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List of Experiments

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
27 views78 pages

List of Experiments

Uploaded by

Rituraj
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Hall Effect measurement


2. 4-point probe method
3. Crystal Structure
4. B-H curve
5. PCB Design and Fabrication
6. Van Der Waals forces
Experiment No. 1
Aim:
1. To determine the Hall voltage developed across the sample material.
2. To calculate the Hall coefficient and the carrier concentration of the sample material.

Apparatus:
Two solenoids, Constant current supply, Four probe, Digital gauss meter, Hall effect
apparatus (which consist of Constant Current Generator (CCG), digital milli voltmeter
and Hall probe).

Theory:
If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a potential difference
will generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to both magnetic field and current. This
phenomenon is called Hall Effect. In solid state physics, Hall effect is an important tool to
characterize the materials especially semiconductors. It directly determines both the sign and
density of charge carriers in a given sample.

Consider a rectangular conductor of thickness t kept in XY plane. An electric field is applied in


X-direction using Constant Current Generator (CCG), so that current I flow through the sample.
If w is the width of the sample and t is the thickness. There for current density is given by

Jx=I/wt (1)
Fig.1 Schematic representation of Hall Effect in a conductor.
CCG – Constant Current Generator, JX – current density
ē – electron, B – applied magnetic field
t – thickness, w – width
VH – Hall voltage

If the magnetic field is applied along negative z-axis, the Lorentz force moves the charge carriers
(say electrons) toward the y-direction. This results in accumulation of charge carriers at the top
edge of the sample. This set up a transverse electric field Ey in the sample. This develop a
potential difference along y-axis is known as Hall voltage VH and this effect is called Hall
Effect.

A current is made to flow through the sample material and the voltage difference between its top
and bottom is measured using a volt-meter. When the applied magnetic field B=0,the voltage
difference will be zero.We know that a current flows in response to an applied electric field with
its direction as conventional and it is either due to the flow of holes in the direction of current or
the movement of electrons backward. In both cases, under the application of magnetic field the
magnetic Lorentz force, causes the carriers to curve upwards. Since the charges
cannot escape from the material, a vertical charge imbalance builds up. This charge imbalance
produces an electric field which counteracts with the magnetic force and a steady state is
established. The vertical electric field can be measured as a transverse voltage difference using a
voltmeter.
In steady state condition, the magnetic force is balanced by the electric force. Mathematically we
can express it as
(2)
Where 'e' the electric charge, 'E' the hall electric field developed, 'B' the applied magnetic field
and 'v' is the drift velocity of charge carriers.
And the current 'I' can be expressed as,
(3)
Where 'n' is the number density of electrons in the conductor of length l ,breadth 'w' and
thickness 't'.
Using (1) and (2) the Hall voltage VH can be written as,

(4)

by rearranging eq(4) we get

(5)

where RH is called the Hall coefficient.

RH=1/ne (6)

Procedure:
Controls

Combo box
Select procedure: This is used to select the part of the experiment to perform.
1) Magnetic field Vs Current.
2) Hall effect setup.
Select Material: This slider activate only if Hall Effect setup is selected. And this is used
to select the material for finding Hall coefficient and carrier concentration.
Button
Insert Probe/ Remove Probe: This button used to insert/remove the probe in between
the solenoid.
Show Voltage/ Current: This will activate only if Hall Effect setup selected and it used
to display the Hall voltage/ current in the digital meter.
Reset: This button is used to repeat the experiment.

Slider
Current : This slider used to vary the current flowing through the Solenoid.
Hall Current: This slider used to change the hall current
Thickness: This slider used to change the thickness of the material selected.

Procedure for doing the simulation:

To measure the magnetic field generated in the solenoid


 Select Magnetic field Vs Current from the procedure combo-box.
 Click Insert Probe button
 Placing the probe in between the solenoid by clicking the wooden stand in the simulator.
 Using Current slider, varying the current through the solenoid and corresponding magnetic field
is to be noted from Gauss meter.

Trial No: Current through solenoid Magnetic field generated

Table(1)

Hall Effect apparatus


 Select Hall Effect Setup from the Select the procedure combo box
 Click Insert Hall Probe button
 Placing the probe in between the solenoid by clicking the wooden stand in the simulator.
 Set "current slider" value to minimum.
 Select the material from “Select Material” combo-box.
 Select the Thickness of the material using the slider Thickness.
 Vary the Hall current using the sllider Hall current.
 Note down the corresponding Hall voltage by clicking “show voltage” button.
 Then calculate Hall coefficient and carrier concentration of that material using the equation

RH=VHt/(I*B)
Where RH is the Hall coefficient
RH=1/ne
And n is the carrier concentration
 Repeat the experiment with different magnetic file.
Trial Magnetic Field Thickness (t) Hall current, Hall Voltage RH
No: (Tesla T) m mA mV
1

Procedure for doing real lab


 Connect „Constant current source‟ to the solenoids.
 Four probe is connected to the Gauss meter and placed at the middle of the two solenoids.
 Switch ON the Gauss meter and Constant current source.
 Vary the current through the solenoid from 1A to 5A with the interval of 0.5A, and note the
corresponding Gauss meter readings.
 Switch OFF the Gauss meter and constant current source and turn the knob of constant current
source towards minimum current.
 Fix the Hall probe on a wooden stand. Connect green wires to Constant Current Generator and
connect red wires to milli voltmeter in the Hall Effect apparatus
 Replace the Four probe with Hall probe and place the sample material at the middle of the two
solenoids.
 Switch ON the constant current source and CCG.
 Carefully increase the current I from CCG and measure the corresponding Hall voltage VH.
Repeat this step for different magnetic field B.
 Thickness t of the sample is measured using screw gauge.
 Hence calculate the Hall coefficient RH using the equation 5.
 Then calculate the carrier concentration n. using equation 6.
Result
Hall coefficient of the material = .........................

Carrier concentration of the material =.......................... m-3


Experiment No. 2

AIM
To determine the resistivity of semiconductors by Four probe Method.

APPARATUS
The experimental set up consists of probe arrangement, sample , oven 0-200°C, constant current
generator , oven power supply and digital panel meter(measuring voltage and current).
Four probe apparatus is one of the standard and most widely used apparatus for the measurement
of resistivity of semiconductors.This method is employed when the sample is in the form of a
thin wafer, such as a thin semiconductor material deposited on a substrate. The sample is
millimeter in size and having a thickness w. It consists of four probe arranged linearly in a
straight line at equal distance S from each other. A constant current is passed through the two
probes and the potential drop V across the middle two probes is measured. An oven is provided
with a heater to heat the sample so that behavior of the sample is studied with increase in
temperature.
Fig:1 Fig:2

The figure shows the arrangements of four probes that measure voltage (V) and supply current
(A) to the surface of the crystal.

THEORY
At a constant temperature, the resistance, R of a conductor is proportional to its length L and
inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.

(1)
Where ρ is the resistivity of the conductor and its unit is ohmmeter.
A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between that of a
conductor and insulator. Semiconductor differs from metals in their characteristic property of
decreasing electrical resistivity with increasing temperature.
According to band theory, the energy levels of semiconductors can be grouped into two bands,
valence band and the conduction band. In the presence of an external electric field it is electrons
in the valence band that can move freely, thereby responsible for the electrical conductivity of
semiconductors. In case of intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level lies in between the
conduction band minimum and valence band maximum. Since conduction band lies above the
Fermi level at 0K, when no thermal excitations are available, the conduction band remains
unoccupied. So conduction is not possible at 0K, and resistance is infinite. As temperature
increases, the occupancy of conduction band goes up, thereby resulting in decrease of electrical
resistivity of semiconductor.
Resistivity of semiconductor by four probe method
1. The resistivity of material is uniform in the area of measurement.
2. If there is a minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the current- carrying
electrodes most of the carriers recombine near electrodes so that their effect on conductivity is
negligible.
3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.
4. The four probes used for resistivity measurement contact surface at points that lie in a straight
line.
5. The diameter of the contact between metallic probes and the semiconductor should be small
compared to the distance between the probes.
6. The boundary between the current carrying electrodes and the bulk material is hemispherical
and small in diameter.
7. The surface of semiconductor material may be either conducting and non-conducting. A
conducting boundary is one on which material of much lower resistivity than semiconductor has
been plated. A non-conducting boundary is produced when the surface of the semiconductor is in
contact with insulator.
Fig: 2 show the resistivity probes on a die of material. If the side boundaries are adequately far
from the probes, the die may be considered to be identical to a slice. For this case of a slice of
thickness w and the resistivity is computed as

(2)
The function, f(w/S) is a divisor for computing resistivity which depends on the value of w and S
We assume that the size of the metal tip is infinitesimal and sample thickness is greater than the
distance between the probes,
(3)

Where V – the potential difference between inner probes in volts.


I – Current through the outer pair of probes in ampere.
S – Spacing between the probes in meter.

Temperature dependence of resistivity of semiconductor


Total electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is the sum of the conductivities of the valence
band and conduction band carriers. Resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity and its
temperature dependence is given by

(4)
Where Eg – band gap of the material
T – Temperature in kelvin
K – Boltzmann constant, K – 8.6x10-5 eV/K
The resistivity of a semiconductor rises exponentially on decreasing the temperature.

Applications
1. Remote sensing areas
2. Resistance thermometers
3. Induction hardening process
4. Accurate geometry factor estimation
5. Characterization of fuel cells bipolar plates

Procedure for Simulation


Combo Box and Sliders
Select Material - This is used to select semiconductor material for doing the simulator.
Range of Current - One can choose the range of current for the current source.
Current’ Slider - It ranges from 1mA to 200mA. (Note:The divisions in the slider is fixed as
100). If 20mA current is selected in the combo box, the slider value will range from 0mA to
20mA, with an interval of 0.2mA and if the value is 200mA in the combo box, slider value
changes from 0mA to 200mA with an interval of 2mA.
Range of oven - This combo box is used to fix the temeprature to a particular range.
Oven- Oven is used to vary the temeprature upto 2000 C.
Set Button – It is used to fix the temperature in the oven.
Run Button – After setting the temperature, using run button we can start heating the oven.
Wait Button – It is used to stop heating the oven at a particular temperature.
Measure Button- It is used to display the present temperature of the oven.
Select Range Combo Box – Options are X1 and X10.
Temperature slider - it ranges from 270 C to 2000 C. active only by clicking the Set button and
become inactive after clicking Run button. If X1 is in combo box, the slider value ranges from
27 0 C to 990 C and If the value is X10 in combo box, slider value changes from 2.7 0 C to 200
C.
Voltmeter Combo Box - Options are 1 mV, 10 mV, 100 mV, 1 V, 10 V. One can select it for
getting output in a particular range.

Procedure
1. Select the semiconductor material from the combo box.
2. Select the source current from the slider. Restrict the slider based on the range of current.
3. Select the Range of oven from the combo box.
4. Set the temperature from the slider.
5. Click on the Run Button to start heating the oven in a particular interval, from the default
250C to the temperature that we set already Click on the Wait button to stop heating.
6. Click on the Set button to display the temperature that we set in the oven.
7. Click on the Measure button to display the present temperature in the oven.
8. Select the range of voltmeter from the combo box.
9. Measure the Voltage using Voltmeter.
10. Calculate the Resistivity of semiconductor in eV for the given temperature using equation
(2) and (3).
11. A Graph is plotted with Temperature along x-axis and resistivity of semiconductor along
y-axis.

Procedure for Real Lab


In real lab, four probes are placed on the sample as shown in Fig:1. Connections are made
as shown in the simulator. A constant current is passed through the outer probes by connecting it
to the constant current source of the set up. The current is set to 8mA. The voltage developed
across the middle two probes is measured using a digital milli-voltmeter. The trial is repeated by
placing the four probe arrangement inside the oven. The oven is connected to the heater supply
of the set up. For different temperatures, upto 1500C, the voltage developed is noted and
tabulated.
The distance between the probes(S) and the thickness of the crystal (W) are measured. The
values of (W/S) are calculated and the value of the function f(W/S) ia taken from the standard
table. Using equation (2) and (3), calculate ρ for various temperatures.

Observations and Calculations


Resistivity can be calculated by using the equation given below.
Here we take,
Distance between the probes, S as0.2cm and
Thickness of the sample,w as 0.05cm.
From standard table f(w/S) = 5.89

= ...................... Ohm cm

= ..................... Ohm cm

Result
The resistivity of the given semiconductor by Four probe Method = ...................................Ohm
cm
Experiment No. 3
Aim
To study various crystals structures.

Theory
Matter exist usually in solid or fluid (liquid, gas) state. According to modern concept matter
classification is specified as condensed state and gaseous state. Solids and liquids come under
condensed state. Any material whose position of constituent particles is fixed can be regarded as
solids.

Solids are characterized by incompressibility, rigidity and mechanical strength. This indicates
that the molecules, atoms or ions that make up as solid is closely packed. Thus in solids we will
have a well ordered molecular, atomic or ionic arrangement.
In general solids can be classified into:

Crystalline-particles are orderly arranged (long range order). Amorphous-particles are randomly
oriented.

If the atoms or molecules are uniquely arranged in crystalline solid or liquid we call it as a
crystal structure. A crystal posses long range order and symmetry. The main property of crystal
structure is its periodicity. This periodicity is due to the arrangement of atoms/molecules in the
lattice points. The crystal structure as a whole can be considered as the repetition of unit cell. For
a given crystal structure the shape of unit cell is same but varies from crystal to crystal.

X-ray diffraction studies reveal that the constituent particles (molecules, atoms or ions) are
arranged in a definite pattern in the crystal. To get the diffraction pattern the wavelength of light
used must be comparable with the atomic spacing.

Lattice
A crystal structure is formed only when the group of atoms is arranged identically at the lattice
point. The group of atoms or molecules is called a basis. Lattice point is actually an imaginary
concept.

In other way, we can say that,


Lattice + Basis=crystal structure

Line joining any two points is a translation in lattice. Two non-collinear translation leads to a
plane lattice and three non coplanar translation leads to a space lattice.
Unit cell
Unit cell can be considered as the building block
of a crystal. It has the same symmetry as the
entire crystal. When we arrange the unit cell in
3D, we get the bulk crystal. In other words it can
be described as the smallest volume which when
repeated in all direction gives the crystal. The
three edges a, b, c along the axis and angle
between them α, β and γ is termed as lattice
parameters. In 3D it is better to consider a
parallelepiped as unit cell.

Unit cell can


be of primitive
as well as non primitive type. A primitive cell is a minimum
volume unit cell and has only one lattice point in it and the
latter contains more than one.

In the given figure below, simple cube is a primitive cell. No.of atoms per unit cell is one for it.
The rest two is non primitive. No.of atoms per unit cell is 2 and 4 respectively.

Simple cubic (P) Body- centred cubic (I) Face centered cubic (F)

Bravais Lattice in Two dimension-Plane lattice


In general, number of lattices obtained is unlimited
since there is no restriction to the length a, b of the
lattice translations and on angle φ between them. Such
a lattice for arbitrary a, b and φ is known as oblique
lattice. This oblique lattice is invariant under rotation
of 2π/n (with n=1 and 2). It can also be made invariant
under rotation of 2π/n with n=3, 4 and 6.
For a=b and φ=900, we get square lattice a≠b and φ=900, rectangular a=b and φ= φ0, rhombus
a=b and φ= 600, hexagonal

Bravais Lattice in Three dimension-Space lattice


Based on the lattice parameters a, b, c, α, β and γ and applying the restrictions as above, only 14
types of lattices are possible in three dimensions. One general (triclinic) and thirteen special.
Only seven different systems of axis are found to be sufficient to represent all Bravais lattice.
This fourteen space lattice is divided into seven crystal systems.

They are triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, trigonal, hexagonal and cubic.

Serial
Lattice Systems Simple Base-centered Body-centered Face-centered Example
No:

1 triclinic(none) CuSO4.5H2O, K2Cr2O7

CaSO4.2H2O, FeSO4,

2 monoclinic(1diad) Na2SO4

orthorhombic(3 perpendicular
3 KNO3, BaSO4
diads)
4 rhombohedral(1 triad) As, Sb, Bi

5 tetragonal(1 tetrad) TiO2, SnO2, NiSO4

6 hexagonal(1 hexad) SiO2, Zn, Mg, Cd

7 cubic(4 triads) Au, Cu, NaCl

Atomic packing Fraction (APF)


Atomic packing fraction mainly gives us an idea about the arrangement of atoms/ions in solids. It
will give the efficiency with which the available space is being filled by atoms.

Packing fraction is defined as the ratio of volume of atoms occupying the unit cell to the volume
of unit cell.

Examples:
1. Simple Cubic

Consider a cube of side 'a' .Atoms of radius „r‟ is placed at the


corner. So that length of cube a=2r.

Volume of atoms in unit cell

In a simple cubic structure, the atoms occupies at the eight


corners. An atom at the corner is equally shared by 8 unit
cells. So the contribution of one atom to a unit cell is 1/8.
Therefore the no. of atoms per unit cell is (1/8)*8(corner
atoms) =1.

Volume of unit cell=

2. Body centered Cube

Consider a cube of side „a‟, and atoms of radius „r‟ are


placed at corners and at the body centre. Length of
body diagonal, √3a=4r.

Volume of atoms in unit cell


In a body centered cube, there will be one atom at the
centre along with 8 corner atoms. This corner atom is
shared by 8 unit cell and the atom at the centre is not a
shared one. Therefore no. of atoms per unit cell=
(1/8)*8(corner atoms)+1(body centre)=2.

Volume of unit cell

3. Face centered Cube


Consider a cube of length „a‟ and atoms of radius ‟r‟ are placed at the corners as well as at the
face centre. Length of face diagonal √2a=4r.

Volume of unit cell


In a face centered cube, each face possess one atom along with 8 corner atoms. The atoms at the
faces are equally shared by two unit cell. Corner atoms by 8 unit cells. So the no. of atoms per
unit cell is=(1/8)*8(corner atoms)+(1/2)*6(atoms at face)=4.

Volume of unit cell

Procedure for doing simulation


1. Select crystal lattice type from Lattice Type combo box.

2. Choose the corresponding crystal lattice sub type from Sub Type combo box.

3. Adjust the crystal lattice transparency by using the Lattice Transparency slider.

4. For viewing the angles and sides, click and drag the crystal lattice so as to rotate it.
Experiment No. 4
Theory

Hysteresis
Hysteresis means “remaining” in Greek, an effect remains after its cause has disappeared.
Hysteresis, a term coined by Sir James Alfred Ewing in 1881, a Scottish physicist and engineer
(1855-1935), defined it as: When there are two physical quantities M and N such that cyclic
variations of N cause cyclic variations of M, then if the changes of M lag behind those of N, we
may say that there is hysteresis in the relation of M to N". The most notable example of
hysteresis in physics is magnetism. Iron maintains some magnetization after it has been exposed
to and removed from a magnetic field.

Magnetic Hysteresis
Consider a magnetic material being subjected to a cycle of magnetization. The graph intensity of
magnetization (M) vs. magnetizing field (H) gives a closed curve called M-H loop. Consider
the portion AB of the curve given below. The intensity of magnetization M does not become
zero when the magnetizing field H is reduced to zero. Thus the intensity of magnetization M at
every stage lags behind the applied field H. This property is called magnetic hysteresis. The M-H
loop is called hysteresis loop. The shape and area of the loop are different for different materials.

Hysteresis Loop
An initially unmagnetized material is subjected to a cycle of magnetization. The values of
intensity of magnetization M and the magnetizing field H are calculated at every stage and a
closed loop is obtained on plotting a graph between M and H as shown in the figure. The point
„O‟ represents the initial unmagnetized condition of the material. As the applied field is
increased, the magnetization increases to the saturation point „A‟ along „OA‟. As the applied
field is reduced, the loop follows the path „AB‟. „OB‟ represents the intensity of magnetization
remaining in the material when the applied field is reduced to zero. This is called the residual
magnetism or remanence. The property of retaining some magnetism on removing the magnetic
field is called retentivity. OC represents the magnetizing field to be applied in the opposite
direction to remove residual magnetism. This is called coercive field and the property is called
coercivity. When the field is further increased in the reverse direction the material reaches
negative saturation point „D‟. When the field is increased in positive direction, the curve follows
path „DEF‟.
Figure 1 Magnetic hysteresis loop showing coercive force OC, residual magnetism OB,
saturation point A

Hysteresis Loop Tracer Design Principle


When a cylindrical sample is placed coaxially in a periodically varying magnetic field produced
by the solenoid, the magnetisation in the sample undergoes a periodic variation. The pickup coil
placed coaxially with the sample picks up this variation.
For the uniform field Ha produced by the solenoid, the effective field H acting on the cylindrical
sample will be,
H = Ha – NM ---------------------- (1)

Where M is magnetization, or H = Ha – NJ/μo , where N is the normalized demagnetization


factor and J is the magnetic polarization defined by, B = μoH + J with B = μH = μo(H+M) as
magnetic induction.
The signal corresponding to the applied field, Ha, can be written as,
E1 = C1Ha -------------- (2) where C1 is a
constant.

Further the flux linked with the pick-up coil of area Ac due to the sample of area As will be φ
= μ(Ac – As)H’+ AsB

Here H‟ is the magnetic field, in the free from sample area of the pickup coil, will be different
from H and the difference will be determined by the magnitude of the demagnetizing field.
However, when the ratio of the length of the sample rod to the diameter of the pickup coil is
more than 10, the difference between H and H‟ is too small, so we have
φ = μ(Ac – As)H’+ AsB

= μ0AcH+ As(B- μ0H)

φ= μ0AcH+ AsJ ------------------------ (3)

The signal e2 induced in the pickup coil will be proportional to dφ/dt. After the integration the
signal (e3) will therefore be
e3 = C3φ = C3μ0AcH+ C3AsJ------------------ (4)

Solving (1),(2) and (4) for J and H gives:


C1C3Ac(As/Ac - N)J = C1e3 – μ0C3Ace1---------
--------------(5.1)
C1C3Ac(As/Ac - N)H = C3A3e1 –NC1e3/μ0 ----
--------------- (5.2)

In case the sample contains a number of magnetically different constituents, the loop obtained is
the algebraic sum of individual loops of different phases. The separation of these is not easy in a
J-h loop,while in a second derivative of J with respect to time, d2j/dt2, the identification can be
made very clear. Now the aim is to produce electrical signals corresponding to J and H as
defined above by equations (5.1) and (5.2) so that they can be displayed on the CRO (cathode
ray oscilloscope). Moreover, it s to display dφ/dt and d2φ/dt2 as a function of H.
The magnetic field is obtained with a multilayered solenoid driven by the AC mains at 50 Hz
and by a variable transformer arrangement. The instantaneous current producing the field is
passed through a resistor R1 in series with the solenoid.
The signal e2 corresponding to the rate of change of flux is obtained from a pickup coil wound
on a non conducting tube. Necessary arrangements have been made to place the sample coaxially
with the pickup winding and in uniform magnetic field.
The signals e1 and e3 are added and its output which is proportional to J is applied to Y-input of
CRO.
Fractions of these signals corresponding to the demagnetization factor and area ratio are added,
amplified and the output is fed to the X-input input of CRO which gives H.
The selector switch can change the Y-input of CRO to J, dj/dt , or d2j/dt2. The dj/dt
Signal is directly taken from the pick-up coil while d2j/dt2 is obtained through the differentiator.
Now the magnetic field at the centre of the solenoid for current I flowing through it will be, Ha =
Ki or e1 = R1i
E1 = R1/K Ha

Substituting φ from Equation (3) above we get, e2 = nμ0Ac(dH/dt)+nAs(dJ/dt)


Now as mentioned earlier integrating e2 gives e3. So,

Where G1 is the gain of the integrator and phase shifter combination. Again as mentioned above
out of phase signals e1 and –e3 are added and after suitable amplification Gy, becomes,

If we adjust C1 = H , then

.-----------------------(6)
Fraction α and β of e1 and –e3 respectively, are added together and amplified (let us say by the
factor Gx) for the X-input. So we get,

After substituting C1 =g1nµ0 Ac ,J is eliminated from the right hand side and by adjusting α
and β such that

We get,

-----------------------(7)
Equations (6) and (7) can be written as:

-----------------------(8.1)
Where

-----------------------(8.2)
Equations (8.1) and (8.2) define the physical quantities H and J in terms of electrical signals ex
and ey respectively.

Procedure
Lab Experiment Overall Goals
The goal of this lab exercise is to study the phenomena of magnetic hysteresis and calculate the
retentivity, coercivity and saturation magnetization of a material using a hysteresis loop tracer
(HLT-111). The remote trigger equipment allows you to control the applied magnetic field (H).
By varying this parameter, the J-H loop, dJ/dt and d2J/dt2 loop will be produced.

Instructions For Simulator


1. Select Sample A or B.
2. Click Plot and the MH curve is displayed on the screen.
3. Vary the material parameters and observe the characteristics of the material.
4. Reset clears the input field and Reset Figure clears the graph.

Lab Apparatus
This remote trigger experiment performs experiments on actual hysteresis loop tracer equipment
(HLT-111). The experimental setup is housed at Amrita University, Amritapuri Campus and has
the following features:
1.The Hysteresis Loop tracer used in this experiment is HLT-111.
2. Observations.
 Diameter of the pick-up coil – 3.21 mm .
 Gx = 100.
 Gy = 1Sample Used: Thin cylindrical rod made of Commercial Nickel.
 Length of the sample = 37 mm.
 Diameter of sample = 1.17mm.
 Demagnetization factor β= N= 0.0029.

3.The device has been already calibrated.

A. CALIBRATION (SETTINGS):

 No sample in the pick-up coil


 H balance, DC balance and Phase adjusted for horizontal line in the centre
 Demagnetization (N) at zero
 Area Ratio As/ Ac at 0.399
 Root mean square value of applied magnetic field (Ha) is 209 Gauss

B.CALIBRATION (OBSERVATIONS)

 Observed value of ex= 7 volts


 Since, the area ratio for the given sample is so small the signal ex was enhanced by multiplying
area ratio and demagnetization by three. The finally obtained value of the intercept (below) is
divided by this same factor, 3, to give the correct value of coercivity.
 Similarly for calculating G0 we set Area ratio As/Ac to 1.000 and other settings remain as
calibrated, the signal ex obtained is, ex = 18 volts.

G0 can be calculated using the relation


Lab Procedures
1. Power on the device.
2. Slowly vary the applied magnetic field using magnetic field slider. M-H graph corresponding
to the field will be plotted, whenever the slider is stopped.
3. Tabulate the loop width, the tip-to-tip height and positive intercept to negative intercept
distance for each magnetic field as shown in the table below.

SL Magnetic Loop Tip-To-Tip Positive Intercept to Negative


No Field(Gauss) Width(mm) Hieght(V) Intercept Distance(V)

Table 1: For calculation of coercivity, saturation magnetization and retentivity for the given
sample from the loop width, the tip-to-tip height and the positive intercept to negative intercept
distance of hysteresis loop respectively

4. Calculation of coercivity:
Plot the loop width of hysteresis loop against magnetic field.
The intercept of the straight line fit on the J-axis gives loop width.

Coercivity,

5. Calculation of saturation magnetisation:

Plot the positive intercept to negative intercept distance against magnetic field.
Find the asymptote and use the equation below:
Saturation magnetisation,
6. Calculation of retentivity:
Plot the tip-to-tip separation against the magnetic field.
Draw asymptote
Retentivity,

7. Select the M., M.. radio buttons to observe dJ/dtand d2J/dt2 .

Inferences:
1. The obtained value of the coercivity for the given sample is ________ oersted.
2. The obtained value of the saturation magnetisation for the given sample is ________gauss.
3. The obtained value of the retentivity for the given sample is ________ gauss.
Experiment No. 5

Name of Experiment: PCB Design and Fabrication

Objective:
1. To acquire knowledge of PCB milling on desktop milling machine.
2. To Learn PCB layout design for SMD ( Surface mount devices ) components.
heory
What is PCB?

A PCB is a printed circuit board, also known as a printed wiring board. It is used in electronics to
build electronic devices. A PCB serves two purposes in the construction of an electronic device;
it is a place to mount the components and it provides the means of electrical connection between
the components.

History

The inventor of the printed circuit was the Austrian engineer Paul Eisler (1907–1995) who, while
working in England, made one circa 1936 as part of a radio set.

Material:

Conducting layers are typically made of thin copper foil. Insulating layers dielectric are typically
laminated together with epoxy resin prepreg. The board is typically coated with a solder mask
that is green in color. Other colors that are normally available are blue and red. There are quite a
few different dielectrics that can be chosen to provide different insulating values depending on
the requirements of the circuit. Some of these dielectrics are polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon),
FR-4, FR-1, CEM-1 or CEM-3. Well known prepreg materials used in the PCB industry are FR-
2 (Phenolic cotton paper), FR-3 (Cotton paper and epoxy), FR-4 (Woven glass and epoxy), FR-5
(Woven glass and epoxy), FR-6 (Matte glass and polyester), G-10(Woven glass and epoxy),
CEM-1 (Cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-2 (Cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-3 (Woven glass and
epoxy),CEM-4 (Woven glass and epoxy), CEM-5 (Woven glass and polyester). Thermal
expansion is an important consideration especially with BGA and naked die technologies, and
glass fiber offers the best dimensional stability.

Patterning (etching)

The vast majority of printed circuit boards are made by bonding a layer of copper over the entire
substrate, sometimes on both sides, (creating a "blank PCB") then removing unwanted copper
after applying a temporary mask (e.g. by etching), leaving only the desired copper traces. A few
PCBs are made by adding traces to the bare substrate (or a substrate with a very thin layer of
copper) usually by a complex process of multiple electroplating steps. The PCB manufacturing
method primarily depends on whether it is for production volume or sample/prototype quantities.
PCB milling uses a two or three- axis mechanical milling system to mill away the copper foil
from the substrate. A PCB milling machine (referred to as a 'PCB Prototyper') operates in a
similar way to a plotter, receiving commands from the host software that control the position of
the milling head in the x, y, and (if relevant) z axis. Data to drive the Prototyper is extracted from
files generated in PCB design software and stored in HPGL or Gerber file format.

Etching

Chemical etching is done with ferric chloride, ammonium persulfate, or sometimes hydrochloric
acid.For PTH (plated-through holes), additional steps of electroless deposition are done after the
holes are drilled, then copper is electroplated to build up the thickness, the boards are screened,
and plated with tin/lead. The tin/lead becomes the resist leaving the bare copper to be etched
away.

Lamination

Some PCBs have trace layers inside the PCB and are called multi-layer PCBs. These are formed
by bonding together separately etched thin boards.
Drilling

Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with tiny drill bits made of solid tungsten carbide. The
drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with placement controlled by a drill tape or
drill file. These computer-generated files are also called numerically controlled drill (NCD) files
or "Excellon files". The drill file describes the location and size of each drilled hole. These holes
are often filled with annular rings (hollow rivets) to create vias. Vias allow the electrical and
thermal connection of conductors on opposite sides of the PCB.Most common laminate is epoxy
filled fiberglass. Drill bit wear is partly due to embedded glass, which is harder than steel. High
drill speed necessary for cost effective drilling of hundreds of holes per board causes very high
temperatures at the drill bit tip, and high temperatures (400-700 degrees) soften steel and
decompose (oxidize) laminate filler. Copper is softer than epoxy and interior conductors may
suffer.

Damage during drilling.


When very small vias are required, drilling with mechanical bits is costly because of high rates
of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be evaporated by lasers. Laser-drilled vias
typically have an inferior surface finish inside the hole. These holes are called micro vias.It is
also possible with controlled-depth drilling, laser drilling, or by pre-drilling the individual sheets
of the PCB before lamination, to produce holes that connect only some of the copper layers,
rather than passing through the entire board. These holes are called blind vias when they connect
an internal copper layer to an outer layer, or buried vias when they connect two or more internal
copper layers and no outer layers.The walls of the holes, for boards with 2 or more layers, are
made conductive then plated with copper to form plated-through holes that electrically connect
the conducting layers of the PCB. For multilayer boards, those with 4 layers or more, drilling
typically produces a smear of the high temperature decomposition products of bonding agent in
the laminate system. Before the holes can be plated through, this smear must be removed by a
chemical de-smear process, or by plasma-etch. Removing(etching back) the smear also reveals
the interior conductors as well.

Exposed conductor plating and coating


PCBs are plated with solder, tin, or gold over nickel as a resist for etching away the unneeded
underlying copper.After PCBs are etched and then rinsed with water, the soldermask is applied,
and then any exposed copper is coated with solder, nickel/gold, or some other anti-corrosion
coating.Matte solder is usually fused to provide a better bonding surface or stripped to bare
copper. Treatments, such as benzimidazolethiol, prevent surface oxidation of bare copper. The
places to which components will be mounted are typically plated, because untreated bare copper
oxidizes quickly, and therefore is not readily solderable. Traditionally, any exposed copper was
coated with solder by Hot air solder levelling (HASL). This solder was a tin-lead alloy, however
new solder compounds are now used to achieve compliance with the RoHS directive in the EU
and US, which restricts the use of lead. One of these lead-free compounds is SN100CL, made up
of 99.3% tin, 0.7% copper, 0.05% nickel, and a nominal of 60ppm germanium.It is important to
use solder compatible with both the PCB and the parts used. An example is Ball Grid Array
(BGA) using tin-lead solder balls for connections losing their balls on bare copper traces or using
lead-free solder paste.Other platings used are OSP (organic surface protectant), immersion silver
(IAg), immersion tin, electroless nickel with immersion gold coating (ENIG), and direct gold
plating (over nickel). Edge connectors, placed along one edge of some boards, are often nickel
plated then gold plated. Another coating consideration is rapid diffusion of coating metal into
Tin solder. Tin forms intermetallics such as Cu5Sn6 and Ag3Cu that dissolve into the Tin
liquidus or solidus(@50C), stripping surface coating and/or leaving voids.Electrochemical
migration (ECM) is the growth of conductive metal filaments on or in a printed circuit board
(PCB) under the influence of a DC voltage bias. Silver, zinc, and aluminum are known to grow
whiskers under the influence of an electric field. Silver also grows conducting surface paths in
the presence of halide and other ions, making it a poor choice for electronics use. Tin will grow
"whiskers" due to tension in the plated surface. Tin-Lead or Solder plating also grows whiskers,
only reduced by the percentage Tin replaced. Reflow to melt solder or tin plate to relieve surface
stress lowers whisker incidence. Another coating issue is tin pest, the transformation of tin to a
powdery allotrope at low temperature.

Solder resist
Areas that should not be soldered may be covered with a polymer solder resist (solder mask)
coating. The solder resist prevents solder from bridging between conductors and creating short
circuits. Solder resist also provides some protection from the environment. Solder resist is
typically 20-30 micrometres thick

Printed circuit assembly


After the printed circuit board (PCB) is completed, electronic components must be attached to
form a functional printed circuit assembly,or PCA (sometimes called a "printed circuit board
assembly" PCBA). In through-hole construction, component leads are inserted in holes. In
surface-mount construction, the components are placed on pads or lands on the outer surfaces of
the PCB. In both kinds of construction, component leads are electrically and mechanically fixed
to the board with a molten metal solder.There are a variety of soldering techniques used to attach
components to a PCB. High volume production is usually done with machine placement and
bulk wave soldering or reflow ovens, but skilled technicians are able to solder very tiny parts (for
instance 0201 packages which are 0.02 in. by 0.01 in.) by hand under a microscope, using
tweezers and a fine tip soldering iron for small volume prototypes. Some parts are impossible to
solder by hand, such as ball grid array (BGA) packages.Often, through-hole and surface-mount
construction must be combined in a single assembly because some required components are
available only in surface-mount packages, while others are available only in through-hole
packages. Another reason to use both methods is that through-hole mounting can provide needed
strength for components likely to endure physical stress, while components that are expected to
go untouched will take up less space using surface-mount techniques.After the board has been
populated it may be tested in a variety of ways:While the power is off, visual inspection,
automated optical inspection. JEDEC guidelines for PCB component placement, soldering, and
inspection are commonly used to maintain quality control in this stage of PCB manufacturing.
While the power is off, analog signature analysis, power-off testing.While the power is on, in-
circuit test, where physical measurements (i.e. voltage, frequency) can be done.While the power
is on, functional test, just checking if the PCB does what it had been designed for.To facilitate
these tests, PCBs may be designed with extra pads to make temporary connections.Sometimes
these pads must be isolated with resistors. The in-circuit test may also exercise boundary scan
test features of some components. In-circuit test systems may also be used to program
nonvolatile memory components on the board.In boundary scan testing, test circuits integrated
into various ICs on the board form temporary connections between the PCB traces to test that the
ICs are mounted correctly. Boundary scan testing requires that all the ICs to be tested use a
standard test configuration procedure, the most common one being the Joint Test Action Group
(JTAG) standard.When boards fail the test, technicians may desolder and replace failed
components, a task known as rework.

Surface Mount Technology

Fig-1
Surface mount components, including resistors ,an integrated circuit & Transistor

Surface-mount technology emerged in the 1960s, gained momentum in the early 1980s and
became widely used by the mid 1990s.Components were mechanically redesigned to have small
metal tabs or end caps that could be soldered directly on to the PCB surface.Components became
much smaller and component placement on both sides of the board became more common than
with through-hole mounting, allowing much higher circuit densities. Surface mounting lends
itself well to a high degree of automation,reducing labour costs and greatly increasing production
and quality rates. Carrier Tapes provide a stable and protective environment for Surface mount
devices (SMDs) which can be one-quarter to one-tenth of the size and weight, and passive
components can be one-half to one-quarter of the cost of corresponding through-hole parts.
However, integrated circuits are often priced the same regardless of the package type, because
the chip itself is the most expensive part. As of 2006, some wire-ended components, such as
small-signal switch diodes are actually significantly cheaper than corresponding SMD versions.

Different types of PCB:


1)Breadboard
This is a way of making a temporary circuit, for testing purposes or to try out an idea. No
soldering is required and all the components can be re-used afterwards. It is easy to change
connections and replace components.

Fig-2: Breadboard
2)Stripboard

Permanent, soldered
Stripboard has parallel strips of copper track on one side. The strips are 0.1" (2.54mm) apart and
there are holes every 0.1" (2.54mm). It can be cut with a junior hacksaw, or simply snap it along
the lines of holes by putting it over the edge of a bench or table and pushing hard.

Fig-3: Stripboard

3)Printed Circuit Board


Permanent, soldered
Printed circuit boards have copper tracks connecting the holes where the components are placed.
They are designed specially for each circuit and make construction very easy. However,
producing the PCB requires special equipment so this method is not recommended if you are a
beginner unless the PCB is provided for you.
Fig-4

SMD : (Surface mount Components):


Surface mount technology (SMT) is a method for constructing electronic circuits in which the
components (SMC, or Surface Mounted Components) are mounted directly onto the surface of
printed circuit board (PCBs). Electronic devices so made are called surface mount devices or
SMDs. In the industry it has largely replaced the throgh hole technology construction method of
fitting components with wire leads into holes in the circuit board.

FIg-5
https://youtu.be/cSVvbiOP9E4
Procedure
NOTE : This procedure elaborate design & fabrication of PCB as Part1 : Design & Part 2 :
Fabrication. However The Experiment and Its Simulation is entirely focusing on How to
Fabricate SMD PCB boards

PART 1 : DESIGN
PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN

The Procedure describes how to prepare a layout for circuit by using various tool provided in
circuit layout design software.

How to make a simple circuit in Eagle

Step-1
Start Eagle Start -> Program -> Eagle :Layout Editor After this Eagle Control Panel will
appear(Fig -1)
This Window is main Project Manager and used to open new schematic layout & Libraries 1)
Create a NEW PROJECT Menu -> File -> New -> Schematic

Step-2
Following Window will appear
Step-3
Toolbox
At the Left side of this schematic window having Eagle Main Toolbar, As Shown in Following
Picture Fig -3
Fig-3

Using this Function user can draw the schematic for circuit

Step-4
ADDING A FRAME The First thing that should be done is to save the empty schematic. This is
done to let eagle know the name of the schematic.Now add a Frame to the schematics.

-> Click the Add-button .


-> The “add”-window pops up.
-> Select the frame named DINA4_L
-> Type in Search Box
Click OK, and the Component (Frame) will be attached to the mouse cursor

Fig-4

After drawing this frame about schematic diagram

Step-5
Fig-5

One schematic of HELLO 1 is given drawn given Above. Component name is given in above
Schematic.
Just type these component / device name in ADD window select appropriate component & click
on OK.

Detail given in image below


Step-6
Click on ADD -> Type the device(component name) name in search window. (eg. 1N4004)

Fig-6

Click on „OK‟ Symbol will attach to the cursor then draw it.
Fig-7

This way, arrange component on proper place as given above.


Use net command to make a connection(pathway) given in the Eagle toolbar.
Fig-8

Now User can make schematic diagram using the Eagle. After completing Schematic diagram
1) Click to Menu-> File -> Switch to Board. in this Again User has to arrange Components
A switch Board window will appear
Fig-9

* Go to File - > Export * Export window will appear as shown in fig 10.

Fig-10

* Click on Image.* Export Image Window will Appear as shown in fig. 11


Fig-11

* Type File name with .png Extension to save it on desire location.


* To assign toolpath for the layout generated in step no.6 (Fig 9) The user has to switch over to
Linux / UBUNTU operating system.* The .png image file which is generated in previous step
can be opened in cad.py on Linux/UBUNTU Platform to assign toolpath as For milling PCB
Board on Roland Modella minimal machine.* The detailed Procedure of "How to mill PCB
Board " on Roland Modella is given in next Step.This .png image will look like this in cad.py on
Linux/Ubuntu platform, Given Below
Fig-12

Step-7
Then Export it as .png format & then by using cad.py / cad s/w import & give print command &
by setup the modella milling machine you will get your PCB (Printed circuit board).
Step-8
Handling Modella Milling Machine

Fig 13 Roland Modella can be used to mill circuit boards.

Step-9
User Can Import his/her Eagle circuit for milling. Stick a piece of the PCB ( using 2way sticky
tap)copper plated stock onto the cutting plane at the 1, 1 inch intersection on the grid. Open
Cad.py software (you can install cad.py in Ubuntu using following steps)

Download cad, cad.py and cad.cfg from http://fab.cba.mit.edu/about/fab/dist/cad.py


Open terminal.Type Following instruction.
sudo mv cad /usr/local/bin/
sudo mv cad.py /usr/local/bin/
sudo mv cad.cfg /usr/local/bin/
sudo chmod 755 /usr/local/bin/cad
In Synaptic Package Manager install python-numpy, python-scipy, python-tk, python-imaging-tk
Click input and get the design file (.cad file) or a pre-designed png file. (eagle file)
Step-10
Tool path of the circuit will appear like this shown in image.
Step-11
Make the toolpath

- Open CAD.py in a Linux Terminal or click on the shortcut launcher of Terminal in desktop.
- Make the toolpath for the circuit. Use a 1/64" tool, which is 0.0156" decimal.
- Click CAM
- Click Output format and choose .rml (Modela output format is .rml)
- If you're using a circuit board written in Python, you'll find a line near the bottom saying "#dpi
= 500 ".
- Move the ("#") sign to the line above which is "dpi(dot per inches)=200
- The "#" symbol is a comment, which will ignore the line of the command after the sign.
- Use "dpi = 200 # low resolution for previewing" for previewing toolpath contour
- Use "dpi = 500 # high resolution for machining" actual rendering and sending to Modela
render)
- Set contours to -1 (meaning infinite)
- Click Contour
- This will set the toolpath for the file

Step-12
Milling a circuit

- Go to "view mode" by click on the view button on the Modela


- Tape down copper board at o,o position ( 1 inch x 1 inch from bottom left corner)
- Put 1/64 inches bit in the modela, which is 0.0156" decimal. Set it up as high as you can in the
machine. Loosen existing bit with provided allen wrench.
- Clear out the memory of the Modela, by holding the both ""up" and "Down on the machine
- Open file in cad...follow instructions "Make a toolpath"
- Set the x,y axis starting point on the project to 1, 1 on the control panel in cad and then click
"move"
- Lower bit close to the corner (1,1) by pressing the "Down" button. Be sure to not let the bit
touch the surface.
- Loosen the hex screw that holds the bit and lower it until it touches the top surface of the board.
- Lower it slowly so the bit doesn't fall into the board and break.
- Now that the bit is at surface level, tighten screw.
- Open cad again and then send to machine.

Step-13
Cut out the Board from the PCB

- Press view button to move PCB forward. Be careful not to move board around in process.
- Clean up any shavings from first mill.
- Change bit to the 1/32 inch bit (0.0312 )
- Be sure it doesn't fall out and break
- Open back up cad.py software
- Change tool diameter to 0.0312
- Change number of contours from -1 to 1
- Change xy speed: to 0.5 and z speed: to 0.5
Remove the "#" in front of the lines...
Milling machine setting window at the right side .cad Window will look Like . user can change
setting is given above.
- #cad.function = pcb.interior #z = -.065
- Press contour to render contour lines for cutting out the board.
- Press the view button place machine back in cutting mode and out of view mode.
- In program cad.py move board back to position 1, 1 by clicking the "move" button in the
program.
- repeat steps above to set bit
- Lower bit close to the corner (1,1) by pressing the "Down" button.
- Be sure to not let the bit touch the surface.
- Loosen the hex screw that holds the bit and lower it until
- it touches the top surface of the board.
- Lower it slowly so the bit doesn't fall into the board and break.
- Once bit is ready click on "send to machine"
- Press the view button to enter view mode and remove your new PCB Board
- Now, user can mount SMD (surface mount device) component.
PART 2 : FABRICATION PROCEDURE FOR FABRICATION

The Procedure Describes how to fabricate PCB Layout, Design in previous Procedure import the
board image which we have generated in step 6 (Fig 12) in Design procedure.

Step-1
Open Terminal and Type cad.py press Enter Following window will appear.
Press on the Input button. and select hello.RGB.45.cad file, click on open button

Fig-1

Step-2
After opening the file hello.RGB.45.cad will open in this cad.py program & look like this, Given
Below
Fig-2

Step-3
At the right side of the image you can see the n.. number lines of code is written in python
language
Scroll down the scroll bar and make changes as given below
- dpi=200 low resolution for previewing.
- #dpi=500 #High resolution for machining.
- This 2 lines are very important before starting cutting on minimal machine
- In the Experiment no.3 we have specified while exporting image in .png format from the eagle
make it resolution as 500 here is same.
- Remove the comment mark # :- Given in front of the # dpi =500
- & put this # comment in front of dpi=200
Fig-3

Step-4
Make changes as given in the following fig.
Fig-4

Step-5
Press on render button
Fig-5

Step-6
Press on Cam button(to choose output format)
Fig-6

Step-7
After pressing button Output format, Drop down menu will display select .rml format is required
as output format
Fig-7

Step-8
Press on move button ( it will move the probe of minimal machine to desire position ) on the
work area of minimal machine.
Fig-8

Step-9
Before Press the contour button (This will create toolpath for the cutting probe)
Make it = -1
If we set Contour = 1 This will create only 1 toolpath as given below
Fig-8

But if contour =-1 then it will create path as same given in below steps
Fig-10
Fig-11
Fig-12
Fig-13
Fig-14
Fig-15
Fig-16

Step-10
Press button :- Send to machine Now actual cutting will start.
Fig-17
Fig 18- Before milling PCB Fig 19- After milling PCB of RGB led
Experiment No. 6
OBJECTIVE
To study van der Waals interactions between molecules.

INTRODUCTION
Van der Waals forces between molecules
Van der Waals forces include attractions between atoms, molecules, and surfaces, as well
as other intermolecular forces. They differ from covalent and ionic bonding in that they
are caused by correlations in the fluctuating polarizations of nearby particles.
The Lennard-Jones potential is often used as an approximate model for the isotropic part
of a total (repulsion plus attraction) van der Waals force as a function of distance.The
Lennard-Jones potential is a mathematically simple model that approximates the
interaction between a pair of neutral atoms or molecules. A form of the potential was first
proposed in 1924 by John Lennard-Jones.

THOERY
The Lennard-Jones potential is an effective potential that describes the interaction
between two uncharged molecules or atoms. The Lennard--Jones potential is mildly
attractive as two uncharged molecules or atoms approach one another from a distance,
but strongly repulsive when they approach too close. The resulting potential is shown in
figure below, at equilibrium the pair of atoms or molecules tend to go toward a separation
corresponding to the minimum of the Lennard-Jones potential.

The Lennard Jones potential is common potential used to model VanderWaals interactions.
The strong close in repulsion between atoms or molecules is understandable, resulting from
mutual deformation of their structures (meaning, one atom cannot diffuse through another) .
When two uncharged particles approach one another, the electron clouds of the competing
particles undergo a deformation. During the interaction, each particle does not have a
symmetrical electron cloud. As a result each acquires a dipole moment. This is called an induced
dipole moment. It lasts for only the short time of near approach, but during this time particles
with dipoles are attracted to each other. This attraction is called the London or Van der Waals
force. The potential resulting from these attractive and repulsive interactions is called the
Lennard--Jones potential,which is given by

ε = the minimum (well depth) of the potential for the interaction between atom i and j.
σij - the collision diameter,at which inter particle potential is zero.
rij = the distance between the particles.
The parameters ε,σ is not given for a specific pair and can be found by using Lorentz-berthelot
rules.

 <="" height="125" li="" src="http://mi-iiith.vlabs.ac.in/exp5/images/IVw4.png"


width="300" style="box-sizing: border-box; border: 0px; vertical-align: middle;">
The term r-12is called repulsive term,observed at short ranges due to overlapping of electron
orbitals. The term r-6describes the attraction at long ranges.
The atoms can be treated as spheres defined by a Van der Waals radius that is a measure of how
close another atoms can come before a strong, very short range, repulsive force kicks in.

Van der Waals surface area , also van der Waals surface or van der Waals envelope is the
imaginary surface of the union of spherical atom surfaces defined by, the so-called van der
Waals radius of each atom in the molecule representation. The van der Waals surface enclosed
volume reference is molecular volume. Both van der Waals surface and molecular volume are
abstract representation of molecules, rather than "real" surfaces and volumes of molecules.
There are certain parameters to be initialized and the procedure detailed here can be followed.
STEP1: Select the type of molecule by clicking on it.

STEP 2: Click 'Start' to start the experiment.


STEP 3: The coordinates of molecule can be varied by varying the sliders provided, a plot of
energy, force by varying positions is seen.

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