PHYSICS OF ELECTRONIC

MATERIALS AND DEVICES

Unit – III Magnetic / Optical Data Storage Techniques
Introduction – Magnetic material parameters – Ferromagnetic
materials – Ferrites – Soft and Hard magnetic materials –
GMR sensors – Magnetic disk memories – Principle of magnetic
recording – Materials for magnetic data storage – Optical data
storage – Phase change recording – Magneto-optical data storage
– Hi-tech involved in system development – Capacity of CD in
normal use – Advantages of CD-DVD – Blue ray DVD – Holographic
storage – Construction of a hologram – Reconstruction of a
hologram – Photorefractive storage.
 Introduction
Magnetic storage or magnetic recording is the storage of data on
a magnetized medium. Magnetic storage uses different patterns
of magnetisation in a magnetizable material to store data and is a form of non-
volatile memory. The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads.

Magnetic storage media, primarily hard disks, are widely used to store computer
data as well as audio and video signals. In the field of computing, the
term magnetic storage is preferred and in the field of audio and video
production, the term magnetic recording is more commonly used. The distinction
is less technical and more a matter of preference. Other examples of magnetic
storage media include floppy disks, magnetic tape, and magnetic stripes on credit
cards.
 Magnetic material parameters
Magnetic Dipoles
Magnetic forces are generated by moving
electrically charged particles; these magnetic
forces are in addition to any electrostatic
forces that may exist. Often it is convenient to
think of magnetic forces in terms of fields.
Imaginary lines of force may be drawn to
indicate the direction of the force at positions
in the vicinity of the field source. The magnetic
field distributions as indicated by lines of force
are shown for a current loop and a bar magnet Magnetic field lines of force around
in Figure a current loop and a bar magnet

Magnetic dipoles are found to exist in magnetic materials and in some respects are
analogous to electric dipoles. Magnetic dipoles may be thought of as small bar magnets
composed of north and south poles instead of positive and negative electric charges.
Magnetic dipoles are influenced by magnetic fields in a manner similar to the way in which
electric dipoles are affected by electric fields. Within a magnetic field, the force of the field
exerts a torque that tends to orient the dipoles with the field. A familiar example is the way
in which a magnetic compass needle lines up with the Earth’s magnetic field
 Magnetic material parameters
Magnetic field strength H

The externally applied magnetic field,

sometimes called the magnetic field strength,
is designated by H. If the magnetic field is
generated by means of a cylindrical coil (or
solenoid) consisting of N closely spaced turns
having a length ℓ and carrying a current of
magnitude I, then
H = N I /ℓ
Magnetic field lines of force around
The units of H are ampere-turns per meter, or
a current loop and a bar magnet
just amperes per meter

The magnetic induction, or magnetic flux density, denoted by B, represents the magnitude
of the internal field strength within a substance that is subjected to an H field. The units for
B are teslas [or webers per square meter (Wb/m2 )]. Both B and H are field vectors, being
characterized not only by magnitude, but also by direction in space. The magnetic field
strength and flux density are related according to B = 𝜇 H
The parameter 𝜇 is called the permeability, which is a property of the specific medium
through which the H field passes and in which B is measured. The permeability has
dimensions of webers per ampere-meter (Wb/A·m) or henries per meter (H/m).
 Magnetic material parameters
Magnetic Flux density B

Magnetic flux density in a vacuum

B0 = 𝜇0H where 𝜇0 is the permeability of a vacuum, a universal

constant, which has a value of 4𝜋 × 10−7 (1.257 × 10−6 ) H/m.

Several parameters may be used to describe the magnetic properties of solids. One of
these is the ratio of the permeability in a material to the permeability in a vacuum, or

𝜇r = 𝜇 /𝜇0
where 𝜇r is called the relative permeability, which is unitless. The permeability or relative
permeability of a material is a measure of the degree to which the material can be
magnetized, or the ease with which a B field can be induced in the presence of an external
H field
Magnetization M
Another field quantity, M, called the magnetization of the solid, is defined by the expression
B = 𝜇0H + 𝜇0M Magnetic flux density—as a function of magnetic
field strength and magnetization of a material
 Magnetic material parameters
Magnetization M

B = 𝜇0H + 𝜇0M

In the presence of an H field, the magnetic moments within a material tend to become
aligned with the field and to reinforce it by virtue of their magnetic fields; the term 𝜇0M in
the above Equation is a measure of this contribution.

The magnitude of M is proportional to the applied field as follows

M = 𝜒mH (Magnetization per unit volume)

and 𝜒m is called the magnetic susceptibility, which is unitless. The magnetic susceptibility
and the relative permeability are related as follows:
𝜒m = 𝜇r − 1 Relationship between magnetic susceptibility
and relative permeability

There is a dielectric analogue for each of the foregoing magnetic field parameters. The B
and H fields are, respectively, analogous to the dielectric displacement D and the electric
field ℰ, whereas the permeability 𝜇 is analogous to the permittivity 𝜀. Furthermore, the
magnetization M and polarization P are correlates.
 Origins of Magnetic Moments
The macroscopic magnetic properties of
materials are a consequence of magnetic
moments associated with individual
electrons. Each electron in an atom has
magnetic moments that originate from two
sources. One is related to its orbital motion
around the nucleus; because it is a moving
charge, an electron may be considered to
be a small current loop, generating a very
small magnetic field and having a magnetic Demonstration of the magnetic moment
moment along its axis of rotation, as associated with (a) an orbiting electron and
schematically illustrated in Figure. (b) a spinning electron
Each electron may also be thought of as spinning around an axis; the other magnetic
moment originates from this electron spin, which is directed along the spin axis as shown in
Figure b. Spin magnetic moments may be only in an “up” direction or in an antiparallel
“down” direction. Thus each electron in an atom may be thought of as being a small magnet
having permanent orbital and spin magnetic moments.
The most fundamental magnetic moment is the Bohr magneton 𝜇B, which is of magnitude
9.27 × 10−24 A·m2 . For each electron in an atom, the spin magnetic moment is ±𝜇B (plus for
spin up, minus for spin down). Furthermore, the orbital magnetic moment contribution is
equal to ml𝜇B, ml being the magnetic quantum number of the electron
 Origins of Magnetic Moments
In each atom, orbital moments of some
electron pairs cancel each other; this also
holds true for the spin moments. For example,
the spin moment of an electron with spin up
cancels that of one with spin down. The net
magnetic moment, then, for an atom is just
the sum of the magnetic moments of each of
the constituent electrons, including both
orbital and spin contributions, and taking into
account moment cancellation. For an atom Demonstration of the magnetic moment
having completely filled electron shells or associated with (a) an orbiting electron and
subshells, when all electrons are considered, (b) a spinning electron
there is total cancellation of both orbital and
spin moments.
Thus, materials composed of atoms having completely filled electron shells are not
capable of being permanently magnetized. This category includes the inert gases (He, Ne,
Ar, etc.) as well as some ionic materials. The types of magnetism include diamagnetism,
paramagnetism, and ferromagnetism; in addition, antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism
are considered to be subclasses of ferromagnetism. All materials exhibit at least one of
these types, and the behavior depends on the response of electron and atomic magnetic
dipoles to the application of an externally applied magnetic field.
 DIAMAGNETISM AND PARAMAGNETISM
Diamagnetism is a very weak form of magnetism that is nonpermanent and persists only
while an external field is being applied. It is induced by a change in the orbital motion of
electrons due to an applied magnetic field. The magnitude of the induced magnetic
moment is extremely small and in a direction opposite to that of the applied field. Thus,
the relative permeability 𝜇r is less than unity (however, only very slightly), and the
magnetic susceptibility is negative—that is, the magnitude of the B field within a
diamagnetic solid is less than that in a vacuum. The volume susceptibility 𝜒m for
diamagnetic solid materials is of the order of −10−5.

(a) The atomic dipole configuration for a

diamagnetic material with and without a
magnetic field. In the absence of an external
field, no dipoles exist; in the presence of a field,
dipoles are induced that are aligned opposite to
the field direction. (b) Atomic dipole
configuration with and without an external
magnetic field for a paramagnetic material.
 DIAMAGNETISM AND PARAMAGNETISM
Diamagnetism is found in all materials,
but because it is so weak, it can be
observed only when other types of
magnetism are totally absent. There are
very few practical applications for this
form of magnetism.
For some solid materials, each atom
possesses a permanent dipole moment
by virtue of incomplete cancellation of
electron spin and/or orbital magnetic
moments. In the absence of an external
magnetic field, the orientations of these
atomic magnetic moments are random,
such that a piece of material possesses
no net macroscopic magnetization. These Both diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials
atomic dipoles are free to rotate, and are considered nonmagnetic because they
paramagnetism results when they exhibit magnetization only when in the
preferentially align, by rotation, with an presence of an external field. Also, for both,
external field. Susceptibilities for the flux density B within them is almost the
paramagnetic materials range from same as it would be in a vacuum.
about 10−5 to 10−2
DIAMAGNETISM AND PARAMAGNETISM
 FERROMAGNETISM
Certain metallic materials possess a permanent magnetic moment in the absence of an
external field and manifest very large and permanent magnetizations. These are the
characteristics of ferromagnetism, and they are displayed by the transition metals iron (as
BCC 𝛼-ferrite), cobalt, nickel, and some rare earth metals such as gadolinium (Gd).
Magnetic susceptibilities as high as 106 are possible for ferromagnetic materials.
Consequently, H << M, and from Equation B = 𝜇0H + 𝜇0M, we write
B ≅ 𝜇0M
Permanent magnetic moments in ferromagnetic materials result from
atomic magnetic moments due to uncanceled electron spins as a
consequence of the electron structure. There is also an orbital
magnetic moment contribution that is small in comparison to the spin
moment. Furthermore, in a ferromagnetic material, coupling
In the absence of an
interactions cause net spin magnetic moments of adjacent atoms to
external magnetic field
align with one another, even in the absence of an external field.
The origin of these coupling forces is not completely understood, but they are thought to
arise from the electronic structure of the metal. This mutual spin alignment exists over
relatively large-volume regions of the crystal called domains
The maximum possible magnetization, or saturation magnetization, Ms, of a ferromagnetic
material represents the magnetization that results when all the magnetic dipoles in a solid
piece are mutually aligned with the external field resulting in saturation flux density, Bs.
 FERROMAGNETISM
The saturation magnetization is equal to the product of the net magnetic moment for each
atom and the number of atoms present. For each of iron, cobalt, and nickel, the net
magnetic moments per atom are 2.22, 1.72, and 0.60 Bohr magnetons, respectively
FERROMAGNETISM
μB = eh/4πme
 ANTIFERROMAGNETISM AND FERRIMAGNETISM
Antiferromagnetism
Magnetic moment coupling between adjacent atoms or ions also occurs in materials other
than those that are ferromagnetic. In one such group, this coupling results in an
antiparallel alignment; the alignment of the spin moments of neighboring atoms or ions in
exactly opposite directions is termed antiferromagnetism.
Manganese oxide (MnO) is one material that
displays this behavior. Manganese oxide is a
ceramic material that is ionic in character, having
both Mn2+ and O2− ions. No net magnetic moment
is associated with the O2− ions because there is a
total cancellation of both spin and orbital
moments. However, the Mn2+ ions possess a net
magnetic moment that is predominantly of spin
origin. These Mn2+ ions are arrayed in the crystal
structure such that the moments of adjacent ions
are antiparallel. This arrangement is represented
schematically in Figure. The opposing magnetic
Schematic representation of antiparallel
moments cancel one another, and, as a
alignment of spin magnetic moments for
consequence, the solid as a whole possesses no
antiferromagnetic manganese oxide
net magnetic moment.
 ANTIFERROMAGNETISM AND FERRIMAGNETISM
Ferrimagnetism
Some ceramics also exhibit a permanent
magnetization, termed ferrimagnetism.
The macroscopic magnetic
characteristics of ferromagnets and
ferrimagnets are similar; the distinction
lies in the source of the net magnetic
moments. The principles of
ferrimagnetism are illustrated with the
cubic ferrites. These ionic materials may
be represented by the chemical formula
M Fe2O4, in which M represents any one
of several metallic elements. The ferrite Schematic diagram showing the spin magnetic
Fe3O4 comes from the mineral moment configuration for Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions in Fe3O4
magnetite, sometimes called lodestone.
The formula for Fe3O4 may be written as Fe2+O2−–(Fe3+)2(O2−)3, in which the Fe ions exist in
both +2 and +3 valence states in the ratio of 1:2. A net spin magnetic moment exists for each
Fe2+ and Fe3+ ion, which corresponds to 4 and 5 Bohr magnetons, respectively, for the two ion
types. Furthermore, the O2− ions are magnetically neutral. There are antiparallel spin-coupling
interactions between the Fe ions, similar in character to antiferromagnetism. However, the
net ferrimagnetic moment arises from the incomplete cancellation of spin moments.
 Ferrimagnetism
With this inverse spinel
structure, half the trivalent
(Fe3+) ions are situated in
octahedral positions and the
other half in tetrahedral
positions. The divalent Fe2+
ions are all located in
octahedral positions.

Tetrahedral and Octahedral sites

The spin moments of all the
Fe3+ ions in the octahedral
Ferrimagnetism
positions are aligned parallel
to one another; however, they
are directed oppositely to the
Fe3+ ions disposed in the
tetrahedral positions, which
are also aligned. This results
from the antiparallel coupling
of adjacent iron ions. Thus,
the spin moments of all Fe3+
ions cancel one another and
make no net contribution to
the magnetization of the solid.
Tetrahedral and Octahedral sites
 Ferrimagnetism
All the Fe2+ ions have their
moments aligned in the same
direction; this total moment is
responsible for the net
magnetization. Thus, the
saturation magnetization of a
ferrimagnetic solid may be
computed from the product of
the net spin magnetic moment
for each Fe2+ ion and the
number of Fe2+ ions in the
Fe3O4 specimen
Tetrahedral and Octahedral sites
 Ferrimagnetism
Cubic ferrites having other compositions
may be produced by adding metallic
ions that substitute for some of the iron
in the crystal structure. From the ferrite
chemical formula M2+O2−–(Fe3+)2(O2−)3,
in addition to Fe2+, M2+ may represent
divalent ions such as Ni2+, Mn2+, Co2+,
and Cu2+, each of which possesses a net
spin magnetic moment (Refer Table).

Thus, by adjustment of composition, ferrite compounds having a range of magnetic

properties may be produced. For example, nickel ferrite has the formula NiFe2O4. Other
compounds may also be produced containing mixtures of two divalent metal ions such as
(Mn, Mg)Fe2O4, in which the Mn2+: Mg2+ ratio may be varied; these are called mixed ferrites.

The saturation magnetizations for ferrimagnetic materials are not as high as for
ferromagnets. However, ferrites, being ceramic materials, are good electrical insulators. For
some magnetic applications, such as high-frequency transformers, a low electrical
conductivity is most desirable.
 THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON
MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR
Temperature can also influence the
magnetic characteristics of materials.
Recall that raising the temperature of a
solid increases the magnitude of the
thermal vibrations of atoms. The atomic
magnetic moments are free to rotate;
hence, with rising temperature, the
increased thermal motion of the atoms
tends to randomize the directions of
any moments that may be aligned.
For ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic,
and ferrimagnetic materials, the atomic
thermal motions counteract the coupling
forces between the adjacent atomic
dipole moments, causing some dipole
misalignment, regardless of whether an external field is present. This results in a decrease in
the saturation magnetization for both ferro- and ferrimagnets. The saturation magnetization
is a maximum at 0K, at which temperature the thermal vibrations are at a minimum. With
increasing temperature, the saturation magnetization decreases gradually and then abruptly
drops to zero at what is called the Curie temperature Tc.
 THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON
MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR
At Tc, the mutual spin-coupling forces
are completely destroyed, such that
for temperatures above Tc, both ferro-
and ferrimagnetic materials are
paramagnetic. The magnitude of the
Curie temperature varies from
material to material; for example, for
iron, cobalt, nickel, and Fe3O4, the
respective values are 768°C, 1120°C,
335°C, and 585°C.
Antiferromagnetism is also
affected by temperature; this
behavior vanishes at what is called
the Néel temperature. At
temperatures above this point,
antiferromagnetic materials also
become paramagnetic.
 DOMAINS AND HYSTERESIS
Any ferro- or ferrimagnetic material at a temperature below Tc is composed of small-
volume regions in which there is a mutual alignment in the same direction of all magnetic
dipole moments, as illustrated in Figure.

Such a region is called a domain, and each one is

magnetized to its saturation magnetization. Adjacent
domains are separated by domain boundaries or walls
across which the direction of magnetization changes.
Normally, domains are microscopic in size, and for a
polycrystalline specimen, each grain may consist of more
than a single domain. Thus, there are a large number of
domains, and all may have different magnetization
orientations. The magnitude of the M field for the entire
solid is the vector sum of the magnetizations of all the
domains, each domain contribution being weighted by its
volume fraction. For an unmagnetized specimen, the
appropriately weighted vector sum of the magnetizations
of all the domains is zero.
Domains in a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic
material; arrows represent atomic magnetic dipoles
 DOMAINS AND HYSTERESIS
Flux density B and field intensity H are not
proportional for ferro- and ferrimagnets. If the
material is initially unmagnetized, then B varies as
a function of H, as shown in Figure. The curve
begins at the origin, and as H is increased, the B
field begins to increase slowly, then more rapidly,
finally leveling off and becoming independent of
H. This maximum value of B is the saturation flux
density Bs, and the corresponding magnetization
is the saturation magnetization Ms. On occasion,
the slope of the B-versus-H curve at H = 0 is
specified as a material property, which is termed
the initial permeability 𝜇i
As an H field is applied, the domains
change shape and size by the movement
of domain boundaries. As the external The B-versus-H
field is applied, the domains that are behavior for a ferro-
oriented in directions favorable to the or ferrimagnetic
applied field grow at the expense of material that was
those that are unfavorably oriented and initially
saturation is achieved. unmagnetized.
 DOMAINS AND HYSTERESIS
As the H field is reduced by reversal of field
direction, the curve does not retrace its original
path. A hysteresis effect is produced in which the B
field lags behind the applied H field, or decreases at
a lower rate. At zero H field (point R on the curve),
there exists a residual B field called the remanence,
or remanent flux density, Br, the material remains
magnetized in the absence of an external H field.
Hysteresis behavior and permanent magnetization
may be explained by the motion of domain walls.
Upon reversal of the field direction from saturation,
the process by which the domain structure changes
is reversed. First, there is a rotation of the single
Magnetic flux density B versus the
domain with the reversed field. Next, domains
magnetic field strength H for a
having magnetic moments aligned with the new
ferromagnetic material that is
field form and grow at the expense of the former
subjected to forward and reverse
domains. There is resistance to movement of
saturations (points S and S′).
domain walls that occurs in response to the increase
of the magnetic field in the opposite direction; this When the applied field reaches zero,
accounts for the lag of B with H, or the hysteresis. there is still some magnetization,
which explains the existence of Br
 DOMAINS AND HYSTERESIS
To reduce the B field within the specimen
to zero (point C on Figure), an H field of
magnitude −Hc must be applied in a
direction opposite to that of the original
field; Hc is called the coercivity, or the
coercive force. Upon continuation of the
applied field in this reverse direction, as
indicated in the figure, saturation is
ultimately achieved in the opposite sense,
corresponding to point S′. A second reversal
of the field to the point of the initial
saturation (point S) completes the
Magnetic flux density B versus the
symmetrical hysteresis loop and also yields
magnetic field strength H for a
both a negative remanence (−Br) and a ferromagnetic material that is
positive coercivity (+Hc) subjected to forward and reverse
saturations (points S and S′).
 DOMAINS AND HYSTERESIS
• At this point, it is instructive to
compare the B-versus-H behaviors of
paramagnetic, diamagnetic, and
ferromagnetic/ferrimagnetic materials;
such a comparison is shown in Figure.
• The linearity of paramagnetic and
diamagnetic materials may be noted in
the small inset plot, whereas the
ferromagnetic/ferromagnetic behavior
is nonlinear.
• At an H field strength of 50 A/m, the
ferromagnetic/ferrimagnetic materials
flux density is of the order of 1.5 tesla,
whereas for the paramagnetic and
diamagnetic materials it is of the order Comparison of B-versus-H behaviors for
ferromagnetic/ferrimagnetic and
of 5 × 10−5 tesla
diamagnetic/paramagnetic materials
Note that extremely small B fields are generated in materials that experience only
diamagnetic/ paramagnetic behavior
 MAGNETIC ANISOTROPY
The magnetic hysteresis curves have different
shapes depending on various factors:
(1) whether the specimen is a single crystal easy magnetization
or polycrystalline; (2) if it is polycrystalline,
whether there is any preferred orientation of
the grains; (3) the presence of pores or
second-phase particles; and (4) other factors
such as temperature. For example, the B- (or
M-) versus-H curve for a single crystal of a
ferromagnetic material depends on its
crystallographic orientation relative to the
direction of the applied H field. This behavior
is demonstrated for single crystals of nickel
(FCC) and iron (BCC), where the magnetizing
field is applied in [100], [110], and [111]
crystallographic directions. This dependence
of magnetic behavior on crystallographic Magnetization curves for single crystals of iron
orientation is termed magnetic (or and nickel. For both metals, a different curve
sometimes magnetocrystalline) anisotropy. was generated when the magnetic field was
The direction in which the saturation (of M) applied in each of [100], [110], and [111]
is achieved at the lowest H field is termed a crystallographic directions
direction of easy magnetization.
 SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS
The size and shape of the hysteresis curve for ferro- and
ferrimagnetic materials are of considerable practical
importance. The area within a loop represents a magnetic
energy loss per unit volume of material per magnetization–
demagnetization cycle; this energy loss is manifested as
heat that is generated within the magnetic specimen and is
capable of raising its temperature. Both ferro- and
ferrimagnetic materials are classified as either soft or hard
on the basis of their hysteresis characteristics. Soft magnetic
materials are used in devices that are subjected to
alternating magnetic fields and in which energy losses must
be low; one familiar example consists of transformer cores.
For this reason, the relative area within the hysteresis loop
must be small; it is characteristically thin and narrow, as
represented in Figure. Consequently, a soft magnetic
material must have a high initial permeability and a low
Magnetization curves for soft
coercivity. A material possessing these properties may reach
and hard magnetic materials
its saturation magnetization with a relatively low applied
field (i.e., may be easily magnetized and demagnetized) and
still have low hysteresis energy losses.
 SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS
The saturation field or magnetization is
determined by the composition of the material.
For example, in cubic ferrites, substitution of a
divalent metal ion such as Ni2+ for Fe2+ in FeO–
Fe2O3 changes the saturation magnetization.
However, susceptibility and coercivity (Hc), which
influence the shape of the hysteresis curve, are
sensitive to structural variables rather than to
composition. For example, a low value of
coercivity corresponds to the easy movement of
domain walls as the magnetic field changes
magnitude and/or direction. Structural defects
such as particles of a nonmagnetic phase or
voids in the magnetic material tend to restrict Magnetization curves for soft
the motion of domain walls and thus increase and hard magnetic materials
the coercivity. Consequently, a soft magnetic
material must be free of such structural defects
 SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Another property of soft magnetic materials is the electrical
resistivity. In addition to the hysteresis energy losses, energy
losses may result from electrical currents that are induced
in a magnetic material by a magnetic field that varies in
magnitude and direction with time; these are called eddy
currents. It is desirable to minimize the energy losses in soft
magnetic materials by increasing the electrical resistivity.
This is accomplished in ferromagnetic materials by forming
solid solution alloys; iron–silicon and iron–nickel alloys are
examples. The ceramic ferrites are commonly used for
applications requiring soft magnetic materials because they
are intrinsically electrical insulators. Their applicability is
somewhat limited, however, in as much as they have
relatively small susceptibilities. The hysteresis
characteristics of soft magnetic materials may be enhanced
for some applications by an appropriate heat treatment in
the presence of a magnetic field. Using such a technique, a Magnetization curves for soft
square hysteresis loop may be produced, which is desirable and hard magnetic materials
in some magnetic amplifier and pulse transformer
applications. In addition, soft magnetic materials are used in
generators, motors, dynamos, and switching circuits
SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Hard magnetic materials are used in permanent
magnets, which must have a high resistance to
demagnetization. In terms of hysteresis behavior,
a hard magnetic material has high remanence,
coercivity, and saturation flux density, as well as
low initial permeability and high hysteresis energy
losses. The two most important characteristics
relative to applications for these materials are the
coercivity and what is termed the energy product,
designated as (BH)max. This (BH)max corresponds to
the area of the largest B–H rectangle that can be
constructed within the second quadrant of the
hysteresis curve. Its units are kJ/m3. The value of
the energy product is representative of the
energy required to demagnetize a permanent
Schematic magnetization curve that
magnet—that is, the larger (BH)max, the harder
displays hysteresis. Within the second
the material in terms of its magnetic quadrant are drawn two B–H energy
characteristics. Hysteresis behavior is related to product rectangles; the area of the
the movement of magnetic domain boundaries, rectangle labeled (BH)max is the largest
the coercivity and susceptibility are enhanced, possible, which is greater than the area
and a large external field is required for defined by Bd–Hd.
demagnetization
 Conventional Hard Magnetic Materials
Hard magnetic materials fall within two main categories—conventional and
high energy. The conventional materials have (BH)max values that range
between about 2 and 80 kJ/m3. These include ferromagnetic materials—
magnet steels, Cunife (Cu–Ni–Fe) alloys, and alnico (Al–Ni–Co) alloys—as well
as the hexagonal ferrites (BaO–6Fe2O3). Table 20.6 presents some critical
properties of several of these hard magnetic materials. The hard magnetic
steels are normally alloyed with tungsten and/or chromium. Under the proper
heat-treating conditions, these two elements readily combine with carbon in
the steel to form tungsten and chromium carbide precipitate particles, which
are especially effective in obstructing domain wall motion. For the other metal
alloys, an appropriate heat treatment forms extremely small single-domain
and strongly magnetic iron–cobalt particles within a nonmagnetic matrix
phase.
 High-Energy Hard Magnetic Materials
Permanent magnetic materials having energy products in excess of about 80
kJ/m3 are considered to be of the high-energy type. These are recently developed
intermetallic compounds that have a variety of compositions; the two that have
found commercial exploitation are SmCo5 and Nd2Fe14B. Their magnetic
properties are also listed in Table

Samarium–Cobalt Magnets: Samarium–cobalt, SmCo5, is a a group of alloys that

are combinations of cobalt or iron and a light rare earth element; a number of
these alloys exhibit high-energy, hard magnetic behavior, but SmCo5 is the only
one of commercial significance. The energy product of these SmCo5 materials
[typically between 120 and 240 kJ/m3 are considerably higher than those of the
conventional hard magnetic materials (Table 20.6); in addition, they have
relatively large coercivities. Powder metallurgical techniques are used to fabricate
SmCo5 magnets. The appropriately alloyed material is first ground into a fine
powder; the powder particles are aligned using an external magnetic field and
then pressed into the desired shape. The piece is then sintered at an elevated
temperature, followed by another heat treatment that improves the magnetic
properties.
 Neodymium–Iron–Boron Magnets
• Samarium is a rare and relatively expensive material; furthermore, the price of
cobalt is variable, and its sources are unreliable. Consequently, the neodymium–
iron– boron, Nd2Fe14B, alloys have become the materials of choice for a large
number and wide diversity of applications requiring hard magnetic materials.
Coercivities and energy products of these materials rival to those of the samarium–
cobalt alloys (Table 20.6).
• The magnetization–demagnetization behavior of these materials is a function of
domain wall mobility, which is controlled by the final microstructure—that is, the
size, shape, and orientation of the crystallites or grains, as well as the nature and
distribution of any second-phase particles that are present.
• Microstructure depends on how the material is processed. Two different
processing techniques are available for the fabrication of Nd2Fe14B magnets:
powder metallurgy (sintering) and rapid solidification (melt spinning). The powder
metallurgical approach is similar to that used for the SmCo5 materials. For rapid
solidification, the alloy in molten form is quenched very rapidly such that either an
amorphous or very fine-grained and thin solid ribbon is produced. This ribbon
material is then pulverized (powdered), compacted into the desired shape, and
subsequently heat-treated.
• These high-energy hard magnetic materials are used in different devices in a
variety of technological fields. One common application is in motors.
 MAGNETIC STORAGE
• Magnetic materials are important in the area of information storage; in fact, magnetic
recording has become virtually the universal technology for the storage of electronic
information. This is evidenced by the great number of disk storage media [e.g., computers
(both desktop and laptop), and high-definition camcorder hard drives], credit/ debit cards
(magnetic stripes), and so on.
• Whereas in computers, semiconductor elements serve as primary memory, magnetic hard
disks are normally used for secondary memory because they are capable of storing larger
quantities of information and at a lower cost; however, their transfer rates are slower.
Furthermore, the recording and television industries rely heavily on magnetic tapes for the
storage and reproduction of audio and video sequences. In addition, tapes are used with
large computer systems to back up and archive data. In essence, computer bytes, sound,
or visual images in the form of electrical signals are recorded magnetically on very small
segments of the magnetic storage medium—a tape or disk.
• Transference to (i.e., “writing”) and retrieval from (i.e., “reading”) the tape or disk is
accomplished by means of a recording system that consists of read and write heads. For
hard drives, this head system is supported and in close proximity to the magnetic medium
by a self-generating air bearing as the medium passes beneath at relatively high rotational
speeds. In contrast, tapes make physical contact with the heads during read and write
operations. Tape velocities run as high as 10 m/s. As noted previously, there are two
principal types of magnetic media—hard disk drives (HDDs) and magnetic tapes—both of
which we now briefly discuss.
 Hard Disk Drives
Hard disk magnetic storage hard drives consist of rigid circular disks with diameters that
range between about 65 mm (2.5 in.) and 95 mm (3.75 in.). During read and write

processes, disks rotate at

relatively high velocities;
5400 and 7200 revolutions
per minute are common.
Rapid rates of data storage
and retrieval are possible
using HDDs, as are high
storage densities. For the
current HDD technology,
“magnetic bits” point up or
down perpendicular to the
plane of the disk surface;
this scheme is appropriately
called perpendicular
Schematic diagram of a hard disk drive that uses the
magnetic recording (PMR),
perpendicular magnetic recording medium; also shown are
and is represented
inductive write and magnetoresistive read heads.
schematically in Figure.
 Hard Disk Drives
• Data (or bits) are introduced (written) into the storage medium using an
inductive write head. For one head design, shown in Figure, a time-varying write
magnetic flux is generated at the tip of the main pole—a
ferromagnetic/ferrimagnetic core material around which a wire coil is wound—
by an electric current (also time variable) that passes through the coil.
• This flux penetrates through the magnetic storage layer into a magnetically soft
underlayer and then reenters the head assembly through a return pole. A very
intense magnetic field is concentrated in the storage layer beneath the tip of the
main pole. At this point, data are written as a very small region of the storage
layer becomes magnetized.
• Upon removal of the field (i.e., as the disk continues its rotation), the
magnetization remains—that is, the signal (i.e., data) has been stored. Digital
data storage (i.e., as 1s and 0s) is in the form of minute magnetization patterns;
the 1s and 0s correspond to the presence or absence of magnetic reversal
directions between adjacent regions.
• Data retrieval from the storage medium is accomplished using a
magnetoresistive read head. During read-back, magnetic fields from the written
magnetic patterns are sensed by this head; these fields produce changes in
electrical resistance. The resulting signals reproduce the original data.
 Magnetic recording medium
The storage layer is composed of granular
media—a thin film (15 to 20 nm thick) consisting
of very small (~10-nm diameter) and isolated
grains of an HCP cobalt– chromium alloy that are
magnetically anisotropic. Other alloying elements
(notably Pt and Ta) are added to enhance the
magnetic anisotropy as well as to form oxide
grain-boundary segregants that isolate the grains.
The Figure is a transmission electron micrograph
that shows the grain structure of an HDD storage
Transmission electron micrograph showing the
layer. Each grain is a single domain that is microstructure of the perpendicular magnetic
oriented with its c-axis (i.e., [0001] recording medium used in hard disk drives
crystallographic direction) perpendicular (or
nearly perpendicular) to the disk surface. This
[0001] direction is the direction of easy The current storage capacities of
magnetization for Co; thus, when magnetized, perpendicular HDDs are in excess of
the direction of magnetization of each grain has 100 Gbit/in.2 (1011 bit/in.2); the
this desired perpendicular orientation. Reliable ultimate goal for HDDs is a storage
storage of data requires that each bit written on capacity of 1 Tbit/in.2 (1012 bit/in.2 )
the disk encompasses approximately 100 grains.
 Magnetic Tapes
The development of magnetic tape storage
preceded that for the hard disk drives. Today,
tape storage is less expensive than HDD;
however, areal storage densities are lower for
tape (by a factor of on the order of 100).
Tapes [of standard 0.5-in. (12.7-mm) width]
are wound onto reels and enclosed within
cartridges for protection and to facilitate
handling. During operation, a tape drive, Scanning electron micrographs showing
using precision-synchronized motors, winds particulate media used in tape-memory
the tape from one reel onto another past a storage. (a) Needle-shaped ferromagnetic
read/write head system in order to access a metal particles. (b) Plate-shaped ferrimagnetic
point of interest. Typical tape speeds are 4.8 barium-ferrite particles.
m/s; some systems run as high as 10 m/s.
Head systems for tape storage are similar to those employed for HDDs. For the latest tape-
memory technology, storage media are particulates of magnetic materials that have
dimensions on the order of tens of nanometers: ferromagnetic metal particles that are
acicular (needle-shaped), and hexagonal and tabular (plateshaped) ferrimagnetic barium–
ferrite particles. Photomicrographs of both media types are shown in Figure. Tape products
use one particle type or the other (not both together), depending on application.
 Magnetic Tapes
These magnetic particles are thoroughly and
uniformly dispersed in a high-molecular-
weight organic binder material to form a
magnetic layer approximately 50 nm thick.
Beneath this layer is nonmagnetic thin-film
support substrate between about 100 and 300
nm thick that is attached to the tape. Either
poly(ethylene naphthalate) (PEN) or
poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) is used for Scanning electron micrographs showing
the tape. Both particle types are magnetically particulate media used in tape-memory
anisotropic—that is, they have an “easy” or storage. (a) Needle-shaped ferromagnetic
preferential direction along which they may metal particles. (b) Plate-shaped ferrimagnetic
be magnetized; for example, for the metal barium-ferrite particles.
particles, this direction is parallel to their long These two states allow for the storage of
axes. During manufacture, these particles are information in digital form, as 1s and 0s.
aligned such that this direction parallels the Using the plate-shaped barium–ferrite
direction of motion of the tape past the write medium, a tape-storage density of 6.7
head. In as much as each particle is a single Gbit/in.2 has been achieved. For the
domain that may be magnetized only in one industry-standard LTO tape cartridge, this
direction or its opposite by the write head, density corresponds to a storage capacity of
two magnetic states are possible. 8 Tbytes of uncompressed data.
 Optical data storage using CD
The optical data storage techniques have resulted in increased storage capacities.

The audio, video and text data to

be stored is first converted into
binary form as 0’s and 1’s. It is
then stored in the form of
reflecting and non-reflecting
micro points in spiral path on a
disc.
During the readout
process, variation in the reflected
intensity of laser is converted
back to data.

To read and write in a CD, laser beam is focused using a convex lens. Shorter the
wavelength, sharper will be the focus. Hence shorter wavelength of blue light with small
 and shorter focus lens are used for larger storage capacity.
 Optical data storage using CD
Optical storage, electronic storage
medium that uses low-
power laser beams to record and retrieve
digital (binary) data. In optical-
storage technology, a laser beam encodes
digital data onto an optical, or laser, disk in
the form of tiny pits arranged in a spiral
track on the disk’s surface. A low-power
laser scanner is used to “read” these pits,
with variations in the intensity of
reflected light from the pits being
converted into electric signals. This
technology is used in the compact disc,
which records sound; in the CD-
ROM (compact disc read-only memory), Optical storage provides greater memory
which can store text and images as well as capacity than magnetic storage because laser
sound; in WORM (write-once read-many), beams can be controlled and focused much
a type of disk that can be written on once more precisely than can tiny magnetic heads,
and read any number of times; and in thereby enabling the condensation of data
newer disks that are totally rewritable. into a much smaller space.
 Optical data storage using CD
Besides higher capacity, optical-storage
technology also delivers more authentic
duplication of sounds and images. Optical
disks are also inexpensive to make: the
plastic disks are simply molds pressed from
a master, as phonograph records are. The
data on them cannot be destroyed by
power outages or magnetic disturbances,
the disks themselves are
relatively resistant to physical damage, and
unlike magnetic disks and tapes, they need
not be kept in tightly sealed containers to
protect them from contaminants. Optical-
scanning equipment is similarly durable
because it has relatively few moving parts.
Early optical disks were not erasable—i.e., data encoded onto their surfaces could be read
but not erased or rewritten. This problem was solved in the 1990s with the development of
writable/rewritable disks. The drawback to optical equipment is a slower rate of information
retrieval compared with conventional magnetic-storage media. Despite its slowness, its
superior capacity and recording characteristics make optical storage ideally suited to
memory-intensive applications, especially those that incorporate still or animated graphics,
sound, multimedia encyclopedias, video games, and large quantities of text.
 Phase Change Recording
Principle of phase change recording.

Phase change recording is based on

the fact that some alloys can exist in
different phases. Microscopically,
these phases correspond to different
degrees of atomic order. In the
crystalline phase, the atoms are
arranged in a periodic 3D lattice. In the
amorphous phase, the material has
about the same density but follows no
long-range order throughout the
medium; atoms are arranged
randomly. The term "amorphous," or
without shape, refers to the fact that a
macroscopic piece of such material
lacks the regular facets that are
characteristic of crystals.

Structure of phase change optical disk

 Phase Change Recording
Principle of phase change recording.
The crystalline state is the equilibrium
state, with the lowest possible energy.
The amorphous phase is a meta-stable
state. At ambient temperatures, because
atomic motion is effectively blocked, this
state can persist for a long time.
However, when the amorphous material
is heated to a few hundred degrees
Celsius, the atoms are able to find
positions that are energetically lower.
The crystalline order is thereby restored
and preserved upon cooling the material
back to ambient temperature.
To prepare the material in its amorphous
phase, laser power is turned up, heating
the alloy to its melting point (600C).
When the alloy is cooled rapidly
(nanoseconds), the atoms are locked in a
random arrangement. The medium is Structure of phase change optical disk
quenched in amorphous state.
 Phase Change Recording
Direct overwrite. A notable advantage of
phase change recording over magneto-
optical recording is that erasing previously
written marks can be done on the fly,
without additional means. The drive
electronics have to adjust only the laser
power to a slightly lower value, so the
material remains just below its melting
temperature (the "erase level"). The
crystalline state is then restored. In this
way, a previously written track can be
directly overwritten. Finally, after many
rewrites by the user, the material
deteriorates, limiting the number of times
a phase change disc can be rewritten; for Land and groove recording. The laser beam
CD-RW, rewrites can be executed at least can be focused onto the grooves or at the
1,000 times. The pattern of amorphous open space between the grooves, called
marks on the disc is read out using the "lands." Thus it is possible to write the
same laser beam, adjusted to the even amorphous marks only in the groove (as in CD-
lower read level. RW or DVD+RW) or on the lands as well to
https://cacm.acm.org/magazines/2000/11/752 increase storage capacity (called "land-groove
1-phase-change-recording/fulltext recording") eg. DVD-RAM.
 Magneto-optical data storage
Magneto-optical (MO) storage combines
two technologies to give a storage
medium that has high data densities,
durability, and quick data transfers. MO
drives write magnetically (with thermal
assist) and read optically.
Magnet materials have a physical
property called a Curie temperature
above which they lose magnetization
due to the complete disordering of their
magnetic domains.

The magnet's coercivity, which is its resistance to magnetization by an outside magnetic

force, decreases as the temperature approaches the Curie point, and is zero thereafter.
To record data in a magneto optical device, a laser heats up the media, decreasing the
media's coercivity to a level that allows its magnetism to be modified by a relatively weak
magnetic field. Once the data is written, the area then cools, and the magnetic data is not
subject to modification or erasure by magnetic forces encountered during our daily
routines.
 Magneto-optical data storage
To read the data from the MO media, the Typical Structure of an MO disc
drive not use magnetic current induced
in the heads by the changing magnetic
flux on the disk, as a hard drive does, but
instead takes advantage of the Kerr
effect. Because of the Kerr effect, the
polarization of light will change when it is
shined upon an area of the disk that is
magnetized. Shining a beam of polarized
light on a magnetized surface causes the
polarization of the light to shift slightly
(usually less than 0.5). If the
magnetization is reversed, then the angle
of change in polarization (the Kerr angle) As can be seen, the structure of MO media
is changed as well. The change in is in some ways similar to that of CD-RW
direction of magnetization can be viewed media. But instead of changing the
as ones and zeros, making MO refractivity of the media when it is heated,
convenient for data storage. an MO drive changed the magnetic flux of a
http://ffden- small area of the disk.
2.phys.uaf.edu/211.fall2000.web.projects/J%20Kugler/limits.
html
 Limitations : Magneto-optical data storage
All technology has its limits. And in the case of data storage, the crucial limit is how much
data can you pack into a given space and still make sure it doesn't get corrupted.
Optical Media
Optical media must deal with the limit of track width and pit size. If the tracks are put closer
together, the stepper must be more precise so it can line up exactly with the track. If the pits
are made smaller so more data can fit in given linear distance, then a higher frequency
(shorter wavelength) laser must be used to read (and write) to the CD.
MO Media
MO media face some of the same problems. Bits can be placed closer together, but the laser
to heat the area of the disc must be able to focus on a smaller area, and the read heads must
focus more tightly so the correct data is read.
Hard Drives
Hard drives face limitations of their own. Mainly having to do with data density, and the
effects of having too much data in too little of a space. Hard drives face a limit imposed
upon them by the Super Paramagnetic Effect, or SPE (magnetization can randomly flip
direction under the influence of temperature). "Simply described, SPE is a physical
phenomenon that occurs in data storage when the energy that holds the magnetic spin in
the atoms making up a bit (either a 0 or 1) becomes comparable to the ambient thermal
energy. When that happens, bits become subject to random "flipping" between 0's and 1's,
corrupting the information they represent." (Scientific American) Because of SPE, the
representation of the bits on the disk can only be so small. Another limitation is track size. If
you are to add more tracks, they each must be smaller, so you must improve the ability of
the recording head to accurately find the tracks.
 GIANT MAGNETORESISTANCE
Magnetoresistance refers to the
change in the resistance of a
material (any material) when it is
placed in a magnetic field

The electrons traveling along the field

experience more scattering than those
traveling perpendicular to the field
When a magnetic metal, such as iron, is placed in a magnetic field, the change in the
resistivity depends on the direction of the current flow with respect to the magnetic field.
The resistivity ǁ for current flow parallel to the magnetic field decreases, and the
resistivity , perpendicular to the field, increases by roughly the same amount. The
change in the resistivity due to the applied magnetic field is anisotropic (depends on the
direction) and is called anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR).
The field rotates the 3d orbitals, which changes the scattering of the conduction electrons
according to their direction of travel; hence ǁ and  are different, as shown in Figure
 GIANT MAGNETORESISTANCE
On the other hand, a very large
magnetoresistance, called Giant
magnetoresistance (GMR), has
been observed in certain special
multilayer structures, which
exhibit substantial changes in the
resistance (e.g., more than 10
percent) when a magnetic field is
applied.

The special multilayer structure in

its simplest form has two
ferromagnetic layers (such as Fe or
Co or their alloys, etc.) separated
by a nonmagnetic transition metal A highly simplified view of the principle of the giant
layer (such as Cu), called the magnetoresistance effect. (a) The basic trilayer
spacer, as shown in Figure. The structure. (b) Antiparallel magnetic layers with high
magnetic layers are thin (less than resistance RAP (c) An external field aligns layers;
10 nm), and the nonmagnetic layer parallel alignment has a lower resistance RP
is even thinner.
 GIANT MAGNETORESISTANCE
The magnetizations of the two
ferromagnetic layers are
"coupled" indirectly through this
thin spacer layer.
In the absence of an external
field, two magnetic layers are
coupled in such a way that their
magnetizations are antiparallel or
in opposite directions; this
arrangement is also called an
antiferromagnetically coupled
configuration. We will use the
notation FNA to represent the
antiparallel configuration, where A highly simplified view of the principle of the giant
N stands for the nonmagnetic magnetoresistance effect. (a) The basic trilayer
metal. We can apply an external structure. (b) Antiparallel magnetic layers with high
magnetic field to one of the resistance RAP (c) An external field aligns layers;
layers and rotate its parallel alignment has a lower resistance RP
magnetization so that the two The resistance of the antiparallel FNA in Figure
magnetizations are now in (b) is much higher than that of the parallel
parallel as in Figure
structure FNF in Figure (a)
 GIANT MAGNETORESISTANCE
The resistance of this parallel
(FNF) structure RP is smaller
than RAP (RP < RAP ). The
difference in the resistances
RP and RAP in this simple
trilayer is roughly 10 percent
or less. But, in multilayered
structures, which have a
series of alternating magnetic
and nonmagnetic layers (e.g.,
50 or more magnetic and
nonmagnetic alternating
layers as in FNANFANFA . . .),
the change in the resistance
A highly simplified view of the principle of the giant
can be impressively large,
magnetoresistance effect. (a) The basic trilayer
exceeding 100 percent at low structure. (b) Antiparallel magnetic layers with high
temperatures and 60-80 resistance RAP (c) An external field aligns layers;
percent at room parallel alignment has a lower resistance RP
temperature.
 GIANT MAGNETORESISTANCE
The GMR effect is measured by
the change in the resistance with
respect to RP
æD R ÷ö RAP - RP
çç ÷ =
çè R ÷
÷
ø RP
P GMR

If the angle between the

magnetization vectors M1 and M2
of the two magnetic layers is ,
then the resistance of the
structure depends on  , with the
minimum for  = 0 (FNF) and the
maximum for  = 180° (FNA). The
fractional change in the A highly simplified view of the principle of the giant
resistance depends on  as magnetoresistance effect. (a) The basic trilayer
DR æD R ÷ö æ1- Cos q ÷
ö structure. (b) Antiparallel magnetic layers with high
= çç ÷ çç ÷ resistance RAP (c) An external field aligns layers;
RP çè R ÷
÷
ø çè 2 ÷
ø
P max parallel alignment has a lower resistance RP
the change is maximum when  = 180
 GMR Spin valve
One of the best
applications of GMR is in
a spin valve, in which the
current flow is controlled
by an external applied
magnetic field. The
resistance of the valve is
controlled by an applied
field Resistance of the multilayer structure depends on the relative
The FeNi layer is called orientations of magnetization in the two magnetic layers
free layer because its
magnetization can be
changed by an external
magnetic field
a) No applied field.
(b) Applied field has
fully oriented the
free-layer
magnetization.
(c) Resistance change versus applied magnetic field for a FeNi/Cu/FeNi spin valve
 GMR Spin valve
It is clear that the external
field can be used to control
the flow of current
through this structure. The
free layer should be
relatively soft to be able to
respond to the applied
field, whereas the pinned
layer should have
sufficient coercivity not to Resistance of the multilayer structure depends on the relative
lose its magnetization. orientations of magnetization in the two magnetic layers

The signal R vs H The name spin valve

depends on the reflects the fact that
direction of the valve operation
magnetization relies on the spin of
the electrons
a) No applied field.
(b) Applied field has
fully oriented the
free-layer
magnetization.
(c) Resistance change versus applied magnetic field for a FeNi/Cu/FeNi spin valve
 Compact Disc
http://www.howstuffworks.com/
A CD has a long, spiraled data track. If the track is
unwinded, it would extend to about 3.5 miles (5 km).

The information on the disc is represented by a

series of 1s and 0s

In conventional CDs (CD-ROM),

these 1s and 0s are represented by
millions of tiny bumps and flat areas on
the disc's reflective surface.

The bumps and flats are arranged in a

continuous track that measures about
0.5 microns across the 5 km length.
 CD reading

To read the information, the CD player passes a laser beam over the track.
When the laser passes over a flat area in the track, the beam is reflected
directly to an optical sensor on the laser assembly. The CD player interprets this
as a 1. When the beam passes over a bump, the light is bounced away from the
optical sensor. The CD player recognizes this as a 0.
 CD reading
The CD player spins the
disc while moving the
laser assembly outward
from the middle.

Scanning velocity: 1.2–1.4 m/s

(constant linear velocity) –
equivalent to approximately
500 rpm at the inside of the
disc, and approximately 200
rpm at the outside edge.

The CD player spins the disc while the laser assembly moves outward from the
center of the CD. At a steady speed, the bumps move past any point at the outer
edge of the CD more rapidly than they move past any point nearer the CD's
center. In order to keep the bumps moving past the laser at a constant rate, the
player must slow the spinning speed of the disc as the laser assembly moves
outward.
 CD – ROM fabrication (stamped CDs)

The CD fabrication machine uses a high-powered laser to etch the bump pattern
into photoresist material coated onto a glass plate. Through an elaborate
imprinting process, this pattern is pressed onto acrylic discs. The discs are then
coated with aluminum (or another metal) to create the readable reflective
surface. Finally, the disc is coated with a transparent plastic layer that protects
the reflective metal from scratches and debris.
 CD- R recordable discs
CD – R is blank CD on which
recording can be done. They
have a smooth reflective metal
layer, which rests on top of a
layer of photosensitive dye.
When the disc is blank, the dye is
translucent: Light can shine
through and reflect off the metal
surface.
But when it is heated or burnt,
with laser of a particular
intensity and frequency, the dye
layer turns opaque.
By selectively darkening particular points along the CD track, and leaving other areas
of dye translucent, a digital pattern can be created that can be read by a standard CD
player.
The light from the player's laser beam will only bounce back to the sensor when the
dye is left translucent, in the same way that it will only bounce back from the flat areas
of a conventional CD. So, even though the CD-R disc doesn't have any bumps pressed
into it at all, it behaves just like a standard disc. Adv: wide compatibility, inexpensive
 CD burning
The CD burner has a moving
laser assembly, just like an CD burners darken microscopic areas of CD-R
ordinary CD player having a discs to record a digital pattern of reflective and
read laser and a write laser. non-reflective areas that can be read by a
standard CD player
The write laser is more
powerful than the read laser,
so it interacts with the disc
differently: It alters the
surface instead of just
bouncing light off it.

Read lasers are not intense

enough to darken the dye
material, so simply playing a
CD-R in a CD drive will not
destroy any encoded
information.
 CD burning
The write laser moves in exactly the same way as the read laser: It moves outward while
the disc spins. The bottom plastic layer has grooves pre-pressed into it, to guide the
laser along the correct path. By calibrating the rate of spin with the movement of the
laser assembly, the burner keeps the laser running along the track at a constant rate of
speed. To record the data, the burner simply turns the laser writer on and off in synch
with the pattern of 0s and 1s. The laser darkens the material to encode a 0 and leaves
it translucent to encode a 1.
There is a mechanism that spins the disc
and another mechanism that slides the
laser assembly.
Most CD burners can create CDs at multiple
speeds. At 1x speed, the CD spins at about
the same rate as it does when the player is
reading it. This means it would take you
about 60 minutes to record 60 minutes of
music. At 2x speed, it would take you about
half an hour to record 60 minutes, and so
on. For faster burning speeds, you need
more advanced laser-control systems and a
faster connection between the computer
and the burner.
 CD - RW
CD - RW discs are based on phase-change technology. The ‘write laser’ heats the
phase change compound above its melting temperature (around 600 degrees Celsius),
it becomes a liquid that rapidly cools down to a amorphous state solid; The ‘erase
laser’ heats the compound at its crystallization temperature (around 200 degrees
Celsius) and holds for a longer length of time in which, it turns into a crystalline solid.

The reflecting lands and non-reflecting

bumps of a conventional CD are
created by phase change of a special
chemical compound made from silver,
antimony, tellurium and indium. When
the compound is in a crystalline state,
it is translucent, so light can shine
through to the metal layer above and
reflect back to the laser assembly.
When the compound is melted into an
amorphous state, it quickly solidifies in
the amorphous state itself and
becomes opaque, making the area
non-reflective.
 Read, write and erase lasers
The write laser moves in exactly the same way as the read laser: It moves outward
while the disc spins. The bottom plastic layer has grooves pre-pressed into it, to guide
the laser along the correct path. By calibrating the rate of spin with the movement of
the laser assembly, the burner keeps the laser running along the track at a constant
rate of speed. To record the data, the burner simply turns the laser writer on and off in
synch with the pattern of 0s and 1s. The laser darkens the material to encode a 0 and
leaves it translucent to encode a 1.

The read laser does not have enough power to change the state of the material in the
recording layer -- it's a lot weaker than the write laser. The erase laser falls somewhere
in between: While it isn't strong enough to melt the material, it does have the necessary
intensity to heat the material to the crystallization point. By holding the material at this
temperature, the erase laser restores the compound to its crystalline state, effectively
erasing the encoded 0. This clears the disc so new data can be encoded.

CD-RW discs do not reflect as much light as older CD formats, so they cannot be
read by most older CD players and CD-ROM drives. Some newer drives and
players, including all CD-RW writers, can adjust the read laser to work with
different CD formats.
 CD fabrication
D – label
C – acrylic or lacquer layer
B – Reflecting layer
A – Polycarbonate layer
E - Laser

A CD is made from 1.2 mm thick (.047 inches), almost-pure polycarbonate plastic

and weighs 15–20 grams. From the center outward, components are: the center
(spindle) hole, the first-transition area (clamping ring), the clamping area
(stacking ring), the second-transition area (mirror band), the information (data)
area, and the rim.
CD data are stored as a series of tiny
indentations known as "pits", encoded in a
spiral track molded into the top of the
polycarbonate layer. The areas between pits
are known as "lands". Each pit is
approximately 100 nm deep by 500 nm wide,
and varies from 850 nm to 3.5 µm in length.

The distance between the tracks, the pitch, is

1.6 µm. A CD is read by focusing a 780 nm
wavelength (near infrared) semiconductor laser
through the bottom of the polycarbonate layer.
The change in height between pits (actually
ridges as seen by the laser) and lands results in
a difference in intensity in the light reflected. By
measuring the intensity change with a
photodiode, the data can be read from the disc.

Individual pits are

visible on the
micrometre scale.
 Advantages of Compact Disc
•Portable: CDs are more compact and lightweight, they are easier to
store and travel.

•Reliable: In that time, an entire software can be stored on one CD, so its
very reliable for the software industries in the days.

•Multiple Applications: It is also adaptable. The higher capacity of the

compact disc was exploited for uses other than storing digital audio. CDs
became a popular media for distributing home films, software packages,
and other digital content.

•Random Access: CD provides random data access. Users can use this
random access to choose music tracks, specific files or data, or explore a
menu via a user interface.

•Rewritable Formats: Another benefit of compact discs is the availability

of rewritable versions such as CD-R and CD-RW.
 Disadvantages of Compact Disc
•Inferior Capacity: CDs have more storage capacity than their
predecessors, but subsequent storage mediums have more capacity.
Storage capacity is lower than a hard drive or DVD, now a days CD is not
used at all.
•Older Technology: A compact disc’s limitation stems from its older read
and write mechanism technology, which is based on 780nm wavelength.
•Inferior Quality: It should be noted that audio-video files with higher
audio and video quality can be stored on DVDs and Blu-ray Discs.
•Durability Issues: Magnetic tapes are less durable than CDs. However, it is
still fragile because it is easily scratched if not treated carefully. When
exposed to severe heat and humidity, it might deform and become
unusable.
•Obsolete Medium: Another issue of CDs is that they have become
obsolete as better storage methods have become available.
•It’s also worth noting that compact discs aren’t suitable for backup
storage because of their limited storage capacity and susceptibility to
breakage. It is preferable to use hard drives or solid-state drives.
 CD, DVD and Blue Ray Disc
Optical disk storage capacities

A CD can store up to up 700 megabytes (MB) of data. A single-layer DVD can hold 4.7 GB of
data, and a double-layer disk can hold 8.5 GB. A single-layer Blu-ray disk can store 25 to 33.4
GB of data, and a quad-layer Blu-ray disk can store up to 128 GB of data.

The DVD (common abbreviation for Digital Video Disc or Digital Versatile Disc) is
a digital optical disc data storage format. It was invented and developed in 1995 and first
released on November 1, 1996, in Japan. The medium can store any kind of digital data and
has been widely used to store video programs (watched using DVD players), software and
other computer files. DVDs offer significantly higher storage capacity than compact discs (CD)
while having the same dimensions. A standard single-layer DVD can store up to 4.7 GB of
data, a dual-layer DVD up to 8.5 GB. Variants can store up to a maximum of 17.08 GB
Blu-ray (Blu-ray Disc or BD) is a digital optical disc data storage format designed to supersede
the DVD format. It was invented and developed in 2005 and released worldwide on June 20,
2006, capable of storing several hours of high-definition video (HDTV 720p and 1080p). The
main application of Blu-ray is as a medium for video material such as feature films and for
the physical distribution of video games for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PlayStation
5, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X. The name refers to the blue laser (actually a violet laser)
used to read the disc, which allows information to be stored at a greater density than is
possible with the longer-wavelength red laser used for DVDs.
Below listed are major differences between a DVD & a Blu-Ray Disc :

Parameters Blu-ray DVD

Storage capacity 25GB (single-layer) 4.7GB (single-layer)
50GB (dual-layer) 8.5GB (dual-layer)
Laser wavelength 405nm (blue laser) 650nm (red laser)
Numerical aperture (NA) 0.85 0.6
Disc diameter 120mm 120mm
Disc thickness 1.2mm 1.2mm
Protection layer 0.1mm 0.6mm
Hard coating Yes No
Track pitch 0.32µm 0.74µm
Data transfer rate (data) 36.0Mbps (1x) 11.08Mbps (1x)
Data transfer rate (video/audio) 54.0Mbps (1.5x) 10.08Mbps (<1x)
720×480/720×576
Video resolution (max) 1920×1080 (1080p)
(480i/576i)
Video bit rate (max) 40.0Mbps 9.8Mbps
MPEG-2 MPEG-2
Video codecs MPEG-4 AVC -
SMPTE VC-1 -
Linear PCM Linear PCM
Dolby Digital Dolby Digital
Dolby Digital Plus DTS Digital Surround
Audio codecs Dolby TrueHD -

DTS Digital Surround -

DTS-HD -
Interactivity BD-J DVD-Video
 Holography
Holography is a three-dimensional imaging technique. Recording of the complete
information of an object – (ie) its amplitude and phase in a photo-sensitive recording
material is called holography. Such a record is called hologram.
S.No. Holography Photography
Holography is used to generate 3- Photography is used to generate 2-
1.
dimensional images. dimensional images.

Phenomenon used in holography is It uses reflection of light by the object to the

2.
interference and diffraction of light. photographic film.

Source of light should be

3. No special type of light source is needed.
monochromatic and coherent.

No lens are required to generate the Lens are required to focus on the object and
4. holograph. Vibration free table is generate the photograph. Vibration free
required for recording table is not required

Holography has high information Photography has less information capacity

5.
capacity. than holography.

Multiple images can be superimposed Multiple images can’t be superimposed

6.
together. together.
 Recording of a Hologram
The laser beam is split
into two: one called the
object beam is used to
illuminate the object. The
beam falling on the
object after scattering
reaches the recording
material. At the recording
plane, interference of the
object beam and the
reference beam takes
place. On developing and
processing, we get
‘hologram’ which is
nothing but the recorded
interference pattern.

Since the fringe spacing of the interference pattern is less than microns, the grains in the
photosensitive recording material must be smaller in size to record it. This makes the
recording very slow in speed. Hence, longer exposure is required and vibration isolation
becomes essential.
 Steps in recording a hologram
1. First the vibration isolation table is floated.
2. The laser beam is split into two, one to act as object beam and another
to act as reference beam.
3. Front coated mirrors and beam expanders are arranged as given in the
diagram. At the recording plane, the scattered waves from the object
and the reference beam are made to overlap.
4. The object beam and the reference beam should travel equal distances
from the beam splitter upto the recording plane.
5. All the components should be rigidly fixed to the table.
6. In total darkness, the recording emulsion should be fixed facing the
object scattered wave.
7. The laser should be switched on and the exposure should be given.
8. The exposed plate may be removed and processed in the developer
and fixer; washed well and dried. This is the hologram.
 Reconstruction of a hologram
Vibration isolation
table is not required
for reconstruction of a
hologram. The beam
splitter is removed
and the reference
beam is used for
reconstruction. The
hologram diffracts the
light and the
diffracted light
received forms a
virtual image.

By moving the head sidewise, the observer can get 3D effect. While recording, the secondary
waves from each and every point of the object reach the entire plate. Each bit of the plate
has the full information about the object. Some holograms can be constructed with sunlight
or with other white light. If the object wave and the reference wave are made to interfere
from opposite directions in the recording medium, Bragg plane fringes are created. After
development, these holograms can be viewed under white light. The colour of the image
depends on the interplanar fringe spacing. They are called white light holograms.
 Photorefractive storage
• Materials that exhibit a temporary change in refractive index when exposed to
light. The changing refractive index causes light to change speed throughout the
material and produce light and dark regions in the crystal. The buildup can be
controlled to produce holographic images for use in optical computing.

• The internal space charge field causes the refractive index of the crystal to
change in the regions where the field is strongest. This causes a spatially varying
refractive index grating to occur throughout the crystal. The pattern of the
grating that is formed follows the light interference pattern originally imposed
on the crystal.

• The refractive index grating can now diffract light shone into the crystal, with the
resulting diffraction pattern recreating the original pattern of light stored in the
crystal.

• The photorefractive crystals are lithium niobate LiNbO3, lithium tantalate LiTa03,
barium titanate BaTiO3, potassium tantalate niobate KTN, barium sodium
niobate (SBN), Bismuth silicon oxide (BSO) , Bismuth germanium oxide (BGO),
GaAs, InP and PLZT ceramics. The crystals are grown using Czochralski method.