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Cryptograph Part II

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30 views37 pages

Cryptograph Part II

kdsfj

Uploaded by

sumrun sahab
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Public Key Cryptography and

RSA
Encryption on computers

 Roughly speaking, there are two different broad


types of encryption that are used on computers
today
 Symmetric encryption relies on keeping keys totally
secret
 Asymmetric encryption actually publicizes one key, but
keeps some information private also
 Neither is really “better” - they just use different
principles.
 In reality, both are vulnerable to attacks.
Symmetric, or private key cryptography

 Most common type is called a block cipher


 Processes the plaintext in fixed sizes blocks
 Examples include DES, 3DES, and AES
 All require a secret key which is known by both parties in the
communication
 Main issue here: need to securely swap the key. How can we do this?
DES: Data Encryption Standard

 Adopted in 1977 by National Bureau of Standards (now


NIST)
 Divides message into blocks of 64 bits, and uses a key of
56 bits
 Key idea for this: XOR the data with the key
 (Remember XOR? How did it work?)
DES
 In July 1998, DES was officially cracked by a
machine built by the EFF
 Total cost: under $250,000
 Total time: 6-8 months
 They then published the details of their
approach, which essentially was a brute force
attack
 Note: 56 bits means 256 keys to try
 Also, not as easy as just trying. What do you
always do to files before sending them
somewhere?
3DES

 Effort to salvage DES


 Main algorithm: repeat DES 3 times with different keys (so key size is
now 168 bits)
 Still very secure - brute force attacks would take too long, and that
is the only way to attack this algorithm
 Main problem: SLOW
Advanced Encryption Standard
(AES)

 Designed in response to a call by NIST in 1998,


and officially adopted in 2001
 Block length is 128 bits, and keys can be 128,
192, or 256 bits.
 Essentially, proceeds in 4 rounds (which are
repeated):
 Substitute bytes
 Permute
 Mix columns
 Add round key
Stage 1: substitute bytes

 AES computes a matrix which maps every 8-bit value to


a different 8-bit value
 Computed using properties of finite fields (go take some
math classes to learn more about this)
Stage 2: permute

 AES then shifts each row, where each row is shifted a


different amount
Stage 3: Mix columns

 Here, the 4 bytes in each column are combined using a


linear transformation
 Essentially, the output of any byte depends on all the
input bytes, so this “mixes” them together
Stage 4: Add round key

 Use XOR to combine the key with the message


Public/Private Keys

What is it?
An approach in which each user has two
related keys, one public and one private
One's public key is distributed freely
A person encrypts an outgoing message,
using the receiver's public key.
Only the receiver's private key can decrypt
the message

12
Public/Private Keys: Other uses

Digital signature
Data that is appended to a message, made from
the message itself and the sender's private key, to
ensure the authenticity of the message
Digital certificate
A representation of a sender's authenticated
public key used to minimize malicious forgeries

13
Private-Key Cryptography
 traditional private/secret/single key
cryptography uses one key
 shared by both sender and receiver
 if this key is disclosed communications are
compromised
 also is symmetric, parties are equal
 hence does not protect sender from
receiver forging a message & claiming is
sent by sender
Public-Key Cryptography
 probably most significant advance in the
3000 year history of cryptography
 uses two keys – a public & a private key
 asymmetric since parties are not equal
 uses clever application of number
theoretic concepts to function
 complements rather than replaces private
key crypto
Why Public-Key
Cryptography?
 developed to address two key issues:
 key distribution – how to have secure
communications in general without having to
trust a KDC with your key
 digital signatures – how to verify a message
comes intact from the claimed sender
 public
invention due to Whitfield Diffie &
Martin Hellman at Stanford Uni in 1976
 known earlier in classified community
Public-Key Cryptography
 public-key/two-key/asymmetric cryptography
involves the use of two keys:
 a public-key, which may be known by anybody, and can
be used to encrypt messages, and verify signatures
 a related private-key, known only to the recipient, used
to decrypt messages, and sign (create) signatures
 infeasible to determine private key from public
 is asymmetric because
 those who encrypt messages or verify signatures cannot
decrypt messages or create signatures
Public-Key Cryptography
Symmetric vs Public-Key
Public-Key Cryptosystems
Public-Key Applications
 can classify uses into 3 categories:
 encryption/decryption (provide secrecy)
 digital signatures (provide authentication)
 key exchange (of session keys)
 some algorithms are suitable for all uses,
others are specific to one
Public-Key Requirements
 Public-Key algorithms rely on two keys where:
 it is computationally infeasible to find decryption key
knowing only algorithm & encryption key
 it is computationally easy to en/decrypt messages
when the relevant (en/decrypt) key is known
 either of the two related keys can be used for
encryption, with the other used for decryption (for
some algorithms)
Security of Public Key Schemes
 like private key schemes brute force exhaustive
search attack is always theoretically possible
 but keys used are too large (>512bits)
 security relies on a large enough difference in
difficulty between easy (en/decrypt) and hard
(cryptanalyse) problems
 more generally the hard problem is known, but
is made hard enough to be impractical to break
 requires the use of very large numbers
 hence is slow compared to private key schemes
RSA
 by Rivest, Shamir & Adleman of MIT in 1977
 best known & widely used public-key scheme
 based on exponentiation in a finite (Galois) field
over integers modulo a prime
 nb. exponentiation takes O((log n)3) operations (easy)
 uses large integers (eg. 1024 bits)
 security due to cost of factoring large numbers
 nb. factorization takes O(e log n log log n) operations (hard)
RSA En/decryption
 to encrypt a message M the sender:
 obtains public key of recipient PU={e,n}
 computes: C = Me mod n, where 0≤M<n
 to decrypt the ciphertext C the owner:
 uses their private key PR={d,n}
 computes: M = Cd mod n
 note that the message M must be smaller
than the modulus n (block if needed)
RSA Key Setup
 each user generates a public/private key pair by:
 selecting two large primes at random: p, q
 computing their system modulus n=p.q
 note ø(n)=(p-1)(q-1)
 selecting at random the encryption key e
 where 1<e<ø(n), gcd(e,ø(n))=1

 solve following equation to find decryption key d


 e.d=1 mod ø(n) and 0≤d≤n

 publish their public encryption key: PU={e,n}


 keep secret private decryption key: PR={d,n}
RSA Example - Key Setup
1. Select primes: p=17 & q=11
2. Calculate n = pq =17 x 11=187
3. Calculate ø(n)=(p–1)(q-
1)=16x10=160
4. Select e: gcd(e,160)=1; choose e=7
5. Determine d: de=1 mod 160 and d < 160
Value is d=23 since 23x7=161= 10x160+1
6. Publish public key PU={7,187}
7. Keep secret private key PR={23,187}
RSA Example - En/Decryption
 sample RSA encryption/decryption is:
 given message M = 88 (nb. 88<187)
 encryption:
C = 887 mod 187 = 11
 decryption:
M = 1123 mod 187 = 88
Efficient Encryption
 encryption uses exponentiation to power e
 hence if e small, this will be faster
 often choose e=65537 (216-1)
 also see choices of e=3 or e=17
 but if e too small (eg e=3) can attack
 using Chinese remainder theorem & 3
messages with different modulii
 if e fixed must ensure gcd(e,ø(n))=1
 ie reject any p or q not relatively prime to e
Efficient Decryption
 decryption uses exponentiation to power d
 this is likely large, insecure if not
 canuse the Chinese Remainder Theorem
(CRT) to compute mod p & q separately.
then combine to get desired answer
 approx 4 times faster than doing directly
 onlyowner of private key who knows
values of p & q can use this technique
RSA Key Generation
 users of RSA must:
 determine two primes at random - p, q
 select either e or d and compute the other
p,q must not be easily derived
 primes
from modulus n=p.q
 means must be sufficiently large
 typically guess and use probabilistic test
 exponents e, d are inverses, so use
Inverse algorithm to compute the other
RSA Security
 possible approaches to attacking RSA are:
 brute force key search - infeasible given size
of numbers
 mathematical attacks - based on difficulty of
computing ø(n), by factoring modulus n
 timing attacks - on running of decryption
 chosen ciphertext attacks - given properties of
RSA
Timing Attacks
 developed by Paul Kocher in mid-1990’s
 exploit timing variations in operations
 eg. multiplying by small vs large number
 or IF's varying which instructions executed
 infer operand size based on time taken
 RSA exploits time taken in exponentiation
 countermeasures
 use constant exponentiation time
 add random delays
 blind values used in calculations
Chosen Ciphertext Attacks
• RSA is vulnerable to a Chosen Ciphertext
Attack (CCA)
• attackers chooses ciphertexts & gets
decrypted plaintext back
• choose ciphertext to exploit properties of
RSA to provide info to help cryptanalysis
• can counter with random pad of plaintext
• or use Optimal Asymmetric Encryption
Padding (OASP)
Optimal
Asymmetric
Encryption
Padding
(OASP)
Summary
 have considered:
 principles of public-key cryptography
 RSA algorithm, implementation, security
References

 “Cryptography and Network Security”, 5/e, by William Stallings,


Chapter 9 – “Public Key Cryptography and RSA”.
 Computer Science Illuminated by Nell Dale and John Levis Fourth Edition,
Cryptography-Chapter 12.

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