and

form as strategy in rendering proverbs. For example:

" ‫ ػمت‬ٍٝ‫بح إٌبـ ؼاقبً ػ‬١‫مٍت ز‬٠ " is translated literally into the TL as "Life is turned upside

down". The appropriate rendering for this proverb would be "To leave no stone

unturned". (Al-Thafari, G: 1996:156)

5.4.1.1.2 Translation by Paraphrasing

By applying this strategy the translators aim at giving an explanation that

conveys the meaning intended by ST proverb. Consequently, what is implied in the

original becomes obvious in translation, for example:

‫ اوثؽ ِٓ اٌٍّه‬ٟ‫ ٍِى‬-

- He is royalist more than the Imam himself.
‫ ثكجٍخ‬ٍٟ١‫ لج‬-
- Like ignorant tribesman.
‫ ادش ِٓ اٌجّش‬ٍٝ‫الٔب ع‬ِٛ -
- Our Master is very concerned
ٗ١ّ‫ذ‬٠ ‫ذ سة‬١‫ٌٍج‬ٚ ٍٟ‫ أب سثخ اث‬-
- I have to think of my self. God will care of the country.

This translation strategy is exposed to conceptual and cultural gaps between the

ST and TT. By applying this method, the force of the message intended by the ST might

be unfavorably affected as it transfers the content rather than the image. Paraphrasing

prevents the translator from preserving the style and the spirit of the original and at the

same time it risks the way the text affects the readers. For example, the SL proverb " ٍٟ١‫لج‬

‫ "ثسجٍخ‬is rendered into the TL by applying the direct meaning as "like some ignorant

tribesman". The idea of the proverb is conveyed through simile. Unfortunately, this

proverb has no equivalence in the TL. So, the message intended by the ST is distorted

and not transferred to the TT reader. The SL reader is associated with the term " ٍٟ١‫" لج‬

- 122 -
[Qabili] which means a lot to him. Firstly, it refers to courage and generosity of the

tribes' person towards others; secondly, it refers to pride and self-importance of the

tribes' person towards his tribe. Sometimes, this is merged with ignorance and blind

obedience. Although, in the context, the proverb is said ironically by [assharifa Hafsa]

in which she wonders how haughtiness and pride comes from this ignorant tribes-boy;

however, she might forget that he belongs to a well-known uprising family against the

Imam. In other words, he is like any member of his tribe who enjoys the same values of

pride and haughtiness, courage and challenge. Thus, these aspects are distorted in the

translation of this proverb. So, rendering this proverb as "proud tribesman" might

partially solve the problem.

However, some proverbs are paraphrased while they have comparable

counterparts in the TL; for example, the cultural equivalent proverb for " ِٓ ‫ ازؽ‬ٍٝ‫ػ‬

‫ "اٌدّؽ‬can be rendered into the TL as "On pins and needles" instead of "very

concerned" (Oxford Dic. Of Proverbs.2008:223).

The idea of the proverb " ٗ١ّ‫س‬٠ ‫ذ ؼة‬١‫ٌٍج‬ٚ ٍٟ‫ "أب ؼثخ اث‬is that in trouble times every

person is responsible about his personal concerns. Culturally speaking, it does not seem

appropriate to replace the " ‫ذ‬١‫[ "اٌج‬bait] which means " ‫[ "اٌىعجخ‬Kaba] or " َ‫ذ اٌسؽا‬١‫"اٌج‬

[albeit al haraam] by the word "country". The SL term " ‫[ "اٌىعجخ‬Kaba] i.e. "The Holy

House of God", is the holiest building to every Muslim which is located in Makkah.

However, the translation here is prospective than retrospective. The translators' choice

in rendering this proverb in such a way may be because of the fact that the country for

the TL reader is of the most precious things which ever deserve sacrifice. Thus, TL

reader may partially find this proverb familiar to the context. However, a footnote may

solve the problem.

- 123 -
5.4.1.2 Proverbs that Have Direct Equivalent in the TL Culture

Proverbs that have direct equivalent in the TL culture are translated into the TL

by applying a free translation.

5.4.1.2.1 Free Translation

For a few number of proverbs, the translators manage to use comparable

proverbs in English which are used for similar purposes and are likely to produce a

comparable pragmatic effect on the TL text readers.

‫ائذ‬ٛ‫َ ف‬ٛ‫َ عٕذ ل‬ٛ‫ ِصبئت ل‬-

- One man's bad luck, [so it is said] is another man's good luck

‫اج ِزشجثًب ثمشخ‬ِٛ‫ك ايبؼع األ‬٠‫ غش‬-

- "A drowning man who clutches at his piece of straw as he fights the waves.

ٌٗ‫ ٌىً عصش سجب‬-

- Every man has his day

‫ ِبفبد ِبد‬-

- It is all over now

In the above examples the translators succeed in preserving the pragmatic effect

of the proverbs and thus the TT items are expected to generate comparable effects at the

TT level. However, sometimes the translators manage to use the equivalent comparable

proverbs when rendering into English while they have correspondent counterparts in the

TL in form and content:

The proverb " ‫ائذ‬ٛ‫َ ف‬ٛ‫َ عٕذ ل‬ٛ‫" ِصبئت ل‬is translated into the TL as "One man's

bad luck, [so it is said] is another man's good luck; whereas, there is a similar

equivalence for this proverb in the TL which can functionally express the same idea

- 124 -
 i.e. "One man's meat is another man's poison"(Al-Mawrid Dic.2004:73) and

(Ghazala, 2008:141).

Moreover, the proverb " ‫اج ِزشجثًب ثمشخ‬ِٛ‫ك ايبؼع األ‬٠‫" غش‬is translated into the TL as

"A drowning man who clutches at his piece of straw as he fights the waves; the

idea of the proverb is that, "One grabs at the slightest chance when all hope is

slipping away". Hence, using the correspondent in the TL "to clutch at a straw" or

(straws) is a suggestive description; for, it is used as a metaphorical phrase (Oxford

Dic.2008:87).

Nevertheless, some proverbs are translated freely while they have comparable

counterparts in the TL. For example, the cultural equivalent proverb for " ‫ "ِبفبد ِبد‬is

"Let bygones be bygones". (Oxford Dic.2008:223).

In other words, the cultural equivalent proverb for "every man has his day" is

"every dog has his day"(al-Mawrid Dic.2004:63). However, the cultural context in the

ST refers something else. It emphasizes the idea that during hard times, there are genius

men who can lead and rule efficiently. So, the translation in this way distorts the

intended meaning and misleads the TL reader.

Ideally speaking, the translator's concerns when dealing with free translation
should be to communicate the meaning of the ST by using natural grammatical and
lexical items of the TL. In other words, the translator is advised to free himself/ herself
from the restrictions of the SL formal and stylistic norms, and his/her aim should be to
render the intended meaning of the proverb in a manner suitable to TL norms and in
such a way that TL version evokes a pragmatic effect comparable to that created by ST.
The translators of Ar-Rahinah are aware of this fact. They are able to apply this
translation strategy only occasionally. This is something that the translators should not
be blamed for since the cultural gap between SL and TL is large and proverbs which
convey the same idea in both languages are really few.

- 125 -
 5.5 Culture-Specific Irony
Criticizing the political regime and the social ills at that period of time is the

main purpose of the novel; thus, irony as a figure of speech is skillfully employed by the

ST author.

Culture–Specific Irony in the

Equivalent Irony in the TT Translation
S. No

ST
Strategy

Page Arabic script Page Translation

87. 133 ‫خب‬١ٌ‫ ثبٔه اٌض‬ٞ‫ال رغزؽ‬ 104 Don't take yourself for Literal translation

Zulaykha

88. 133 ...‫خ‬١‫بغج‬٠ ‫سف‬ٛ٠ ٛ٘ ‫ف‬١ٌٚ 104 He is not Joseph too, stupid Literal translation

woman
89. 207 .ْ‫أذ خجب‬ 151 You are a coward. Literal translation

90. 41 ‫ ٘ػا‬ٞ‫ ف‬ٟٔ‫ اٌشجً اٌثب‬ٟٔ‫اػزجؽ‬ 45 You can consider me the Literal translation

ْ‫اٌّىب‬ second man in the palace

91. 36 ‫؟‬ٌٟ‫عاؼ اٌذب‬٠ٚ‫ٓ اٌع‬٠‫ا‬ 42 Where is the handsome Literal translation

92. 82 ‫ذ دفظٗ اهلل‬ٙ‫ اٌع‬ٌٟٚ ‫الٔب‬ٌّٛ 71 duwaydar?

our Master the Crown Prince- Literal translation

may God prevent him

93. 83 ٜ‫ٓ ِذ‬١‫ذ ثبل‬ٙ‫ اٌع‬ٍٝ‫قٕظً ع‬ 72 We shall preserve as long as Literal translation

‫سٕشوت اٌجغبي‬ٚ , ‫بح‬١‫اٌذ‬ we have breath in our bodies,

‫الٔب‬ِٛ َ‫ ِمب‬ٌٝ‫ش دائّبً ا‬١ّ‫اٌذ‬ٚ the ancient custom of riding

‫دفظٗ اهلل‬ on donkeys and mules to the

palace of our Master may

God preserve
94. 121 ‫اٌذ‬ٌٛ‫ٍخ ا‬١‫ فض‬ٞ‫ذ‬١‫بس‬٠ ‫ِعبر اهلل‬ 97 Of course, not. him Free translation

‫اٌعالِخ‬
Table (5-8) Culture-specific irony identified from ST and TT

- 126 -
5.5.1 Translation Types of Culture-Specific Irony

The translators opt for two translation types in dealing with the ironical

expressions in the novel. They are literal and free translation types.

5.5.1.1 Literal translation

By examining the translation of irony in the novel, it seems that for many

ironical sentences the translators resort to literal translation based on the assumption

that the TT readers are expected to grasp irony by realizing the incongruity between the

apparent meaning of the sentence and what can be inferred from the situation. For

example, in the event of the oral argument between As-Sharifa Hafsa and the other

women after their visit to the palace of the Crown Prince in which the hostage has

beaten the Crown Prince' s illegal son:

.....‫خب‬١ٌ‫ ثبٔه اٌض‬ٞ‫ ال رغزؽ‬-

- Don't take yourself for Zulaykha….

The ironical meaning that can be captured here is haughtiness, pride and

extraordinary beauty.

‫خ‬١‫بغج‬٠ ‫سف‬ٛ٠ ٛ٘ ‫ف‬١ٌٚ -

- He is not Joseph too, stupid woman.

The ironical meaning that can be captured here is extraordinary esteem and

good-looking.

In the event of selecting the hostage as a personal duwaydar for As-Sharifa

Hafsa, by external haughty and pride the handsome duwaydar speaks to the hostage

hiding his internal jealousy and disappointment as in the following example:

- 127 -
 .ْ‫ ٘ػا اٌّىب‬ٟ‫ ف‬ٟٔ‫ اٌشجً اٌثب‬ٟٔ‫ إػزجؽ‬-

- You can consider me the second man in the palace.

The ironical connotation that can be grasped here is the feeling of individual

salvation and the ambition to be free in body and mind from the world of exploitation

within which the destiny of his humanity is seemed totally in the hand of others.

Because of the cultural gap, the TT reader might not capture the intended meaning in

the ST. In general, the word "man" does not refer to gender in terms of sex as opposite

to a woman; however, it refers to great abilities to change people's human life,

honorable behaviours, independence and self-esteem. So, rendering literally the phrase

" ٟٔ‫ "اٌشجً اٌثب‬in the ST as "the second man" transfers only the denotative meaning;

however, the connotative irony is ignored. Thus, the ironical meaning that can be

captured here is jealousy and disappointment.

In other words, we have a reactionary irony. This type of irony involves a

statement or a comment by the addresser and unexpectedly opposite reaction by an

addressee. For example:

- A: I want you to take me with you" "‫ ِؼه‬ٟٔ‫ لٍذ ٌه ضػ‬: ‫فخ‬٠‫اٌهؽ‬ -
- B: That's ridiculous. ‫ والَ فبؼؽ‬: ‫ٕخ‬١٘‫اٌؽ‬ -
- A: You are a coward. .ْ‫ أذ ججب‬:‫فخ‬٠‫اٌشش‬ -
- B: You may think so. […] [ … ] ‫ ٔظؽن‬ٟ‫ ف‬:‫ٕخ‬١٘‫اٌؽ‬ -
- A: I am not leaving you ‫ ٌٓ ارؽوه‬:‫فخ‬٠‫اٌهؽ‬ -
- B: you 'll have to whether you want or not ‫ وؽ٘ب ػٕه‬ٟٕ١‫ قززؽو‬:‫ٕخ‬٠ ٖ‫اٌؽ‬ -

The concept of exploitation within which the destiny of a human being seems

totally in the hands of others is embedded in this expression. At this time, the sexual

exploitation is on the part of the beautiful palace lady i.e. As-Sharifa Hafsa. She

describes the hostage as "a coward one" because he has refused to meet her sexual

- 128 -
desires. So, it is a conflict between vice and virtue as well as salvation and freedom.

Ironically speaking, he is coward because he has virtue and refuses to escape with her;

he is not a man because he rejects her sexual exploitation both in body or mind. Hence,

the TL reader might not grasp the connotative meaning intended by the author in the

ST.

Similarly, the translation of the expression " ٌٟ‫ "اٌذب‬in the ST as "handsome"

conveys only the denotative meaning of the word; however, the embedded meaning is

distorted; for the most part, this word is said by a regular soldier in an ironical way and

even hiding a sexual desire. However, on page (13) in the ST and (106) in the TT, there

are mistranslation caused by misinterpretation to this term since it is rendered into the

TL reader as "for a moment" which expresses the adverb of time i.e. ) ٓ٘‫)اٌؽا‬. Because

of the cultural difference between SL and TL, the TT reader might not capture the

intended meaning in the ST by the author. A foot note or an explanation is in order.

Moreover, the irony is created through the frequent repetition of some

expressions by the ST author. For example, the repetition of the expression (our Master

the Crown Prince- may God prevent him) in the event about the sudden visit by the

Imam's poet to the Governor's palace to make sure about the possession of the

Governor's son to a car; the visit ends by paying an apology to the Crown Prince by the

Governor and giving the car to the Crown Prince as a gift. The repetition of this phrase

evokes that life is shaped by atrocity subjugated constantly to the will of others; the

circle of humiliation and exploitation is expanded even within the high class to include

the Governor as it seems that his destiny is in the hand of the Crown Prince.

‫ػٕعِب طٍجذ‬... ‫ٍخ‬٠ٛ‫ب لًخ ط‬ٌٙٚ ... ِٟٕٚ ٞ‫ٌع‬ٚ ِٓ ‫ذ دفظٗ اهلل‬ٙ‫ اٌع‬ٌٟٚ ‫الٔب‬ٌّٛ ‫خ‬٠‫ ايالً ٘ع‬ٟ٘ ...‫بؼح‬١‫ "اٌك‬-

.....‫الٔب دفظٗ اهلل‬ِٛ ٌٝ‫ب ثٕفكٗ ا‬ٌٙ‫ًب‬٠‫ ا‬ٍٝ‫ ًِؽ ػ‬ٛٙ‫[ ف‬.... ]‫الٔب دفظٗ اهلل‬ٌّٛ ‫ِٕٗ نؽاء٘ب ِٓ اٌطبؼج‬

- 129 -
- The car's actually a present for our Master the Crown Prince- may God prevent

him – from my son and my self. It is a long story which begins with the time I

asked my son to buy it for our Master – may God preserve him while he was

abroad […] in fact it is his firm intention to deliver it in person to our Master- may

God preserve him.

‫سٕشوت اٌجغبي‬ٚ , ‫بح‬١‫ اٌذ‬ٜ‫ٓ ِذ‬١‫ذ ثبل‬ٙ‫ اٌع‬ٍٝ‫ فٕذٓ سٕظً ع‬, ٞ‫ٌع‬ٌٛ ٚ‫ أ‬ٌٟ ‫بؼح‬١‫ْ اٌك‬ٛ‫ اهلل اْ رى‬ٝ‫دبش‬ٚ" -

."‫الٔب دفظٗ اهلل‬ِٛ َ‫ ِمب‬ٌٝ‫ش دائّبً ا‬١ّ‫اٌذ‬ٚ

God forbid that the car should be for me or for my son. We shall preserve as

long as we have breath in our bodies, the ancient custom of riding on donkeys and

mules to the palace of our Master- may God preserve him

Nevertheless, there are some ST expressions which are inappropriately used by

ST author because they lead ST readers to understand that the author is being harmfully

and negatively ironical. For example, in the event of [At-Tubshi] "the artillery soldier"

with [Az-Zaafarana] i.e "the Governor's female mule". Because of the sexual

deprivation that [At-Tubshi] suffers as most of the soldiers and women of the palace,

the ST auther uses an inappropriately extraordinary irony by applying the title "As-

Sharifa" upon the female mule. Taking in consideration that [As-Sharifa] is a title

applied to "a woman of a noble birth, claiming descent from the Prophet (PBUH)".

5.5.1.2 Free Translation

There are some ironical expressions characterized with more exaggeration in the

ST; however, they are translated with less exaggeration into the TT. For example, in the

conversation between the hostage and As-Sharifa Hafsa when she justifies that her cruel

treatment to him is because she wants to see him a man and not a naïve child; she has

told him that she is aware about his illegal relations with the women of the palace but he

- 130 -
 totally denies; so, at that moment she expresses ironically her astonishment and that as

follows:

As-sharifa: …and yet you pretend to be shy. ..... ‫بء‬١‫اٌس‬ٚ ً‫ رزًٕغ اٌطد‬:‫فخ‬٠‫ اٌهؽ‬-
As-sharifa: tell me which one have not you slept with? ...‫ب؟‬ٙ‫ٓ ٌُ رُبزؼ‬ِٕٙ ِٓ .....:‫فخ‬٠‫ اٌهؽ‬-
A-sharifa: Do you want me to be depraved? ‫ْ فبقفبً؟‬ٛ‫ٓ أْ او‬٠‫ع‬٠‫ ارؽ‬:‫ٕخ‬١٘‫ اٌؽ‬-
As-sharifa: Of course, not. ‫اٌذ اٌعالِخ‬ٌٛ‫ٍخ ا‬١‫ فض‬ٞ‫د‬ٟ‫بس‬٠ ‫ِعبر اهلل‬:‫فخ‬٠‫ اٌهؽ‬-

-
The ironically connotative meaning for the phrase " ‫اٌذ‬ٌٛ‫ٍخ ا‬١‫ فض‬ٞ‫ذ‬١‫بس‬٠ ‫ِعبر اهلل‬

‫ " اٌعالِخ‬as it is rendered as "of course, not" is distorted; this is due to the fact that this

phrase in the ST has no equivalent and the TT reader even can not infer the exactly

intended meaning in the ST by author from the situation.

Watson (2001:21) cited in (Barakat, 2008:85) states that ""ironic addresses are

far less frequent in English than in a comparable Arabic text and are taken from a far

smaller stock. In addition, many terms of address which can be used in ironic context

such as "the apple of my eye" "ٟٕ١‫ "رفبزخ ػ‬are now outdated and comical in English".

- 131 -
5.6 Translation of Culture-Specific Poetry

In the translation of poetic texts, the translators show their ability to preserve the

embedded poetic message which is the "core" that any translation hopes to account for.

Poetic texts in the novel are little in number but significant in message.

5.6.1 Translation Strategies of Culture-Specific Poetry

The translators use several translation strategies, types and procedures in

rendering the poetic texts in novel into the TL reader. Because of not having a great

bulk of data, the researcher has identified six poetic texts in the novel and analyzed the

translation choices that are applied. They are as follows:

5.6.1.1 Verse Translation

The translators manage to perform "verse translation" by adapting a TL

corresponding form i.e. by imitating the pattern of the original and produce a verse

translation. For example, on page (188) in the ST and (138) in the TT:

..‫بِسعلخ‬٠ ‫ؼلخ‬ِٛ ‫ب‬٠ ‫ب ندؽح‬٠ -

.‫ ثبٌّطؽ‬ٟ‫ه ؼث‬١‫كم‬٠ ...

- Oh, tree in leaf, so green

- God water you with His rain.

In this part, alliteration (assonance and consonance) and rhyme (music) are

considered in Arabic poetry and its English translation. Assonance in English: /n/ as in

the words /green/ and /rain/. However, in the Arabic colloquial alliteration, the

assonance is seen in /a/ as in the following words: /shagara/, /moureqha/, /muhadeqha/.

Nevertheless, the TT does not help the translators invoking the original. For

example, on pages (199-200) in the ST and (146) in the TT:

- 132 -
 ..‫قغ‬ٛ‫ثبْ ر‬ٛ‫ اٌس‬ٞ‫اظ‬ٚ ‫ب‬٠ -

‫اٌّعافغ‬ٚ ٞ‫ع‬١‫م ق‬١‫ٌد‬

.ُ٠‫َ االؼٌ ظا‬ٛ‫ أزُ ٔد‬ٟ‫ قبظر‬-

..ُ٠‫ب‬ٙ‫ِٓ قؼبظرىُ ٔؿٌٕب ٌٍز‬

..َ‫اإلِب‬ٚ ‫ اهلل‬َٟ‫ٔؽ‬

- Oh, Houban Valley, open wide

- To the army of our Master and our Master's guns

- Oh, our Masters, you are the lights of this land

- ………………………………………………

- ………………………………………………

Although the translators preserve the form that supposedly corresponds to TL in

which they maintain the rhythm pattern i.e. (line No. 1 and3); however, the authentic

aspects of the ST are lost because the poetic message is incomplete and this is due to the

fact that the last two lines are not rendered into the TL.

5.6.1.2 Literal Translation

For the most poetic texts in the novel the translators opt for literal translation,

though it is not the ideal method in poetic translation since it leads to the loss of some

formal/stylistic aspects as well as to loss of part of the intended meaning. For example,

on page (30) in the ST and (36) in the TT:

..‫عاؼ لع اِه فبلعح ٌه‬٠ٚ‫بظ‬٠ -

.‫ب وبٌّطؽ‬ٙ‫ظِؼ‬ -

- Your mother, oh duwaydar, is distracted by her loss;

Her tears fall like rain…

- 133 -
 At this point, opting for the TT expression i.e. "distracted by her loss" to stand for

the ST " ‫ "فبلعح ٌه‬can be rendered as "missing you" in which the TL reader is associated

with; however, the translators use this expression in their translation to show The

Hostage's mother's melancholic situation.

Another example exists on page (199) in the ST and (145) in the TT:

..‫بهلل ؼَبن‬٠ ...‫بهلل ؼَبن‬٠ ...‫ب اهلل ؼَبن‬٠ -

..‫بهلل ؼَبن‬٠ ...‫ٕب ثؽَبن‬١ٍ‫ ػ‬َٝ‫اؼ‬ٚ
...ْ‫ُ اٌهب‬١‫ازٕب طٍجٕبن ػظ‬ٚ
.ٗ‫اث‬ٛ‫ب ِٓ رفزر ٌٕب اث‬٠
Oh God, we seek Your blessing.
Oh God, we seek Your blessing.
Oh God, we seek Your blessing.
Bless us with Your favor.
Oh God, grant us Your favor.
Almighty Lord, we seek You.
You Who open Your doors to us.

The translators preserve the form that apparently corresponds to TL in which they

maintain the rhythm pattern.

5.6.1.3 Translation by Omission

The translators use the translation strategy of omission in translating poetry;

however, this strategy is not ideal in poetic translation since some formal/stylistic

aspects of the poetry as well as the intended meaning will be lost. The following

example, on page (199-200) in the ST and (146) in the TT, illustrates as follows:

..‫قغ‬ٛ‫ثبْ ر‬ٛ‫ اٌس‬ٞ‫اظ‬ٚ ‫ب‬٠ -

‫اٌّعافغ‬ٚ ٞ‫ع‬١‫م ق‬١‫ٌد‬

.ُ٠‫َ االؼٌ ظا‬ٛ‫ أزُ ٔد‬ٟ‫ قبظر‬-

- 134 -
 ..ُ٠‫ب‬ٙ‫ِٓ سعبدرىُ ٔضٌٕب ٌٍز‬

َ‫اإلِب‬ٚ ‫ اهلل‬ٟ‫ٔشض‬

- Oh, Houban valley, open wide

- To the army of our Master and our Master's guns
- Oh, our Masters, you are the lights of this land
- ………………………………………………
- ………………………………………………

Another example exists on page (24) in the ST and (34) in the TT as follows:

….‫بهلل ؼَبن‬٠ ...‫ب اهلل ؼَبن‬٠ -

...‫ٕب ثؽَبن‬١ٍ‫ ػ‬َٝ‫اؼ‬ٚ
...ْ‫ُ اٌهب‬١‫ازٕب طٍجٕبن ػظ‬ٚ
.ٗ‫اث‬ٛ‫ب فبرخ اث‬٠
Oh God, we seek Your blessing.
Oh God, we seek Your blessing.
Bless us with Your favor
We call on you, oh Sublime one
………………………………...
5.6.1.4 Translation by Culture-Equivalent

Applying one expression in the SL for another in the TL is a strategy that makes

the alien original expression familiar, accessible and readable to the intended cross-

cultural readers. For example, some poetic expressions in the SL are rendered into the

TL in different ways, as in the following examples:

ْ‫ُ اٌشب‬١‫ازٕب طٍجٕبن عظ‬ٚ -

- Almighty Lord, we seek You.

- We call on you, oh Sublime one.

Here, the translators render the name of Allah i.e. " ُ١‫[ "ػظ‬azim] into the TL reader

as "Almighty Lord" and "Sublime one". However, both renderings are good equivalents.

- 135 -
Thus, choosing one equivalent might convey the meaning efficiently. (Hans-Wehr1976:

623).

Moreover, they render the SL expression i.e. " ‫ب اهلل ؼَبن‬٠" into the TL and that by

employing the cultural equivalent strategy and that as follows:

‫ب اهلل سضبن‬٠ -
Oh God, we seek Your blessing.
Bless us with Your favor
The translators use two different terms to refer to the SL expression " ‫[ "ؼَب‬rida]

i.e. "blessing" and "favor". Hence, the two terms in Arabic do not refer to the same

situation in terms of usage. The term "blessing" means in Arabic " ‫ "ثؽوخ‬i.e. [baraka]

(Hans-Wehr1976: 34). However, the second cultural equivalent term used i.e. "favor"

refers to [reda] i.e. a good well, pleasant or acceptance. (Hans-Wehr1976: 344). Thus,

the term "favor" is used more in religious invocations and prayers to Allah, so it has a

religious dimension. Therefore, rendering the term [reda] as "favor" conveys the same

feelings to the TL reader as intended by the SL author.

5.7 Identification and Distinction of Translation Strategies Employed in

Translating Culture-Specific Issues i.e. Foreignization and Domestication.

For the benefit of identifying the translation strategies employed in translating

culture-specific issues in The Hostage, the distinction between the two translation

strategies i.e. foreignization and domestication is taken into consideration (see chapter

three, page: 50).

Thus, translation procedures, types and strategies employed in rendering the

culture-specific issues are quantified according to their frequent occurrences. Table No.

(5-9) bellow shows the frequent occurrences employed by the translators to deal with

the different culture-specific issues:

- 136 -
- 137 -
 Based on table (5-9) above, the researcher aims at evaluating the more ever used

translation strategy in rendering The Hostage novel into the TL. So, he has

compromised the translation strategies into the two large categories as recommended by

Venuti (2001:240-244) i.e. foreignization and domestication. Then, the frequent

occurrence of translation types, strategies and procedures has been measured in a

quantified manner in terms of numbers and percentages. This can be illustrated as in the

table No. (5-10) bellow.

Foreignization Domestication Others

Occurrences
Total of TS

Occurrence
Occurrence

Occurrence
percentage

percentage

percentage
Data Classified Issues
No. of

No. of

No. of
Culture Specific-Terms 45 26 58% 19 42% - -
60% 2 40% - -
Culture Specific-Metaphors 5 3
62% 16 38% - -
Culture Specific-idioms 42 26
58% 5 42% - -
Culture Specific- proverbs 12 7
87.5 % 1 12.5% - -
Culture Specific- Irony 8 7
Culture Specific- Poetry 7 2 28.5% 3 43% 2 28.5%

Total 119 71 60% 46 38% 2 2%

Table No. (5-10) concludes the frequent occurrences of foreignization and domestication
strategies in terms of numbers and percentage.

- 138 -
5.8 Conclusion

This chapter presented a worthy description of the way in which data of culture-

specific issues was analyzed in different stages of the data analysis. The analysis of

culture-specific issues translation problems or difficulties due to cultural differences and

the translation strategies employed to deal with them emphasizes the complexity of the

translating process. The number of issues selected for analysis looks big but what makes

them worthy of analysis is that they represent a significant part of the novel. However,

the misinterpreting of some of these cultural issues that gives the ST its social color and

specificities resulted in distorting the interpretation of the novel on the part of the TL

reader.

The variety of using translation strategies by the translators of „Ar-Rahinah‟ to

deal with culture-specific issues is significant. This is may be justified by the fact that

they provide a translation that matches to the norms of the TT culture attempting to

remain faithful to the ST culture. Strategies that might produce a TT, that is difficult to

understand, are kept to a minimum. The selection of any strategy in a specific situation

depends on the translators‟ objective.

- 139 -
 CHAPTER SIX

FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.0 Introduction

The present study is set to identify, classify, analyze and evaluate the translation

strategies used by the translators to handle the culture-specific issues in the English

version of Zayd Muttee Dammaj's novel "The Hostage" (ar-Rahinah) translated by May

Jayyusi and Christopher Tingley. In addition, an account of the problems the translators

face when rendering the different aspects of culture-specific issues has been made.

In other words, it is set to show how the three-phase research methodology,

suggested by Toury (1995), is developed significantly in rendering the culture-specific

issues in the novel; besides, to reveal the translators‟ frequent choices as solutions

brought to problematic areas. Hence, this concluding chapter presents the findings and

conclusions of the study. It also provides recommendations for further researches.

6.1 Findings Related to Research Questions

6.1.1 First Research Question

What are the culture-specific issues that have been dealt with by the translators?

Regarding to research question No. (1), as the novel is a good representation to

Yemeni culture and society during the Imamate era; the translators have dealt with

many culture-specific issues; however, the researcher has concerned himself to deal

with six key culture-specific issues. Despite, the number of identified and selected

issues for analysis looks too much but what makes them worthy of analysis is that they

constitute an important part of the raw material used by the author to write his novel.

The identified culture-specific issues are terms, idioms, metaphors, proverbs, irony and

poetry. They have been described, quantified and discussed thoroughly in chapter five.

- 140 -
 The table bellow shows the culture-specific issues and their classification into main and

sub-categories as follows:

Data Classified Issues into Number of

Data Classified Issues into
Identified
Main Categories Sub- Categories
Items per One

Culture Specific-Terms (30)

Ecological culture terms 7

Material culture terms 15

Social culture terms 3

Religious culture terms 5

Culture Specific-Metaphors 5

Culture Specific-Idioms 39

Culture Specific- Proverbs 12

Culture Specific- Irony 8

Culture Specific- Poetry 6

Total 100

Table No. (6-1) .Culture-Specific Issues and their Classification into Main and Sub-Categories

6.1.2 Second Research Question

What are the problems the translators face in rendering aspects of culture-specific

issues in ar-Rahinah novel into English?

Most problems emerged from the cultural differences between SL and TL

particularly in rendering the culture-specific terms, idioms and poetry. The analysis of

culture-specific issues in terms of revealing translation problems and the translation

strategies employed shows the complexity of the translating process. Culture-specific

- 141 -
issues are cases that make the translators face a decision-making task in the process of

opting for a particular strategy.

Based on table No. (5-9) in chapter five (p: 137), the translation problems that the

translators have faced when rendering culture-specific issues are presented in a

quantified manner.

Accordingly, in order to decide the significant problematic areas which represent

translation problems, the researcher managed to deal with the data identified and

classified categories in terms of frequent occurrence in the novel. He has accounted the

identified items in the ST and compared them to the number of occurrences of

translation strategies employed by the translators. Then, the total of the translators'

choices as solutions to ST items has been obtained in terms of numbers and percentages.

So, the translators' choices as solutions brought to ST items reveal that there are

significant translation problems due to cultural differences.

To conclude that, table No. (6-2) bellow shows explicitly the translators' choices

as solutions to translation problems in terms of numbers and percentages as follows:

Identified

Occurrence Translators Percentage

Items in
the ST

Data Classified Issues of ' Choices as of

Translation Solutions to Translation
Strategies ST items. Problem
Culture Specific-Terms 30 45 15 33.33%

Culture Specific-Metaphors 5 5 0 -

Culture Specific-Idioms 39 42 3 7%

Culture Specific- Proverbs 12 12 - -

Culture Specific- Irony 8 8 - -

Culture Specific- Poetry 6 7 1 14%

Total 100 119 19 16 %

Table No. (6-2) .Translation Problems in Terms of Numbers and Percentages

- 142 -
 From the table above, it can be seen that the descriptive parallel study of the SL

culture-specific issues and their translation reveals the translators‟ solutions to the

problematic areas. The translators are constantly faced with choices to find solutions to

problems. These problems are due to cultural differences. For example, comparing

culture-specific terms, idioms and poetry in the SL and their counterparts in the TL

shows how conceptions differ from one culture to another. This emphasizes that the

culture-specific issues in the SL lie outside the experience of TL reader. Hence, it is not

easy to transfer them to another culture. This entails resorting to different translation

strategies for solving the culturally problematic items in the ST as intended by the

author. These include the following:

A. Culture-specific terms represent problematic areas. The SL culture constitutes a

problem for the translators due to its differences from the TL culture. In rendering

these culture-specific terms into the TL, the cultural privacy conveyed might not

be comprehensible to the TL reader unless they are explained to them. So,

footnotes are recommended.

B. A more general word strategy was the most used by the translators of The Hostage

to deal with these terms. If this strategy tended to be preferable to other translation

procedures this may be justified by the fact that it provides a translation that

conforms to the norms of the target culture attempting to remain faithful to the

source text culture.

C. Moreover, the problems associated with translating culture-specific idioms relate

to two main areas. The first area is adequate interpretation of these items in the SL

text and its cultural implications and appropriateness for the situation in which it is

employed. The second one is the creative rendering of these items into the TL that

achieves comparable pragmatic effect.

- 143 -
 D. The misrepresentation of situations described in the ST may result in translation

inadequacies. So, it can be stated that this is the case in this particular situation

where the translation indicates that the translators might not reproduce faithfully

the cultural specificities expressed in the ST into the TT. For example, translating

the culture-specific irony in the question " ‫؟‬ٌٟ‫عاؼ اٌسب‬٠ٚ‫ٓ اٌع‬٠‫ "ا‬into the TL as "Where

is the handsome duwaydar? distorts the embedded meaning particularly when it is

said by a cruel soldier hiding a sexual desire .(See chapter 5, page: 129)

E. In translating culture-specific poetry, though the words seem clear and simple on

the surface, they have some connotative meanings. All words have been translated

literally and their denotative meaning conveyed without any attention to their

connotations. The readers do not get what is going to be transferred through these

words and the meaning supposed by the author. It is suggested that the translators

add some extra explanation to make the meaning explicit in the form of footnotes

or at the end of the novel in order to avoid the loss of meaning due to the cultural

differences.

6.1.3 Third Research Question

What are the translation strategies used by the translators in rendering the

culture-specific issues from the source culture into the target culture and to what

extent the translators succeeded in conveying them?

The frequent occurrences of translation strategies employed in rendering the

culture-specific issues in the ST are calculated. Based on these frequencies, the

researcher has accounted the percentage proportion of each strategy in the same

translations. The results of the translation of the SL culture-specific issues are shown in

table (6-3) as follows:

- 144 -
 Foreignization Domestication Others

Occurrences
Total of TS

Occurrence
Occurrence

Occurrence
percentage

percentage

percentage
Data Classified Issues

No. of

No. of

No. of
Culture Specific-Terms 45 26 58% 19 42% - -
60% 2 40% - -
Culture Specific-Metaphors 5 3
62% 16 38% - -
Culture Specific-idioms 42 26
58% 5 42% - -
Culture Specific- proverbs 12 7
87.5 % 1 12.5% - -
Culture Specific- Irony 8 7
Culture Specific- Poetry 7 2 28.5% 3 43% 2 28.5%

Total 119 71 60% 46 38% 2 2%

Table No. (6-3). Frequency percentage of using foreignization and domestication strategies

The results of Table (6-3) show that cultural translation strategies, foreignization

and domestication have been employed in translating The Hostage novel into English.

Foreignization has been more frequently employed. Out of 119 translation strategies

employed, 71 ones were foreignization: it was used in approximately 60% of all cases.

However, domestication strategy is used in only 38%; where, 46 strategies out of 119

are employed. Verse translation, as another translation strategy, is used to deal with

culture-specific poetry into the TL. It was used in 2 cases and represents approximately

2 % of all cases.

Considering foreignization strategy as the more used strategy emphasizes that

the TL reader has occupied the translators' interest and that serves the translators' main

objective i.e. the entertainment of the reader. Despite the observation that they try to

convey the SL culture into the TL reader without any partial distortion to the ST, they

fall short in some situations. However, we cannot blame them because they don not

translate language but culture. The Hostage represents a documentary reference to study
- 145 -
the Yemeni society and culture during a particular period of time; the people's every day

life i.e. habits and customs during the imamate era is rooted and embodied in terms of

vocabularies and idioms.

Generally speaking, it can be argued that the translators have succeeded in

rendering the culture-specific issues into the TL by employing the cultural translation

strategies, foreignization and domestication suggested by Venuti (2001). Yet, some

cultural norms have been translated inadequately which give a different notion to the TL

reader. This is obvious in rendering some of the culture-specific terms and idioms. For

example:

The culture specific terms Page The equivalent terms and Page
and idioms in the ST idioms in the TT
ْٛ١ٍ‫و‬ٛ‫ِز‬ 163 Sunni 122
‫اٌّبء اٌجبؼظ اٌّجطؽ‬ 155 Cold water and the censer 116

‫خ‬٠‫ػبلً اٌمؽ‬ 56 Wise men 61

‫د‬ٛ١‫ دجش فه اٌم‬ٌٝ‫ ازع اٌؼكىؽ ا‬ٟٔ‫الزبظ‬ 74 The room where the chains 65

were to be removed

‫اٌػؼح‬ٚ ‫[ ِضاسع اٌمصت‬....] 167 [….] the plantations of corn and 125

sugar-cane.

Table No. (6-4). Inadequate translation to some culture-specific terms and idioms

(For more examples, see chapter five, p: 109- 111).

- 146 -
6.2 General Findings

Jayyusi, S. (1994: viii) in her preface to The Hostage novel urges that:

"There are tow main objectives the translators intend to perform; first,

because it is a cogently written narrative serving the prerequisites of all

fiction: the entertainment of the reader; second, since it is highly informative

which deals with unique experiences from a bygone age, to shed the light on

issues of cultural privacies to the Yemeni people during a particular period

of time through the memory of hostages".

Based on the cultural translation strategies i.e. foreignization and domestication,

the researcher attempts to highlight to what extent the translators have succeeded in

conveying the culture-specific issues into the TL reader.

Therefore, any attempt to give an overall evaluation to Jayyusi and Tingley's

translation of the culture-specific issues in The Hostage novel into the TL reader would

be elusive and unfair. What would be more advantageous, just and practical is to

explicitly highlight the merits and demerits of the TT in the light of the translators' own

objectives. Hatim and Mason (1990:15) state that:

"Since total recreation of any language transaction is impossible, translators

will always be subject to a conflict of interests as what are their
communicative priorities, a conflict which they resolve as they can. It follows
from this that, in assessing translations, the first thing to consider is the
translator's own purpose, so that performance can be judged against
objectives".

The TT reveals that a great work has been done on the part of the translators on

the level of SL text understanding. The ST is overloaded with a variety of cultural

- 147 -
information, references and linguistic and stylistic features relevant to Arabic language.

Some ST readership may find difficulties to understand them.

On the whole, the English version of The Hostage seems appropriate to convey

the message intended by the original, though, not with the same force and effectiveness.

Within this framework, some points should be summed up and highlighted as follows:

A. The translators manage to get the TL reader closer to the original text.

Regularly, they adopt the expressions and style of the original and only

occasionally deviate from the ST and resort to the TT culture and linguistic

norms. This is when ST expressions become uncomfortably strained or

unintelligible and comparable expressions exist in the TT.

B. In translating culture-specific terms, the translators opted for a translation by a

more general word (superordinate), as the most over used strategy, to overcome

the possible lack of specificity in the target language. It is used dominantly

hopping to fill the cultural gap between the SL and the TL and to put the TL

reader close to the SL culture.

C. It is also important in the process of translation to be aware of “realities” to

which cultural terms refer, and of the cultural implications they contain; hence,

the translation strategy by explanation or paraphrasing and supplying a footnote

is crucial for solving this problem.

D. Frequently, the translators resort to literal translation and stick as much as

possible to the wording of the original. They put the TL reader closer to the ST

culture. Whereas, literal translation helps to preserve ST author words and style;

in most cases, it is likely that they might cause difficulties for TL readers and let

them misinterpret the intended messages. Besides, the cultural gap between the

two languages i.e. Arabic and English is vast because the two languages belong

- 148 -
 to different language families and each one has its own techniques to express

ideas and meanings. Therefore, literal translation is not always the adequate

strategy to employ while translating Arabic texts into English or vise versa.

E. The translators opt for free translation in some parts of the ST and act

independently of ST formal and stylistic norms. Occasionally, this type of

translation has a positive outcome. The SL text message is well preserved and

the idea is conveyed to TT readers with force and efficiency comparable to that

of the ST intended by the author.

F. By using a free translation type, the translators employ TL metaphors and

idioms which are referentially and pragmatically comparable to those of the ST.

However, the translators detach themselves from the ST form and lexical items

and express the meaning using different TL forms and words. This type of

translation is not used very often by the translators. This is owing to the vast

linguistic and cultural gap between Arabic and English. For example:

‫ب‬ٍٙ‫ب ثى‬١ٔ‫شاٖ اٌذ‬٠

- The apple of his eye

(For more examples, see chapter 5, pp: 111-112).

G. Transferring some culture-specific terms into the TT adds local color and flavor

to the translation, despite, some terms may still be rather ambiguous. The use of

footnotes may be required to avoid the TL reader's negative understanding. For

example:

- 149 -
 - Al-Qahira ‫ اٌمب٘ؽح‬-
- Toulqa ‫ٌمخ‬ٛ‫ ط‬-
- Allan ْ‫ ػال‬-
- Qat ‫ لبد‬-
Table No. (6-5). Transliteration strategy in rendering ecological terms

(For more examples, see chapter 5, page: 82)

H. Despite the fact that the transliteration strategy is applied by the translators to

render culture-specific terms as a foreignization strategy, some terms are mis-

transliterated when they are conveyed into the TL. This results in giving them

new names that no one knows them as in the following examples:

- Al-Qutabi ٟ‫ اٌمؼطج‬-

- Al-Awtari ٞ‫ اٌؼٕزؽ‬-

(For more examples, see chapter 5, page: 83).

I. The use of footnotes is kept to a minimum. They are used to illustrate the

meanings of some proper nouns that are frequently mentioned in the novel as in

the following examples:

- al-Duwaydar ‫عاؼ‬٠ٚ‫ اٌع‬-

- al-Bourezan ْ‫ؼؾا‬ٛ‫ اٌج‬-
- al-Tawshiyeh ٟ‫ان‬ٛ‫ اٌط‬-
- al-Shaykh ‫ص‬١‫ اٌه‬-
- al-Sharifa ‫فخ‬٠‫ اٌهؽ‬-
- Saif al-Islam َ‫ف االقال‬١‫ ق‬-
Table No. (6-6). Transliteration strategy in rendering social terms

(For more examples, see chapter 5, pp: 97-98).

- 150 -
 J.The translators, instead of using metaphors or idioms, offer only the meaning

using a non-figurative language. On the one hand, by employing paraphrasing

the translators sacrifice the form and style of the ST and lose the pragmatic force

of the original metaphorical expressions. On the other hand, it is insured that the

correct interpretations of these expressions will be communicated to the target

text reader. The translators in many cases can provide an explanation of the ST

items to the advantage of TT readership. However, it is a compromise the

translators have to accept for the purpose of achieving TT acceptability. For

example:

‫اٌّغفشح‬ٚ ‫ش‬١‫ اٌخ‬ٟ‫طبٌج‬ -

- Those seeking forgiveness for the dead and heavenly reward for themselves

(For more examples, see chapter 5, pp: 114-115).

K. There are few examples of ST misinterpretation which may lead to inadequate

translation as in the following examples:

‫اٌػؼح‬ٚ ‫ٓ ِؿاؼع اٌمصت‬١‫ ث‬-

- Through the plantations of corn and sugar-cane
‫د‬ٛ١‫ دجش فه اٌم‬-
- The room where the chains were to be removed.
(See chapter 5, pp: 110-111). Also, go back to table (6-4) above, please.

L. In translating the culture-specific idioms that have references to Holly Qura'an,

the translators have resorted to employ different strategies hopping to bridge the

cultural gap; however, this leads to absolute distortion to meaning as in the

following example:

‫ض ِصش‬٠‫جخ عض‬ٚ‫ ص‬,‫خب‬١ٌ‫ ثبٔه اٌض‬ٞ‫ ال رغزؽ‬-

- Don't take yourself for Zulaykha, the pharaoh's wife
(For more examples, see chapter five, pp: 109-110)

- 151 -
M. The translators are governed by the ST to a large extent. The translators'

objective is to convey the content of the novel to TT readership in the same

manner as it is conveyed to the ST reader. The translators even adopt the writing

style of the original, particularly in translating the culture-specific metaphors.

For example:

ٟ‫م‬٠‫ٔشف ٌٗ ؼ‬ٚ ٟ‫ف ظق ٌٗ لٍج‬ٛ‫ ض‬ٟٔ‫اػزؽا‬ٚ .

- The fear sweeping through me makes my heart beat quicker and my mouth grow

dry.

(For more examples, see chapter 5, page: 107)

N. The translation strategy of omission was more employed over ecological and

material terms, idioms and poetry where both content and message are excluded.

Although the translators use translation strategy of omission; they used another

translation strategy in rendering the culture-specific material terms in order to

clarify the ambiguity for the TL reader as in the following examples:

- Blank ْ‫ا‬ٚ‫ اٌهػؼ‬-

- Blank ‫ح‬ٍَٛ‫ اٌط‬-

(For more examples, see chapter 5, pp: 83, 93; 115-116 and 134-135).

O. The perception of irony may be different whenever the context or the potential

addressees change, which has obvious consequences for translation. As Hatim

and Mason point out:" (...) Successful translation will depend on whether or not

TT readers are able to achieve second-degree interpretation with minimal extra

processing effort. Recognition of ironic intention is, in all cases, crucial and will

condition the translator's output" (Hatim and Mason, 1990: 100)

- 152 -
P. In translating irony, it seems that for many ironical sentences the translators opt

for literal translation based on the assumption that the TT readers are expected to

grasp irony by realizing the absurdity between the visible meaning of the

sentence and what can be inferred from the situation. For example:

ْ‫ ٘ػا اٌّىب‬ٟ‫ ف‬ٟٔ‫ اٌشجً اٌثب‬ٟٔ‫ اػزجؽ‬-

- You can consider me the second man in the palace

(For more examples, see chapter 5, p: 127).

Q. Some ST expressions are inappropriately used by ST author because they lead

the ST reader, before the TL one, to understand that the author is negatively

ironical. For example, applying the title "Al-Sharifa" upon the Governor's

female mule" i.e. [As–Sharifa Az-Zaafarana] is inappropriate extraordinary

irony because the title [As-Sharifa] is applied to "a woman of a noble birth,

claiming descent from the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH).

R. Based on the comparative study of ST and TT we can conclude that the

translators succeed in making the English version of the novel entertaining.

However, we can not claim that the TT creates a pragmatic effect comparable to

that created by ST for the following reasons:

- Many ST culture specific items have no comparable English counterparts and

are either literally rendered or paraphrased. This leads to the loss of the spirit of
the original. This is because the translators mismatch the translation strategy or
sometimes they fail to apply it.

- Culture-specific terms, idioms and metaphors which are rooted in society and
Yemeni culture represent a crucial problem for the translators. So, the translators
mislead the TL reader. (See chapter 5, pp: 85-87 and 110-111).

- In many occasions, the translators have to sacrifice the pragmatic effect of the
original for the purpose of maintaining the content.

- 153 -
6.3 General Conclusions

The translators' main objective in translating The Hostage is to create

entertainment of the reader and to shed light on issues of cultural privacies to the

Yemeni people during a particular period of time. In spite of cultural translation

difficulties and shortcomings, it is apparent that the TT version has many merits to be

celebrated. These include- but may not be limited to - the following:

- The translation functions as a bridge across cultures and would be beneficial

for foreign researchers, etymologists or sociologists who have an interest in

the culture of Yemen.

- The novel offers a frame of reference in both Arabic and English which makes

the novel available for the TT and ST readers any time.

- 154 -
6.4 General Recommendations

We have seen how the translators of The Hostage dealt with translation problems.

Nevertheless, to create more valuable translation, the researcher, based on the findings

in this study, recommends the following:

1. Working on translation of the novel taking the following points into

consideration:

- The work should be done by a team of at least a Yemeni native speaker

translator and an English native speaker translator so as to avoid any

misinterpretations or inadequate TT renderings.

- A glossary should be supplied at the end of the novel explaining

culture specific terms or proverbs to ensure better TT comprehension

- The new reprint edition should deal with the lapses and mistranslations

in order to create a degree of TT accuracy and acceptability.

2. It was found that there are number of mistranslations of culture-specific

terms which they need to be corrected and republished.

3. When translating some culture-specific idioms particularly the ones which

have references to Holly Qura'an, it is advisable that the translators should

quote reliable and credited translations to avoid any lapses that may create a

certain kind of sensitivity.

- 155 -
6.5 Suggestions for Further Researches

1. The identified items per each culture-specific issue are small in number, but

they are worthy in cultural value. So, for further researches, it is suggested to

deal with culture-specific issues separately, in order to deal with a big

number of items and to expose them to analysis.

2. There are several cultural issues in The Hostage novel and they are not dealt

with even now; yet, it is suggested to take them in terms of study and

analysis as an expansion to the current research.

3. A similar study can be applied upon similar literary works with special focus

on Yemeni literary works.

4. Involving the target reader to new translation adequacies.

- 156 -
6.6 Concluding Summary

Translating 'The Hostage' novel into English is not a simple work. It is not only

because it sketches the Yemeni community comprehensively in terms of language

during a specific period of time i.e. Imamate era, but also it presents a lot of cultural

issues that need a special treatment in conveying them from the SC into the TC. This

can not be performed unless the translators have a good understanding of Yemeni

culture and the target culture as well, in all aspects.

Hence, this study aimed at finding the translation strategies when rendering

culture-specific issues in arRahinah novel into English by May Jayyusi and Christopher

Tingley. The analysis of 100 identified and categorized items was then followed by a

descriptive analysis. This was meant to point out the translation strategies employed by

the translators in terms of finding out the translation problems existed due to the cultural

differences between SL culture and TL culture. Thus, the cases at hand have shown that

the meaning of culture-specific issues is translated either by employing foreignization

and domestication strategies or verse translation.

Based on the general findings, culture-specific terms, idioms and poetry have

represented crucial problems in translation. What makes them difficult to translate is the

fact that they are well-rooted in a particular socio-cultural context. Therefore, when they

are transferred into a different context, they display some kind of translation resistance

because they express terms and idiomatic expressions which do not exist in the TL

culture. They refer to a specific environment, religious beliefs, and social values,

ecological and material items. In other words, they reflect the specific and distinct

reality. Moreover, the way people use language reflects their attitudes, values and

customs. Therefore, sometimes, such cultural variety makes it difficult for the

translators to bridge the gaps that exist between the SL and the TL culture.

- 157 -
 Bibliography

A. English References
1. Aghti, A. (2005): Study of the English Translation of the Arabic Culture-Specific
Terms. MA Thesis. Algeria.

2. Alessandro, D. (1997): Linguistic Anthropology, Cambridge University Press,

Great Britain.

3. Al-Hilali, M & Khan, M (1982): Translation of the Meanings of the Noble

Qura'an in the English Language. King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the
Holly Qura'an, Madinah, KSA.

4. Ali, M. (1994): The Meanings of the Holy Quran.

5. Al-Mawrid Arabic- English Dictionary. (2004) Dar El-Ilm Lilmalayin, Beirut,

Lebanon.

6. Applied Linguistic Dictionary (1985).

7. Baker, M. (1992): In Other Words. A Course Book on Translation, Routledge,

London.

8. Baker, M. (2005): "Translatability." "Encyclopedia of Translation Studies.

London and New York: Routledge.

9. Ba Owidhan, A. (2010): Overcoming Language and Cultural Barriers in the

Translation of Sana'ani Arabic Dialect into English with Reference to J.C.E.
Watson's Social Issues in Popular Yemeni Culture. MA. Thesis. Sana'a
University.

10. Barakat, E. (2008): Social Issues in Popular Yemeni Culture. MA. Thesis.
University Of Sciences and Technology.

11. Bassenett, S. And Lefevere, A. (1990): Translation, History and Culture,

CASSEL

12. Bassenett, S. (1992): Translation Studies, Methuen, London and New York.

13. Bell, R.T. (1991): Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, London,
Longman.

14. Brislin, R. W. (1976): Cross-Cultural Orientation Programs, Gardner Press. New

York.

- 158 -
15. Burrowes, R. (1994): A Historical Background to the Translation of The Hostage
Novel, New York, Interlink Publishing Group.

16. Catford, J. C. (1965): A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Oxford University

Press, Oxford

17. Concise Oxford English Dictionary (2002). Oxford University Press, Oxford.

18. Connolly, D. (2001): Poetry Translation. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation

Studies. Ed. Mona Baker. London and New York: Routledge.

19. Collins. VL (1972): A Book of English Idioms. Longman ( Book No. 1 &3)

20. Enani, M. (2001): Literary Translation: Theory and Practice, Cairo, GEBO.

21. Evelyn, H. And C. Brown, (1985), Vocabulary, Semantics, and Language,

Cambridge University Press, United States Of America.

22. Ghazala, H. (2004): Essays in Translation and Stylistics, Dar El-Ilm Lilmalayin,
Beirut, Lebanon.

23. Ghazala, H. (2008): Translation as Problems and Solutions: A Course Book for
University Students and Trainee Translators, Dar El-Ilm Lilmalayin, Beirut,
Lebanon.(Special Edition)

24. Harvey, S., Higgins, I. And L.M. Haywood, (1995), Thinking Spanish
Translation, Routledge, London and New York.

25. Hatim and Mason (1990): Discourse and the Translator, Longman, London and
New York.

26. Hans, W. (1976) Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic: Spoken Language

Services, New York.

27. Hymes, D. (1971): On Communicative Competence, University Of Pennsylvania

Press, Philadelphia.

28. Jayyusi, S.K. (1994): A Preface to the Translation of The Hostage Novel, New
York, Interlink Publishing Group.

29. Katan, D. (1999): Translating Culture: An Introduction to Translators,

Interpreters and Mediators. Manchester: St. Jerome.

30. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1995).The Complete Guide to

Written and Spoken English. (3rd Edition). Longman Corpus. Longman.

- 159 -
31. Macmillan Essential Dictionary for Learners of American English (2003).Oxford.
Macmillan.

32. Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2002).Oxford. Macmillan.

33. Nida, E. (1964): Towards a Science of Translating, E. J. Brill, Leiden.

34. Nida, E. And C. Taber, (1969): The Theory and Practice of Translation, E. J.
Brill, Leiden.

35. Nida, E. And C. Taber, (1982): The Theory and Practice of Translation, E. J.
Brill, Leiden.

36. Nida, E. (1993): Language, Culture, and Translating, Shanghai Foreign Language
Education Press, Shanghai.

37. Newmark, P. (1988): A Textbook of Translation, Prentice Hall, Hertfordshire.

38. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English (2000). International

Student's Edition. (6th Edition). Oxford. Oxford University Press.

39. Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs (2008). Oxford .Oxford University Press.

40. Qassem, M. (2010): Investigating the Cultural Problems of English-Arabic

Translation. Master Thesis. Ibb University.

41. Random House Unabridged Dictionary (2006).

42. Richards, I. (1957): The Concept of Culture in Malinowski's Work. In R. Firth

(Ed), Man and Culture (Pp.279-288). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

43. Schmitt, N. (2002) (Ed): An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. Arnold

44. Shunnaq, A. (1993): Lexical Incongruence in Arabic- English Translation Due To

Emotiveness in Arabic. Turguman.

45. Snell-Hornby, M. (1988): Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. John

Benjamin Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.

46. Snell-Hornby, M and Esther Pöhl, (Eds.) (1989): Translation and Lexicography,
Missouri, John Benjamins B.V./Paintbrush/Euralex.

47. Tymoczko, M. (1999): Post-Colonial Writing and Literary Translation, in S.

Bassenett, H. Trivedi (Eds).

48. Thawbteh, M. (2007): Translating Arabic-English Signs. Phd Thesis. De Granda

University.

- 160 -
49. Toury, G. (1995): Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, John Benjamins,
Amsterdam/Philadelphia.

50. Venuti, L. (1995): The Translator‟s Invisibility - A History of Translation.

Routledge, London and New York.

51. Venuti, L. (2001): The Translation Studies Reader, Routledge, London.

52. Venuti, L. (2004): The Translator's Invisibility. New York: Routledge.

- 161 -
B. Arabic References
1. Al-Adeemi, M.O.Thabet. Ath-Tharwa Al-Yamania Min Al-Amthal Ash-
Shabiya. Beirut: Fuad Maghino Enterprise, 1989.

2. Al-Eryani, Mutahar Ali. Al-Mu'jam Al-Yamani Fi Al-Lugah Wa-Turath.

Damascus: Dar Al-Fikr, 1996.

3. Al-Gomhoria Newspaper, Issue No.:15627, Sep., 2012.

4. Al-Maqaleh, Abdulwahab. Zayd Muttee Dammaj. Dirasaat Wa-Qira'at

Naqdia. Sanaa: Al-Affaq, 2009

5. Al-Maqaleh, Abd al-Aziz. Zayd Muttee Dammaj. Dirasaat Wa-Qira'at

Naqdia. Sanaa: Al-Affaq, 2009

6. Al-Muagam al-WaseeT, (4th Edition), Arabic Language Complex. Qairo.

As-Shrook International Library, 2004

7. An-Nabhani, Yussif Bin Ismail. Gamea Karamaat Al-Awlia. Vol.1. Beirut:

Dar Al-Fikr, 1992.

8. Al-Thafari, G. Safinatu Al-Amthaal. Majalat Al-Hikma.1996.

9. Web Sits: (From Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia)

1. "Ethnographic Arms & Armour - The Yemeni Jambiya".
2. History Of Arabia ,Encyclopedia Britannica( Macropedia Vol.1 .)Chicago:
Encyclopedia Britannica, 1979. 1043–1051.

3. Http://www.Alwahamag.Com/?Act=Artc&Id=602
4. Http://Www.Ghaylan.8k.Com/Yemenifood-2.Htm
5. Http://www.Ghaylan.8k.Com/Yemenifood-3.Htm.
6. Http://www.Yemen-Sound.Org/Uploader/Uploads/Perfect-Bab%20asbaah.Jpg

Www.Vikingsword.Com.

- 162 -
Appendix 1: The author and his works

About the author22:

Zayd Muttee' Dammaj (1943 - 2000) was a Yemeni author and politician. He is

best known for his short novel The Hostage which was selected by the Arab Writers

Union as one of the top 100 Arabic novels of the 20th century.

His life:

Dammaj was born in As-Sayyani District of Ibb Governorate. His father Sheikh

Mutee' bin Abdullah Dammaj was a committed revolutionary activist against the rule

of Imam Yahya and went on to establish a political party named Al-Ahrar in Aden in

1943. Sheikh Mutee' continued his struggle against Imamate regime and became the

first governor of Ibb Governorate after the revolution of 1962. The young Dammaj was

educated in the village madrasa and at home, before his father sent him to a school

in Taiz. In 1958, Dammaj went to Egypt where he studied in schools in Bani

Suwayf and Tanta before enrolling in Cairo University in 1964. He studied law for a

couple of years before deciding to make the switch to journalism. He had already started

to write political articles and short fiction that was published in the New Yemen

periodical. In 1968, still in the middle of his studies, he was summoned back home to

participate with his father in the anti-royalist movement.

In 1970, Dammaj was elected to the Shura Council, regarded as Yemen's first

elected parliament, as a representative of his native district of As Sayyani. His political

rise continued. By 1976, he was appointed governor of the Mahweet governorate and in

1980; he became Yemen's ambassador to Kuwait. In 1982, he cemented his place in the

22
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

- 163 -
political hierarchy when he was elected to the Permanent Committee of the General

People‟s Congress, the ruling party in Yemen.

Parallel to his political career, Dammaj also pursued a career as a literary writer.

His first volume of short stories was published in 1973, while Al-Rahinah (The

Hostage) was published in 1984. It went through multiple printings in Arabic and has

since been translated into French, English, German and Hindi among others. It is widely

regarded as the most famous novel in Yemen and a classic of modern Arabic literature.

Dammaj was 57 when he died on March 20, 2000 in Middlesex

Hospital in London.

His works:

1. Tahish al-Huban (1973), short story collection

2. Al-'Aqrab (The Scorpion) (1982), short story collection

3. Ar-Rahinah (The Hostage) (1984), novel. English translation by May

Jayyusi and Christopher Tingley.

4. The Bridge (1986), short story collection

5. The Sorrows of the Girl Mayyasa (1990), short story collection

6. Al-Inbihar wa Al-Dahshah (The Amazement and the Astonishment) (2000),

memoirs

7. Al-Madfa' Al-Asfar (The Yellow Cannon) (2001), short story collection

8. Al-Madrasah Al-Ahmadiyah (The Ahmadi School), novel -- not complete.

- 164 -
Appendix 2: The Translators23:

Ar-Rahinah novel is translated into English by the American translators, May

Jayyusi and Christopher Tingley. However, May Jayyusi is American translator and

has Palestinian origins. She is bilingual and this helps, to some extent, to bridge the

cultural gaps between the SL and TL. The translators are members of PROTA. It is

a Project of Translation from Arabic Literature founded and directed by Salma

Khadra Jayyusi.

May Jayyusi and Christopher Tingley, in addition to their participations in

translating The Hostage into English, they have participated in translating many

Arabic literary works into English, such as:

1. All that's Left to you, a novella and collection of short stories by

Ghassan Kanafani (1990). Trans. by May Jayyusi and Jeremy Reed.

2. The Fan of Swords, poetry by Muhammad al-Maghut. Trans. by May

Jayyusi and Noaimi Shihab Nye. (1991).

3. War in The Land of Egypt, a novel by Yusuf al-Qa'id. Trans. by Olive

Kenny and Christopher Tingley. (1986).

4. A Balacony Over the Fakihani, a collection of three novellas by Liyana

Badr. Trans. by Peter Clerk with Christopher Tingley. (1993).

23
The English version of The Hostage Novel: By the Publisher: Interlink Publishing Group, 1994.
- 165 -
- 166 -
- 167 -
Picture No. (5) shows a Yemeni folkloric dance i.e [baraa]

Picture No. (6) "The faqih".

- 168 -
- 169 -
Picture No. (9) "al-Aokfah with their “‫[ ”ِئضس‬miazar] ", the piece of clothes from waists
to knees.

- 170 -
 ‫ملخص‪:‬‬

‫ذحًّ ٘زٖ اٌذساعح عٕ‪ٛ‬اْ (ذشخّح اٌمعا‪٠‬ا اٌثماف‪١‬ح ف‪ ٟ‬اٌرشخّح اإلٔدٍ‪١‬ض‪٠‬ح ٌش‪ٚ‬ا‪٠‬ح اٌش٘‪ٕ١‬ح ٌٍىاذة‬

‫ص‪٠‬ذ ِط‪١‬ع دِاج)‪.‬‬

‫ذعرّذ ٘زٖ اٌذساعح عٍ‪ ٝ‬ذشخّح ِ‪ ٟ‬اٌد‪ٛ١‬ع‪ٚ ٟ‬وش‪٠‬غر‪ٛ‬فش ذ‪ٕ١‬دٍ‪ٌ ٟ‬ش‪ٚ‬ا‪٠‬ح " اٌش٘‪ٕ١‬ح " ٌض‪٠‬ذ ِط‪١‬ع‬

‫دِاج لصذ ذغٍ‪١‬ط اٌع‪ٛ‬ء عٍ‪ ٝ‬اٌفد‪ٛ‬اخ اٌثماف‪١‬ح اٌر‪ّ٠ ٟ‬ىٓ اْ ثشىً تعط اٌصع‪ٛ‬تاخ عٕذ اٌرشخّح ِٓ‬

‫اٌعشت‪١‬ح اٌ‪ ٝ‬اإلٔدٍ‪١‬ض‪٠‬ح‪ ,‬تاإلظافح اٌ‪ ٝ‬دساعح اعرشاذ‪١‬د‪١‬اخ اٌرشخّح اٌثماف‪١‬ح اٌر‪ ٟ‬اعد خدِ‪ٙ‬ا اٌّرشخّ‪ٓ١‬‬

‫ف‪ ٟ‬ذشخّح إٌص االدت‪ٚ ,ٟ‬ايصع‪ٛ‬تاخ اٌر‪ٚ ٟ‬اخ‪ٙ‬ا٘ا ف‪ ٟ‬ذشخّح اٌمعا‪٠‬ا اٌثماف‪١‬ح‪.‬‬

‫ذم‪٘ َٛ‬زٖ اٌذساعح عٍ‪ ٝ‬اخر‪١‬اس (ِائح ) ع‪ٕ١‬ح ذرعّٓ خص‪ٛ‬ص‪١‬ح ثماف‪١‬ح ف‪ ٟ‬إٌص االصٍ‪ٌ ٟ‬غشض‬

‫دساعر‪ٙ‬ا ‪ِٚ‬ماسٔر‪ٙ‬ا ِع إٌص اإلْ جٌ‪١‬ض‪ , ٞ‬ح‪١‬ث صٕفد ٘زٖ اٌع‪ٕ١‬اخ ف‪ ٟ‬عد ل‪ٛ‬ائُ ذعىظ اٌّحر‪ٜٛ‬‬

‫‪ ٟ٘ٚ‬لائّح اٌّفشداخ اٌثماف‪٠‬ح ‪ٚ‬اٌّصطٍحاخ ‪ٚ‬اإلعرعاساخ ‪ٚ‬االِثاي ‪ٚ‬اٌر‪ٙ‬ىُ‬ ‫اٌثماف‪ٚ ٟ‬اإلخرّاع‪ٟ‬‬

‫‪ٚ‬اٌشعش‪.‬‬

‫& ‪Venuti's Foreignization‬‬ ‫‪ ِٓٚ‬خالي اٌرّ‪١١‬ض ت‪ ٓ١‬اعرشاذ‪١‬داخ اٌرشخّح اٌثماف‪١‬ح‬

‫‪ٚ ,Domestication‬وزٌه اعرشاذ‪١‬د‪١‬اخ ‪ٌ Newmark's procedures‬رشخّح اٌّفشداخ اٌثماف‪١‬ح ‪,‬‬

‫تاإلظافح اٌ‪ ٝ‬إعرشاذ‪١‬د‪١‬اخ اٌرشخّح اٌثماف‪١‬ح اٌر‪ ٟ‬اقذشحر‪ٙ‬ا ‪ Janet Watson‬عٕذ ذشخّر‪ٙ‬ا ٌىراب "لعا‪٠‬ا‬

‫إخرّاع‪١‬ح ف‪ ٟ‬األدب اٌشعث‪ ٟ‬اٌ‪ " ّٟٕ١‬اٌّعش‪ٚ‬ف تـ"ِغعذ ‪ِٚ‬غعذج"‪ ,‬ذىشف ٌٕا ٘زٖ اٌذساعح اٌطش‪٠‬مح اٌر‪ٟ‬‬

‫ذّىٓ ف‪ٙ١‬ا اٌّرشخّ‪ٔ ِٓ ٓ١‬مً ِحر‪ ٜٛ‬اٌّصطٍحاخ اٌثماف‪١‬ح اٌعشت‪١‬ح اٌ‪ ٝ‬اٌٍغح اإلْجٌ‪١‬ض‪٠‬ح‪.‬‬

‫‪ٚ‬تٕاءاً عٍ‪ٔ ٝ‬رائح اٌثحث ‪٠‬رعح ٌٕا اْ ذشخّح اٌّفشداخ اٌثماف‪١‬ح ‪ٚ‬اٌّصطٍحاخ ‪ٚ‬االِثاي ‪ٚ‬اٌشعش‬

‫ِثٍد اٌّشىٍح األتشص ت‪ ٓ١‬اٌمعا‪٠‬ا اٌثماف‪١‬ح األخش‪ٚ ٜ‬تٕغة ِرفا‪ٔٚ‬ح ‪ ,‬وّا أْ ٔظش‪٠‬ر‪Foreignization ٟ‬‬

‫‪ٔٚ ,& Domestication‬ظش‪٠‬ح ‪ٌ Newmark‬رشخّح اٌّصطٍحاخ اٌثماف‪١‬ح ‪ٚ ,‬اإلعرشاذ‪١‬د‪١‬اخ اٌر‪ٟ‬‬

‫الرشحر‪ٙ‬ا ‪ Janet Watson‬لذ اعرخذِد تص‪ٛ‬سج خٍ‪١‬ح ‪ ,‬اال اْ ٔظش‪٠‬ح ‪ ٟ٘ Foreignization‬االوثش‬

‫ذطث‪١‬ماُ إر اسذىض عٍ‪ٙ١‬ا اٌّرشخّ‪ ٓ١‬ف‪ ٟ‬ذشخّح اٌمعا‪٠‬ا اٌثماف‪١‬ح ف‪ ٟ‬ذشخّح س‪ٚ‬ا‪٠‬ح اٌش٘‪ٕ١‬ح اٌ‪ ٝ‬االٔىٍ‪١‬ض‪٠‬ح‪.‬‬

‫‪- 171 -‬‬