Machine Design

ME - 211

Dr. Sujeet Kumar Mishra

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology
(In the service of the Nation since 1955)
(A Deemed University)
Mesra, Ranchi – 835 215 India

E-mail: [email protected]
Mob: 9431927250
 SYLLABUS (ME – 211 Machine Design)
Module –I
Failure of materials: Principles of Machine Design, standardization, Tolerances, Design against static and fluctuating loads, Theories of failures,
Design of cotter joint and knuckle joint, Fatigue failure, Endurance limit, Notch Sensitivity, Gerber, Soderberg, Goodman, and Modified
Goodman criteria, Design against combined loads.. (8L)

Module –II
Design of threaded, welded, and riveted joints: Threaded joints: Basic types of screw fastening, Bolt of uniform strength, Terminology of screw
threads, Bolt under tension, Welded joints: Butt joints, Fillet joints, Strength of butt and fillet welds. Riveted joints: Types of rivet heads, types of
rivet joints, Strength equations, Efficiency of joint, Caulking and fullering, Eccentrically loaded bolted, riveted and welded joints. (8L)

Module – III
Design of brakes and clutches: Types of Brakes and Clutches, Clutch/Brake selection and specification, Clutch and Brake materials, Disc
Clutches, Shoe, Band and Disk Brakes. (8L)

Module – IV
Design of springs and bearing: Spring configuration, Spring materials, Design of helical compression/extension springs. Bearings, Types of
sliding contact bearings, Bearing materials, Lubricating oils, Petroff’s equation, Mckee’s Investigation, Hydrostatic bearing, Rolling contact
bearings. (8L)

Module –V
Design of Gears: Types of gear, Terminology of gear, standard systems of gear tooth, Force analysis of spur, helical, bevel, and worm gears, Beam
and wear strength of gears, Lewis and Buckingham’s equation, Effective load on spur gear tooth. (8L)

Text Books:
1. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, by Richard Budynas (Author), Keith Nisbett (Author)
2. Introduction to Machine Design by V. B. Bhandari
3. Machine Design by Khurmi

Reference Books:
1. Machine Design, An Integrated Approach by Robert L. Norton, Second Edition.
2. Machine Design Data Handbook by K. Lingaiah
3. Mechanical Design of Machine Components by Ansel C. Ugural
Springs
Spring is an elastic machine element which deflects under the action of the load & returns to its
original shape when the load is removed
There are three objectives for the design of the helical spring
i) It should posses sufficient strength to withstand the external load.
ii) It should have the required load deflection characteristics.
iii) It should not buckle under the external load.

SPRING MATERIALS
There are four basic varieties of steel wire which are used in springs in the majority of applications:
(i) Patented and cold-drawn steel wires(unalloyed);
(ii) Oil-hardened and tempered spring steel wires and valve spring wires;
(iii) Oil-hardened and tempered steel wires (alloyed); and
(iv) Stainless steel spring wires.
TERMINOLOGY OF HELICAL SPRINGS
d = wire diameter of spring (mm)
Di = inside diameter of spring coil (mm)
Do = outside diameter of spring coil (mm)
D = mean coil diameter (mm) , Therefore D =(D i +Do)/2

Spring index is the ratio of mean coil diameter to wire diameter , C=D/d

(i) Solid Length is the axial length of the spring which is so

compressed that the adjacent coils touch each other. In this case,
the spring is completely compressed and no further compression
is possible. The solid length is given by,
Solid length = Nt d Where, Nt = total number of coils
(ii) Compressed Length is the axial length of the spring, which is subjected to maximum
compressive force. In this case, the spring is subjected to maximum deflection
(iii) Free Length is the axial length of an unloaded helical compression spring. In this case, no
external force acts on the spring.
free length = compressed length + δ = solid length + total axial gap + δ

The pitch of the coil is the axial distance between adjacent coils in uncompressed state of spring. It is
denoted by p. It is given by, p = free length/(Nt -1)

The stiffness of the spring (k) is the force required to produce unit deflection. Therefore,
k = P/ δ , Where, k = stiffness of the spring (N/mm), P = axial spring force (N), d = axial deflection of the
spring corresponding to the force P (mm)
Design of Helical Springs

i) Estimate the maximum spring force (P) and the corresponding required deflection (δ)
of the spring. In some cases, maximum spring force (P) and stiffness k, which is
(P/ δ), are specified.
ii) Select a suitable spring material and find out ultimate tensile strength (S ut) from the
data. Calculate the permissible shear stress for the spring wire by following
relationship
Ʈ = 0.3 Sut or 0.5 Sut
iii) Assume a suitable spring index (C). For industrial applications, the spring index varies
from 8 to 10. The spring index should never be less than 3.
iv) Calculate the Wahl factor by
(4C – 1/ 4C – 4) + 0.651/ C
v) Determine wire diameter (d)
Ʈ = K (8 P C / π d2)
vi) Determine mean coil diameter (D) by D = C d
vii) Determine the number of active coils (N) by
δ = (8 P D3 N / G d4) The modulus of rigidity (G) for steel wires is 81 370 N/mm2.
viii) Determine the number of inactive coils. Adding active & inactive coils, find out the
total number of coils (Nt)

ix) Determine the solid length of the spring

as Nt d

x) Determine the actual deflection of the spring

δ = (8 P D3 N / G d4)
xi) Assume a gap of 0.5 to 2 mm between adjacent coils, when the spring is under the
action of maximum load. The total axial gap between coils is given as
total gap = (Nt – 1) gap between two adjacent coils

xii) Determine the free length of the spring by

free length = solid length + total length + δ
xiii) Determine the pitch of the coil by the following relationship:
xiv) Determine the rate of spring by
k = (G d4 / 8 D3 N)
Q1. Design a helical compression spring subjected to a maximum force of 1250 N. The
deflection of the spring corresponding to the maximum force should be
approximately 30 mm. The spring index can be taken as 6. The spring is made of
patented and cold drawn steel wire. The ultimate tensile strength and modulus of
rigidity of the spring material are 1090 and 81370 N/mm2 respectively. The
permissible shear stress for the spring wire should be taken as 50% of the ultimate
tensile strength. Calculate
i) Wire diameter
ii) Mean coil diameter
iii) Number of active coils
iv) Total number of coils
v) Free length of the spring
vi) Pitch of the coil
Draw a neat sketch of the spring showing various dimensions
Q2. A helical compression spring, made of circular wire, is subjected to an axial force,
which varies from 2.5 kN to 3.5 kN. Over this range of force, the deflection of the spring
should be approximately 5 mm. The spring index can be taken as 5. The spring has
square and ground ends. The spring is made of patented and cold-drawn steel wire with
ultimate tensile strength of 1050 N/mm2 and modulus of rigidity of 81370 N/mm2. The
permissible shear stress for the spring wire should be taken as 50% of the ultimate
tensile strength. Design the spring and calculate

(i) Wire diameter

(ii) mean coil diameter
(iii) number of active coils
(iv) total number of coils
(v) solid length of the spring
(vi) free length of the spring
(vii) required spring rate
(viii) actual spring rate
Design of Leaf springs
Multi-leaf springs are widely used for the suspension of cars, trucks and railway wagons.

A multi-leaf spring consists of a series of flat plates, usually of semi-elliptical shape.

The flat plates are called leaves of the spring. The leaves have graduated lengths. The leaf at the
top has maximum length. The length gradually decreases from the top leaf to the bottom leaf. The
longest leaf at the top is called master leaf. It is bent at both ends to from the spring eyes. Two
bolts are inserted through these eyes to fix the leaf spring to the automobile body. The leaves are
held together by means of two U-bolts and a centre clip. Rebound clips are provided to keep the
leaves in alignment and prevent lateral shifting of the leaves during operation. At the centre, the
leaf spring is supported on the axle. Multi-leaf springs are provided with one or two extra full length
leaves in addition to master leaf. The extra full-length leaves are stacked between the master leaf
and the graduated length leaves. The extra full-length leaves are provided to support the
transverse shear force.
 Bearings
Bearing is a mechanical element that permits relative motion between two parts, such as the shaft and
the housing, with minimum friction. The functions of the bearing are as follows:

(i) The bearing ensures free rotation of the shaft or the axle with minimum friction.
(ii) The bearing supports the shaft or the axle and holds it in the correct position.
(iii) The bearing takes up the forces that act on the shaft or the axle and transmits them to the frame
or the foundation.

The most important criterion to classify the bearings is the type of

friction between the shaft and the bearing surface. On the type of
friction, bearings are classified into two main groups: sliding contact
bearings and rolling contact bearings as shown in Fig.

Sliding contact bearings are also called plain bearings, journal bearings or sleeve
bearings. In this case, the surface of the shaft slides over the surface
of the bush resulting in friction and wear. In order to reduce the
friction, these two surfaces are separated by a film of lubricating oil.
The bush is made of special bearing material like white metal or
bronze.

Rolling contact bearings are also called antifriction bearings or simply ball
bearings. Rolling elements, such as balls or rollers, are introduced
between the surfaces that are in relative motion. In this type of
bearing, sliding friction is replaced by rolling friction.
Sliding contact bearings are used in the following applications:
(i) crankshaft bearings in petrol and diesel engines;
(ii) centrifugal pumps;
(iii) large size electric motors;
(iv) steam and gas turbines; and
(v) concrete mixers, rope conveyors and marine installations.

Rolling contact bearings are used in the following applications:

(i) machine tool spindles;
(ii) automobile front and rear axles;
(iii) gear boxes;
(iv) small size electric motors; and
(v) rope sheaves, crane hooks and hoisting drums.

Depending upon the direction of force that acts on them, bearings are classified into two categories
-radial and thrust bearings, as shown in Fig. below.

 A radial bearing supports the load, which is perpendicular to the axis of the shaft.
 A thrust bearing supports the load, which acts along the axis of the shaft.
Types of Rolling Contact Bearings
(i) Deep Groove Ball Bearing
(ii) Cylindrical Roller Bearing
(iii) Angular Contact Bearing
(iv) Self-aligning Bearings
(v) Taper Roller Bearing
(vi) Thrust Ball Bearing
Selection of Bearing - Type
(i) For low and medium radial loads, ball bearings are used, whereas for heavy loads and large
shaft diameters, roller bearings are selected.

(ii) Self-aligning ball bearings and spherical roller bearings are used in applications where a
misalignment between the axes of the shaft and housing is likely to exist.

(iii) Thrust ball bearings are used for medium thrust loads whereas for heavy thrust loads, cylindrical
roller thrust bearings are recommended. Double acting thrust bearings can carry the thrust load in
either direction.

(iv) Deep groove ball bearings, angular contact bearings and spherical roller bearings are suitable in
applications where the load acting on the bearing consists of two components— radial and thrust.

(v) The maximum permissible speed of the shaft depends upon the temperature rise in the bearing.
For high speed applications, deep groove ball bearings, angular contact bearings and cylindrical roller
bearings are recommended.

(vi) Rigidity controls the selection of bearings in certain applications like machine tool spindles.
Double row cylindrical roller bearings or taper roller bearings are used under these conditions.

(vii) Noise becomes the criterion of selection in applications like household appliances. For such
applications, deep groove ball bearings are recommended.
 STATIC LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY
Static load is defined as the load acting on the bearing when the shaft is stationary. It produces
permanent deformation in balls and races, which increases with increasing load. The permissible
static load, therefore, depends upon the permissible magnitude of permanent deformation.

From past experience, it has been found that a total permanent deformation of 0.0001 of the ball or
roller diameter occurring at the most heavily stressed ball and race contact, can be tolerated in
practice, without any disturbance like noise or vibrations.

The static load carrying capacity of a bearing is defined as the static load which corresponds to a total permanent
deformation of balls and races, at the most heavily stressed point of contact, equal to 0.0001 of the ball diameter.
 STRIBECK’S EQUATION
Stribeck’s equation gives the static load capacity of bearing.
It is based on the following assumptions:
(i) The races are rigid and retain their circular shape.
(ii) The balls are equally spaced.
(iii) The balls in the upper half do not support any load.

Figure (a) shows the forces acting on the inner race through the rolling elements, which support the
static load C0. It is assumed that there is a single row of balls. Considering
the equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction,
The values of M for different values of z are
tabulated as follows:
 DYNAMIC LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY
The life of a ball bearing is limited by the fatigue failure at the surfaces of balls and races. The
dynamic load carrying capacity of the bearing is, therefore, based on the fatigue life of the bearing.

The life of an individual ball bearing is defined as the number of revolutions (or hours of service at some given
constant speed), which the bearing runs before the first evidence of fatigue crack in balls or races.

Since the life of a single bearing is difficult to predict, it is necessary to define the life in terms of the
statistical average performance of a group of bearings.

The rating life (L10) of a group of apparently identical ball bearings is defined as the number of revolutions that
90% of the bearings will complete or exceed before the first evidence of fatigue crack.

The dynamic load carrying capacity of a bearing is defined as the radial load in radial bearings (or thrust load in
thrust bearings) that can be carried for a minimum life of one million revolutions.

The minimum life in this definition is the L10 life, which 90% of the bearings will reach or exceed
before fatigue failure.

The dynamic load carrying capacity is based on the assumption that the inner race is rotating while
the outer race is stationary.
 EQUIVALENT BEARING LOAD
In actual applications, the force acting on the bearing has two components - radial and thrust. It is
therefore necessary to convert the two components acting on the bearing into a single hypothetical
load, fulfilling the conditions applied to the dynamic load carrying capacity. Then the hypothetical
load can be compared with the dynamic load capacity.

The equivalent dynamic load is the constant radial load in radial bearings (or thrust load in thrust bearings), which if
applied to the bearing would give same life as that which the bearing will attain under actual condition of forces.

The expression for the equivalent dynamic load is written as,

The race-rotation factor depends upon whether the
inner race is rotating or the outer race. The value of
V is 1 when the inner race rotates while the outer
race is held stationary in the housing. The value of V
is 1.2 when the outer race rotates with respect to the
load, while the inner race remains stationary. In most
of the applications, the inner race rotates and the
outer race is fixed in the housing.
Assuming V as unity, the general equation for equivalent dynamic load is given by,
 LOAD-LIFE RELATIONSHIP
The relationship between the dynamic load carrying capacity, the equivalent dynamic load, and the
bearing life is given by,
Q1 A taper roller bearing has a dynamic load capacity of 26 kN. The desired life for 90% of the
bearings is 8000 h and the speed is 300 rpm. Calculate the equivalent radial load that the bearing can
carry.
SELECTION OF BEARING LIFE
SELECTION OF BEARING FROM MANUFACTURER’S CATALOGUE
Table 15.5 Dimensions and static and dynamic load capacities of single-row deep groove ball bearings
 Sliding Contact Bearings
• Thick film lubrication describes a condition of lubrication, where two surfaces of the bearing in
relative motion are completely separated by a film of fluid.
• Since there is no contact between the surfaces, the properties of surface, like surface finish, have
little or no influence on the performance of the bearing.
• The resistance to relative motion arises from the viscous resistance of the fluid. Therefore, the
viscosity of the lubricant affects the performance of the bearing.
• Thick film lubrication is further divided into two groups: hydrodynamic and hydrostatic
lubrication.
• Hydrodynamic lubrication is a system of lubrication in which the load-supporting fluid film is
created by the shape and relative motion of the sliding surfaces.

The principle of hydrodynamic lubrication in journal bearings is shown in Fig. 16.1

A journal bearing is a sliding contact

bearing working on hydrodynamic
lubrication and which supports the
load in radial direction
Hydrostatic lubrication is a system of lubrication in which the load supporting fluid film, separating
the two surfaces is created by an external source, like a pump, supplying sufficient fluid under
pressure. Since the lubricant is supplied under pressure, this type of bearing is called externally
pressurised bearing.

The principle of hydrostatic lubrication in journal bearing is illustrated in Fig. 16.5.

Initially, the shaft rests on the bearing surface [Fig.16.5(a)]. As the pump starts, high pressure fluid is
admitted in the clearance space, forcing the surfaces of the bearing and journal to separate out
[Fig.16.5(b)]. Hydrostatic bearings are used on vertical turbo generators, centrifuges and ball mills.

Compared with hydrostatic bearings, hydrodynamic

bearings are simple in construction, easy to maintain and
lower in initial as well as maintenance cost.

Hydrostatic bearings, although costly, offer the following

advantages:
(i) high load carrying capacity even at low speeds;
(ii) no starting friction; and
(iii) no rubbing action at any operating speed or load.
Thin film lubrication, which is also called boundary lubrication, is a condition of lubrication where
the lubricant film is relatively thin and there is partial metal to metal contact.
This mode of lubrication is seen in door hinges and machine tool slides. The conditions resulting in
boundary lubrication are excessive load, insufficient surface area or oil supply, low speed and
misalignment.

The mechanism of boundary lubrication is shown in Fig. 16.6.

 PETROFF’S EQUATION
Petroff’s equation is used to determine the coefficient of friction in journal bearings. It is
based
on the following assumptions:
(i) The shaft is concentric with the bearing.
(ii) The bearing is subjected to light load.

In practice, such conditions do not exist. However, Petroff’s equation is important

because it defines the group of dimensionless parameters that govern the frictional
properties of the bearing.
A vertical shaft rotating in the bearing is shown in Fig. 16.10(a).
r = radius of the journal (mm)
The following notations are used:
l = length of the bearing (mm)
c = radial clearance (mm)
ns = journal speed (rev/sec)
 MCKEE’S INVESTIGATION
• In hydrodynamic bearings, initially the journal is at rest. There is no relative motion
and no hydrodynamic film.
• Therefore, there is metal to metal contact between the surfaces of the journal and the
bearing.
• As the journal starts to rotate, it takes some time for the hydrodynamic film to build
sufficient pressure in the clearance space.
• During this period, there is partial metal to metal contact and a partial lubricant film.
This is thin film lubrication.
• As the speed is increased, more and more lubricant is forced into the wedge-shaped
clearance space and sufficient pressure is built up, separating the surfaces of the
journal and the bearing.
•TheThis is thick film
transition fromlubrication.
thin film Therefore,
lubrication there is a film
to thick transition from thin film lubrication to
thick film lubrication
hydrodynamic as the
lubrication canspeed increases.
be better visualized by
means of a curve called μN/p curve. This curve is
shown in Fig. 16.11.

The μN/p curve is an experimental curve developed by

McKee brothers. A bearing characteristic number is a dimensionless
group of parameters given by,
The bearing should not be operated
near the critical value K at the point C.

A slight drop in the speed (N) or a

slight increase in the load (p) will
reduce the value of μN/p resulting in
boundary lubrication.
The guidelines for hydrodynamic lubrication are as follows:

(i) In order to avoid seizure, the operating value of the bearing characteristic number
(μN/p) should be at least 5 to 6 times that when the coefficient of friction is minimum. (5
K to 6 K or 5 to 6 times the bearing modulus).
(ii) If the bearing is subjected to fluctuating loads or impact conditions, the operating
value of the bearing characteristic number (μN/p) should be at least 15 times that when
the coefficient of friction is minimum. (15 K or 15 times the bearing modulus).

• It is observed from the (μN/p) curve that when viscosity of the lubricant is very low, the value of
(μN/p) parameter will be low and boundary lubrication will result.

• Therefore, if the viscosity of the lubricant is very low then the lubricant will not separate the
surfaces of the journal and the bearing and metal to metal contact will occur resulting in excessive
wear at the contacting surfaces.

• The (μN/p) curve is important because it defines the stability of hydrodynamic journal bearings
and helps to visualize the transition from boundary lubrication to thick film lubrication.
 HYDROSTATIC STEP BEARING

The lubricant is flowing radially outward through

the annulus of radii Ri and Ro and leaves at the
periphery of the shaft. Consider an elemental ring
of radius r and thickness (dr) as shown in Fig.
16.14(a). The flow of the lubricant through this
elemental ring is given by Eq. (16.7). Therefore,
ENERGY LOSSES IN HYDROSTATIC BEARING
P. The following data is given for a 360° hydrodynamic bearing:
radial load = 3.2 kN
journal speed = 1490 rpm
journal diameter = 50 mm
bearing length = 50 mm
radial clearance = 0.05 mm
viscosity of lubricant = 25 cP
Assuming that the total heat generated in
the bearing is carried by the total oil flow in the
bearing, calculate
(i) coefficient of friction; (ii) power lost in friction;
(ii) (iii) minimum oil film thickness;
(iv) flow requirement in 1itres/min; and
(v) temperature rise.
P.2 Design a full hydrodynamic journal bearing with
the following specification for machine tool application:

journal diameter = 75 mm
radial load = 10 kN
journal speed = 1440 rpm
minimum oil fi lm thickness = 22.5 microns
inlet temperature = 40°C
bearing material = babbitt
Determine the length of the bearing and select a
suitable oil for this application.
P.3 The following data is given for a
hydrostatic thrust bearing:
thrust load = 500 kN
shaft speed = 720 rpm
shaft diameter = 500 mm
recess diameter = 300 mm
film thickness = 0.15 mm
viscosity of lubricant = 160 SUS
specific gravity = 0.86
Calculate
(i) supply pressure;
(ii) flow requirement in litres/min;
(iii) power loss in pumping; and
(iv) frictional power loss.