Lecture BY: Besufekad G.

Mechanical Engineering Department

Addis Ababa Science and Technology
University
November 2023
3.1 Design for fatigue load
fatigue failure arises when the loads vary with time or they fluctuate
between different levels

These and other kinds of loading occurring in machine members

produce stresses that are called variable, repeated, alternating, or
fluctuating stresses.

fatigue failure gives no warning! It is sudden and total, and hence

dangerous

It is relatively simple to design against a static failure, because our

knowledge is comprehensive. Fatigue is a much more complicated
phenomenon, only partially understood, and the engineer seeking
competence must acquire as much knowledge of the subject as
possible
 Cont…
Fatigue failure is due to crack formation and propagation. A fatigue
crack will typically initiate at a discontinuity in the material where the
cyclic stress is a maximum, Discontinuities can arise because of:

1 Design of rapid changes in cross section, keyways, holes, etc.

where stress concentrations occur

2 Elements that roll and/or slide against each other (bearings,

gears, cams, etc.) under high contact pressure, developing
concentrated subsurface contact stresses that can cause
surface pitting or spalling after many cycles of the load

3 Carelessness in locations of stamp marks, tool marks,

scratches, &burrs; poor joint design; improper assembly; and
other fabrication faults
 Cont…

4 Composition of the material itself as processed by rolling,

forging, casting, extrusion, drawing, heat treatment, etc.
microscopic and sub microscopic surface and subsurface
discontinuities arise, such as inclusions of foreign material,
alloy segregation, voids, hard precipitated particles, and crystal
discontinuities

Various conditions that can accelerate crack initiation include residual

tensile stresses, elevated temperatures, temperature cycling, a
corrosive environment, and high-frequency cycling

The rate and direction of fatigue crack propagation is primarily

controlled by localized stresses and by the structure of the material at
the crack. However, as with crack formation, other factors may exert a
significant influence, such as environment, temperature, and
frequency
3.1.1 Approach to Fatigue Failure in Analysis and Design

The methods of fatigue failure analysis represent a combination of

engineering and science; while science has not yet completely
explained the complete mechanism of fatigue, the engineer
must still design things that will not fail

Engineers use science to solve their problems if the science is

available. But available or not, the problem must be solved
whatever form the solution takes under these conditions.

We will take a structured approach in the design against fatigue

failure. As with static failure, we will attempt to relate to test
results performed on simply loaded specimens. However,
because of the complex nature of fatigue, there is much more to
account for
 Cont…

Fatigue-Life Methods

Three major fatigue life methods used in design and analysis are the
stress-life method, the strain-life method, and the linear-elastic fracture
mechanics method.
These methods attempt to predict the life in number of cycles to
failure, N, for a specific level of loading. Life of 1  N  103 cycles is
generally classified as low-cycle fatigue, whereas high-cycle fatigue is
considered to be N  103 cycles

The S - N method, based on stress levels only, is the least accurate

approach, especially for low-cycle applications. However, it is the most
traditional method, since it is the easiest to implement for a wide
range of design applications has ample supporting data, and
represents high-cycle applications adequately
Stress-Life method (S-N)
 Strain-life method
Strain-life method involves more detailed analysis of the plastic deformation
at localized regions where the stresses and strains are considered for life
estimates. This method is especially good for low-cycle fatigue applications. In
this method several idealizations must be compounded, and so some
uncertainties will exist in the results

Fatigue ductility coefficient ε′F

Fatigue strength coefficient σ′F

Fatigue ductility exponent c

Fatigue strength exponent b

 3.1.2 The Endurance Limit
For steel and iron, the S-N diagram becomes horizontal at some point.
The strength at this point is called the endurance limit S 'e and occurs
somewhere between 106 and 107 cycles

Endurance limit for steel

• Verify that the loading imposed by the four symmetrically located
bearings causes the center portion of the specimen to be loaded in
pure bending (i.e.,zero transverse shear),and that the stress at any
point goes through a cycle of tension-to-compression-to-tension
with each shaft rotation.
3.1.3 The Endurance Limit modifying factors
The rotating-beam specimen used in the laboratory to determine
endurance limits is prepared very carefully and tested under closely
controlled conditions. It is unrealistic to expect the endurance limit of a
mechanical or structural member to match the values obtained in the
laboratory. Some differences include;
1. Material: composition, basis of failure, variability
2. Manufacturing: method, heat treatment, fretting
corrosion, surface condition, stress concentration
3. Environment: corrosion, temperature, stress state,
relaxation times
4. Design: size, shape, life, stress state, stress
concentration, speed, fretting, galling

A Marin equation to determine the modified endurance limit is

S e  k a kb k c k d k e k f S e '
 Cont…
Where k a  surface condition modifying factor
kb  size modification factor
k c  load modification factor
k d  temprature modification factor
k e  reliability factor
k f  miscellaneous effect modification factor
S e '  rotary beam test specimen endurance limit
S e  endurance limit at the critical location of a machine part

Surface Factor k a

k a  a ( Sut ) b
 Cont…
Size Factor kb

For non-rotating solid or hollow rounds of diameter d

A rectangular section of dimensions h × b has

For axial loading there is no size effect, so kb  1

Load Factor kc
Temperature Factor k d

If the rotating beam

endurance limit is
known at room
temperature, use
Reliability Factor k e

Reliability Factors k e Corresponding to 8 Percent Standard Deviation

of the Endurance Limit
 3.1.4 Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity
The existence of irregularities or discontinuities, such as holes, grooves,
or notches, in a part increases the theoretical stresses significantly in the
immediate vicinity of the discontinuity
A theoretical, or geometric, stress-concentration factor K t or K ts is
used to relate the actual maximum stress at the discontinuity to the
nominal stress. Maximum stress ( max ) Is determined experimentally

e.g. plate in tension or simple

compression with a transverse
central hole.

The net tensile force is

The nominal stress is given by
 Cont…
The fatigue stress-concentration factor for a material under a cyclic load is

Based on the Neuber

equation,

Notch sensitivity q is defined by the equation

Where is defined as
the Neuber constant and
is a material constant.
In analysis or design work, find Kt first, from the For steels and
geometry of the part. Then specify the material, aluminium alloys, the
notch sensitivity is
find q, and solve for Kf from the equation

Recommended value of
q for all grades of cast
iron is 0.20 be used
 Notch-sensitivity charts

Notch-sensitivity charts for steels and UNS A92024-T wrought aluminum alloys
subjected to reversed bending or reversed axial loads. For larger notch radii,
use the values of q corresponding to the r = 0.16-in (4-mm) ordinate
Notch-sensitivity charts (cont…)

Notch-sensitivity curves for materials in reversed torsion. For larger notch

radii, use the values of qshear corresponding to r = 0.16 in (4 mm)
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Bar in tension or simple compression

Fig. 1 with a transverse hole

Rectangular bar with a transverse

Fig. 2 hole in bending

Fig. 3 Notched rectangular bar in

Fig. 3 tension or simple compression
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors (cont…)

Fig. 6

Fig. 4

Fig. 4 Notched rectangular bar in bending

Rectangular filleted bar in

Fig. 5 Fig. 5 tension or simple compression

Fig. 6 Rectangular filleted bar in bending

Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors (cont…)

Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Round shaft with shoulder fillet

Fig. 7 in tension

Fig. 8 Round shaft with shoulder fillet

Fig. 9 in torsion

Round shaft with shoulder fillet

Fig. 9 in bending
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors (cont…)

Fig. 10
Fig. 12

Fig. 10 Round shaft in torsion with

transverse hole

Round shaft in bending with

Fig. 11 a transverse hole

Fig. 11
Plate loaded in tension by a
Fig. 12 pin through a hole
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors (cont…)

Fig. 13 Fig. 14

Fig. 13 Grooved round bar in tension

Fig. 15

Fig. 14 Grooved round bar in bending

Fig. 15 Grooved round bar in torsion

 Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors (cont…)

Fig. 17 Round shaft with flat bottom

groove in torsion

Fig. 16 Round shaft with flat-bottom groove in

bending and/or tension
 3.2 Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses
Fluctuating stresses in machinery often take the form of a sinusoidal
pattern because of the nature of some rotating machinery. However,
other patterns, some quite irregular, do occur

However; in periodic patterns exhibiting a single maximum and a single

minimum of force, the shape of the wave is not important, but the
peaks on both the high side (maximum) and the low side (minimum)
are important
If the largest force is Fmax and the smallest force is Fmin, then a steady
component and an alternating component can be constructed as follows

where Fm is the midrange steady component of force, and Fa is the amplitude

of the alternating component of force.
Some stress-time relations

(a) fluctuating stress with high

frequency ripple
(d) sinusoidal fluctuating stress;

(b) Non sinusoidal fluctuating stress

(e) repeated stress;

(c) Non sinusoidal fluctuating stress (f ) completely reversed sinusoidal stress.

Cont…
Components of stress, some of which are shown in the previous Fig. are

The steady, or static, stress is not the same as the midrange stress; in fact, it
may have any value between σmin and σmax. The steady stress exists
because of a fixed load or preload applied to the part, and it is usually
independent of the varying portion of the load

midrange steady component and amplitude of the alternating component of

stresses are

The stress ratio and the amplitude ratio

 3.3 Fatigue Failure Criteria for Fluctuating Stress
The following are fatigue failure criteria that are often used for analysis
and design purposes;
1. Goodman line
2. Soderberg line
3. Modified Goodman line
4. Gerber line
5. ASME elliptic line
6. Yielding line
Either the fatigue limit Se or
the finite-life strength Sf is
plotted on the ordinate. Note
that the yield strength Sy is
plotted on the ordinate too.

The midrange-stress axis has

Fatigue diagram showing various criteria of
the yield strength Sy and the failure. For each criterion, points on or
tensile strength Sut plotted “above” the respective line indicate failure
along it.
 In order to understand other fatigue failure criteria, it is important to
include the failure criterion of Goodman because
• The equation of a straight line is simple compared with the equation
of a parabolic curve.
• It is safe from design considerations because it is completely inside
the failure points of test data.
• It is not necessary to construct a scale diagram and a rough sketch is
enough to construct fatigue diagram.

Figure: Fatigue diagram showing

various criteria of failure
 Equations for Varies Failure Criterias

The criterion equation for the the ASME-elliptic is written as

Soderberg line is

find the modified Goodman The Gerber failure criterion

relation to be is written as

The Langer first-cycle-yielding criterion is used in

connection with the fatigue curve
Cont…

The stresses and can replace and when n is the design factor
or factor of safety, then

The Soderber line becomes The ASME elliptic line becomes

The modified Goodman line becomes

The Langer line becomes

The Gerber line becomes

Amplitude and Steady Coordinates
of Strength and Important Amplitude and Steady Coordinates of
Intersections for Modified Strength and Important Intersections
Goodman and Langer Failure for Gerber and Langer Failure Criteria
Criteria
Amplitude and Steady Coordinates of Strength and Important
Intersections in First Quadrant for ASME-Elliptic and
Langer Failure Criteria
Roadmaps and important design steps for the Stress-Life method
To proceed with a typical analysis, assume that fatigue occurs first and use one
of the fatigue failure criteria to determine factory of safety n or the size of the
component, depending on the task. Most often fatigue is the governing failure
mode. Then follow with static check. If fatigue failure governs, then the
analysis is repeated using the Langer criterion.
A. Completely reversed simple loading

1.Determine experimental endurance limit from

2. Modify the experimental endurance limit

Cont..

B. Fluctuating simple loading

Cont..
C. Combined loading modes