Lessons 58-78

The Covariant Derivative
▪ One of the (many) reasons why tensor calculus is so

useful is that it allows a proper description of
physically meaningful derivatives of vectors.
▪ We have not mentioned this before, but taking a
derivative of a vector (or of any tensor) is a non-
trivial thing.
▪ As usual, in a rectangular orthonormal coordinate
system this is usually not an issue. But when the
coordinates are curved (like in polar coordinates, for
example) then this becomes a big issue.
• It is even more of an issue when the manifold is
curved (like in general relativity), the techniques we
will discuss here will be equally well applicable for
curved manifolds.
• We want to construct a derivative of a vector in such
a way that it makes physical sense even in the case of
curved coordinates.
Applications of Tensors in Special Relativity:
In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed the special theory of relativity

based on three simple postulates:
Postulate 1: The principle of relativity.

The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames.
Postulate 2: The speed of light is invariant.

All observers in inertial frames will measure the same speed of
light, regardless of their state of motion.
Postulate 3: Uniform motion is invariant.

A particle at rest or with constant velocity in one inertial frame will
be at rest or have constant velocity in all inertial frames.
Frame of reference
The frame of reference is defined as any coordinate

system with respect to which one can study the motion
of another object. For example a bus, train, the Earth,
the road etc.
Inertial frame of reference
Spacelike Interval:
If the interval between two events is spacelike then there is
some frame of reference where the events occur at the same
time, and there is no frame of reference where the events occur
at the same place. The value of a spacelike interval is actually
the proper distance between the two events—that is the distance
as measured in a frame of reference where the two events occur
at the same time.
Lightlike Interval:
We say that the interval is light-like or null if the interval is
zero. If the interval is light-like (or null) then a ray of light
can go from one event to the other. If the interval between
two events is light-like then there is no frame of reference
where the events occur at either the same time or at the same
place.
Timelike Interval:
If the interval between two events is timelike then there is
some frame of reference where the events occur at the
same place, and there is no frame of reference where the
events occur at the same time. And the event that occurs
first in one frame of reference, occurs first in all frames of
reference. The value of a timelike interval determines the
proper time between the two events—that is the time
between the events as measured in a frame of reference
where they occur at the same position.
Minkowski Spacetime:
Minkowski space or Minkowski spacetime is named after the mathematician

Hermann Minkowski.
In its setting the three ordinary dimensions of space are combined with a
single dimension of time to form a four-dimensional spacetime.
Minkowski space is often contrasted with Euclidean space. While a

Euclidean space has only spacelike dimensions, a Minkowski space also has
one timelike dimension.
Therefore the symmetry group of a Euclidean space is the Euclidean group
and for a Minkowski space it is the Poincaré group.
Locally flat spacetime:
The use of the Minkowski space to describe physical systems over finite
distances applies only in the Newtonian limit of systems without
significant gravitation.
In the case of significant gravitation, spacetime becomes curved and one

must abandon special relativity in favor of the full theory of general
relativity.
In the presence of gravity, spacetime is described by a curved 4-

dimensional manifold for which the tangent space to any point is a 4-
dimensional Minkowski space. Thus, the structure of Minkowski space
is still essential in the description of general relativity.
Mathematical Definition
Light Cones and Spacetime Diagrams
It is often helpful to visualize spacetime by considering a flash of
light emitted at the origin. Such a flash of light is described by a
spherical wavefront. However, our minds cannot visualize four
dimensions and it’s not possible to draw it on paper. So we do the
next best thing and suppress one or more of the spatial
dimensions.
Let’s start with the simplest of all cases, where we suppress two
spatial dimensions. Doing so gives us a simple spacetime diagram.
In a spacetime diagram, the vertical axis represents time while one
or two horizontal axes represent space. It is convenient to work in
units where 𝑐 = 1. The upper half plane where 𝑡 > 0 represents
events to the future of the origin. Past events are found in the
lower half plane where 𝑡 < 0.
The motion of light in such a diagram is then described by lines
that make a 45◦angle with the x-axis, i.e., lines that satisfy
𝑡 2 = 𝑥 2 . The motion of a particle through spacetime as depicted
in a spacetime diagram is called a worldline.
The simplest of all particle motion is a particle just sitting
somewhere. To indicate the worldline of a stationary particle on a
spacetime diagram, we simply draw a straight vertical line that
passes through the x-axis at the spatial location of the particle.
This makes sense because the particle is located at some position
x that does not change, but time keeps marching forward.
Special relativity tells us that a particle cannot move faster than
the speed of light. On a spacetime diagram, this is indicated by
the fact that particle motion is restricted to occur only inside the
light cone. The region inside the light cone is called timelike.
Regions outside the light cone, which are casually unrelated to
the event E, are called spacelike.

Lessons 58-78

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Lessons 58-78

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The Covariant Derivative

▪ One of the (many) reasons why tensor calculus is so

In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed the special theory of relativity

Postulate 1: The principle of relativity.

Postulate 2: The speed of light is invariant.

Postulate 3: Uniform motion is invariant.

The frame of reference is defined as any coordinate

Minkowski space or Minkowski spacetime is named after the mathematician

Minkowski space is often contrasted with Euclidean space. While a

In the case of significant gravitation, spacetime becomes curved and one

In the presence of gravity, spacetime is described by a curved 4-

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