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Lessons 98-110

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35 views85 pages

Lessons 98-110

Uploaded by

kiran malik
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Electrodynamics

It is the branch of Physics which deals with rapidly


changing electric and magnetic fields.

Here we will discuss the applications of tensors or use


of tensors in the well known Maxwell field equations
of electrodynamics.
Maxwell Field Equations;

Maxwell’s equations are four equations that together form a


complete description of the production and interrelation of
electric and magnetic fields.

In the 19th century, the physicist James Clerk Maxwell based his
description of electromagnetic fields on these four equations,
which express experimental laws.
Maxwell Field Equations
Maxwell Field Equations
These are differential equations for the electric field 𝐸 and
magnetic field 𝐵 in the presence of a charge function 𝜌 and an
electrical current 𝑗Ԧ. The quantities 𝜀0 and 𝜇0 are physical
constants called the permittivity and permeability of vacuum,
respectively.
Where electric field is the physical field that surrounds
electrically charged particles and exerts force to all other charged
particles in the field.
A magnetic field describes the magnetic influence on moving
electric charges, electric currents and magnetic materials.
The Stress Tensor
Stress is defined as force per unit area. If we take a cube of material
and subject it to an arbitrary load we can measure the stress on it in
various directions. These measurements will form a second rank
tensor; called the stress tensor. Whose each component 𝜎𝑖𝑗 is
characterized by its sub-indices:
▪ Index 𝑖 designates the coordinate plane on which the component
acts.
▪ Index 𝑗 identifies the coordinate direction in which the component
acts.
Normal and Shear Stresses:

▪ 𝜎𝑖𝑖 are called the normal stresses acting on plane 𝑖.

▪ Whereas 𝜎𝑖𝑗 ; 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 are called the tangential or shear


stresses, acting on the plane perpendicular to the 𝑖-axis in
the direction of 𝑗-axis.
Cauchy’s Equations of Motion:

Cauchy's first law of motion

According to the principle of conservation of linear momentum, if


the body is in static equilibrium it can be demonstrated that the
components of the Cauchy stress tensor in every material point in
the body satisfy the equilibrium equations.
𝜎𝑗𝑖,𝑗 + 𝐹𝑖 = 0
Cauchy's second law of motion
According to the principle of conservation of angular
momentum, equilibrium requires that the summation
of moments with respect to an arbitrary point is zero, which
leads to the conclusion that the stress tensor is symmetric,
thus having only six independent stress components, instead
of the original nine in three dimensions.

𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑗𝑖
Principle Stresses:

• Regardless of the state of stress, it is always possible to


choose a special set of axes (principal axes of stress or
principal stress directions) so that the shear stress
components vanish when the stress components are
referred to this system.

• The three planes perpendicular to the principal axes are


the principal planes.

• The normal stress components in the principal planes are


the principal stresses.
Principle Stresses:

• The Eigen values of σij tensor; represented as σ1 , σ2 , σ3 are


referred to as the principle stresses. The Eigen vectors are the
principle stress directions.

• The stress tensor is a symmetric 2nd order tensor so its


eigenvalues are real numbers.
Stress Invariants

▪ Principal stresses are invariants of the stress state:


Invariant w.r.t. rotation of the coordinate axes to which the stresses
are referred.
In a hydrostatic state of stress, the stress tensor is isotropic and,
thus, its components are the same in any Cartesian coordinate
system. As a consequence, any direction is a principal direction
and the stress state (traction vector) is the same in any plane.
The Strain Tensor
Strain is defined as the relative change in the position of points
within a body that has undergone deformation. The classic
example in two dimensions is of the square which has been
deformed to a parallelepiped.
For the two-dimensional case:

is a symmetric tensor and is an antisymmetric tensor; the


leading diagonal of is always zero.
The tensor has Eigen values which are called the principal
strains
Elasticity
Unlike stress and strain, elasticity is an intrinsic property of a material.
The elastic properties of Earth materials affects everything from the
variation of density with depth in the planet to the speed at which
seismic waves pass through the interior.

If the deformation in a body under stress does not exceed a certain


limit, called the elastic limit, the body will return to its initial shape
when the stress is removed.
If the amount of stress is infinitesimally small then the amount
of strain , which is also infinitesimal, is linearly proportional to
the strain and may be written as:

Where s is the elastic compliance and c is the elastic stiffness. In


order to relate two second rank tensors, a fourth rank tensor is
necessary.
For the three-dimensional case there are 81 terms in a fourth rank
tensor. However, both stress and strain are symmetric tensors;
and each only has 6 independent terms.

There are only 6 equations needed to calculate from and


in each equation there will only be 6 independent terms. Therefore,
there can be no more than 36 independent values in .
To calculate for the three-dimensional case we would begin
like so:

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