21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka

Module 3
ADAPTATION OF ANATOMICAL PRINCIPLES FOR
BIOENGINEERING DESIGN

Lungs as Purification System

Figure: Representing the oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange in the alveoli and capillary
Lungs as Purifier
The lung purifies air by removing harmful substances and adding oxygen to the
bloodstream. The process of purifying air in the lungs can be described as follows:
• Filtration: The nose and mouth serve as a first line of defense against harmful substances
in the air, such as dust, dirt, and bacteria. The tiny hairs in the nose, called cilia, and the
 21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka

mucus produced by the respiratory system trap these substances and prevent them from
entering the lungs.
• Moisturization: The air is also humidified as it passes over the moist lining of the respiratory
tract, which helps to keep the airways moist and prevent them from drying out.
• Gas Exchange: Once the air reaches the alveoli, the gas exchange process occurs, where
oxygen diffuses across the thin alveolar and capillary walls into the bloodstream, and carbon
dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction, from the bloodstream into the alveoli to be
exhaled. This process ensures that the bloodstream is supplied with fresh, oxygen-rich air,
while waste carbon dioxide is removed from the body.
Overall, the lung serves as a vital purification system, filtering out harmful substances,
adding oxygen to the bloodstream, and removing waste carbon dioxide. It plays a critical role in
maintaining the body's homeostasis and supporting life.

Architecture of Lungs as Purification System

Figure: Representing structure of lung

The architecture of the lung is designed to maximize surface area for efficient gas exchange.
The lung is divided into several parts, including the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
• Trachea: The trachea is the main airway that leads from the larynx (voice box) to the lungs.
It is lined with cilia and mucus-secreting glands that help to filter out harmful substances
and trap them in the mucus.
 21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka

• Bronchi: The trachea branches into two main bronchi, one for each lung. The bronchi are
larger airways that continue to branch into smaller airways called bronchioles.
• Bronchioles: The bronchioles are smaller airways that eventually lead to the alveoli. They
are surrounded by tiny air sacs called alveoli, which are the sites of gas exchange.
• Alveoli: The alveoli are tiny air sacs that are lined with a network of capillaries. This
close proximity of the alveoli and capillaries allows for efficient diffusion of oxygen and
carbon dioxide between the air in the alveoli and the bloodstream.
Overall, the architecture of the lung is designed to provide a large surface area for gas
exchange, while filtering out harmful substances and humidifying the air. The close proximity of
the alveoli and capillaries, along with the moist lining of the respiratory tract, ensures that the air is
properly purified and the bloodstream is supplied with fresh, oxygen-rich air.

Gas Exchange Mechanism of Lung

The gas exchange mechanism in the lung involves the transfer of oxygen from the air in the
alveoli to the bloodstream, and the transfer of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to the air in the
alveoli. This process is known as diffusion and occurs due to differences in partial pressures of
oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• Oxygen Diffusion: The partial pressure of oxygen in the air in the alveoli is higher than
the partial pressure of oxygen in the bloodstream. This difference creates a gradient that
causes oxygen to diffuse from the alveoli into the bloodstream, where it binds to hemoglobin
in red blood cells to form oxyhemoglobin.
• Carbon Dioxide Diffusion: The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream is
higher than the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air in the alveoli. This difference
creates a gradient that causes carbon dioxide to diffuse from the bloodstream into the alveoli,
where it is exhaled.

Spirometry
Spirometry is a diagnostic test that measures the function of the lungs by measuring the
amount and flow rate of air that can be exhaled. The test is commonly used to diagnose lung
conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and interstitial lung
disease.
Principle: The principle behind spirometry is to measure the volume of air that can be
exhaled from the lungs in a given time period. By measuring the volume of air exhaled, spirometry
can provide information about the functioning of the lungs and the ability of the lungs to move air
in and out.
Working: Spirometry is performed using a spirometer, a device that consists of a
mouthpiece, a flow sensor, and a volume sensor. The patient is asked to exhale as much air as
possible into the spirometer, and the spirometer measures the volume and flow rate of the
exhaled air. The volume of air exhaled is displayed on a graph called a flow-volume loop, which
provides information about the lung function.
 21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka

Figure: Image of a spirometer

Interpretation of Results
The results of spirometry can be used to determine if the lungs are functioning normally and
to diagnose lung conditions. For example, a decrease in the volume of air exhaled or a decrease in
the flow rate of the exhaled air can indicate a restriction in the airways, which can be a sign of a
lung condition such as asthma or COPD.

Abnormal Lung Physiology - COPD

Figure: Representing the causes of COPD

 21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka

Abnormal lung physiology refers to any deviation from the normal functioning of the
respiratory system. This can be caused by a variety of factors, including diseases, injuries, or genetic
conditions. Some common examples of abnormal lung physiology include:
• Asthma: A chronic inflammatory disease that causes the airways to narrow, making it
difficult to breathe.
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): A progressive lung disease that makes it
hard to breathe and can include conditions such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
• Pulmonary fibrosis: A disease in which scar tissue builds up in the lungs, making it
difficult to breathe and reducing lung function.
• Pneumonia: An infection in the lungs that can cause inflammation and fluid buildup in
the air sacs.
• Pulmonary embolism: A blockage in one of the pulmonary arteries, usually by a blood
clot, which can cause lung damage and reduce oxygen flow to the body.
• Lung cancer: A type of cancer that originates in the lung and can impair lung function by
interfering with normal air flow and oxygen exchange.
Treatment for abnormal lung physiology depends on the underlying cause and may
include medications, lifestyle changes, or surgery.
It's important to seek prompt medical attention if you experience symptoms such as
shortness of breath, wheezing, or chest pain, as these can be indicative of a serious lung problem.
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a group of progressive lung diseases that
cause breathing difficulties. It's characterized by persistent airflow limitation that is not fully
reversible. The two main forms of COPD are chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
In COPD, the airways and small air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs become damaged or blocked,
leading to difficulty in exhaling air. This results in a decrease in lung function, leading to shortness
of breath, wheezing, and coughing. Over time, these symptoms can get worse and limit a person's
ability to perform everyday activities.
The primary cause of COPD is long-term exposure to irritants such as tobacco smoke, air
pollution, and dust. Other risk factors include a history of frequent lung infections, a family history
of lung disease, and exposure to second-hand smoke.
There is no cure for COPD, but treatment can help manage the symptoms and slow the
progression of the disease. Treatment options include medication, such as bronchodilators and
steroids, oxygen therapy, and lung rehabilitation. In severe cases, surgery may also be an option. In
addition, quitting smoking and avoiding exposure to irritants is crucial in managing COPD.

Ventilators
Ventilators are medical devices used to assist or control breathing in individuals who are
unable to breathe adequately on their own. They are commonly used in the treatment of acute
 21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka

respiratory failure, which can occur as a result of a variety of conditions such as pneumonia, severe
asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Figure: Representing a ventilator machine

There are several different types of ventilators, including volume-controlled ventilators,
pressure-controlled ventilators, and bilevel positive airway pressure (BiPAP) devices. The type
of ventilator used depends on the patient's individual needs and the type of respiratory failure being
treated.
Ventilators work by delivering pressurized air or oxygen into the lungs through a breathing
tube or mask. The pressure can be adjusted to match the patient's needs and to help maintain
adequate oxygen levels in the blood.
While ventilators can be lifesaving for individuals with acute respiratory failure, they also
come with potential risks and complications. For example, prolonged use of a ventilator can increase
the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia, and patients may experience discomfort or pain from
the breathing tube.
The use of ventilators is carefully monitored and managed by healthcare professionals to
ensure that the patient receives the appropriate level of support while minimizing potential risks and
complications.

Heart-Lung Machine
A heart-lung machine, also known as a cardiopulmonary bypass machine, is a device
used in cardiovascular surgery to temporarily take over the functions of the heart and lungs. The
heart-lung machine is used during open-heart surgery, such as coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
surgery and valve replacement surgery, to support the patient's circulatory and respiratory functions
while the heart is stopped.
 21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka

The heart-lung machine works by circulating blood outside of the body through a series
of tubes and pumps. Blood is taken from the body, oxygenated, and then returned to the body. This
allows the heart to be stopped during the surgery without causing any harm to the patient.
The use of a heart-lung machine during surgery carries some risks, including the potential
for blood clots, bleeding, and infections. Additionally, there may be some long-term effects on
the body, such as cognitive decline, that are not yet fully understood. However, the use of a
heart-lung machine has revolutionized the field of cardiovascular surgery, allowing for more
complex procedures to be performed and greatly improving patient outcomes.

Figure: Representing a heart-lung machine

Artificial Lungs
Artificial lungs are devices designed to mimic the function of the natural respiratory system.
They are used to support patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or acute lung
injury (ALI) and to help the patient's own lungs recover and heal.
Types
There are two main types of artificial lungs: membrane oxygenators and extracorporeal
lung assist devices.
 21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka

Membrane Oxygenators: These are devices that use a semipermeable membrane to transfer
oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the air. The blood is pumped through the
membrane, where it comes into contact with air, allowing for the exchange of gases.

Figure: Representing a membrane oxygenator

Extracorporeal Lung Assist Devices: These devices work by removing carbon dioxide from
the blood and adding oxygen, allowing the patient's natural lungs to rest and heal. One example of
an extracorporeal lung assist device is the extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) machine,
which is used to treat patients with severe respiratory failure. ECMO works by removing carbon
dioxide from the blood and adding oxygen, and it can be used as a bridge to recovery or as a bridge
to lung transplantation.
21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka

Figure: Representing veno-venous and veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation

Kidney as a Filtration System:

Figure: Anatomy of kidney

 21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka

The kidney is a complex organ that acts as a filtration system for the body. It removes waste
and excess fluid from the bloodstream and maintains a delicate balance of electrolytes, hormones,
and other substances that are critical for the body's normal functioning.
The kidney also plays an important role in regulating blood pressure by secreting the
hormone renin, which helps control the balance of fluid and electrolytes in the body. It also regulates
red blood cell production and the levels of various minerals in the blood, such as calcium and
phosphorus.
Without the kidney, waste and excess fluid would accumulate in the body, leading to serious
health problems.

3.1.2 Architecture of Kidney

The kidney is composed of functional units called nephrons, which are the basic
structural and functional units of the kidney. Each kidney contains approximately one million
nephrons, and each nephron performs the functions of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.

Figure: Representing kidney and nephron

 21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka

Figure: Representing the parts of nephron

The nephron is comprised of several key structures:
• Bowman's capsule: This is a cup-shaped structure that surrounds the glomerulus and
filters waste and excess fluid from the bloodstream into the renal tubule.
• Glomerulus: A network of tiny blood vessels within the Bowman's capsule that filters
waste and excess fluid from the bloodstream.
• Proximal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that reabsorbs important
substances, such as glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes, back into the bloodstream.
• Loop of Henle: A U-shaped segment of the renal tubule that is critical for the
reabsorption of ions and water.
• Distal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that regulates the levels of
electrolytes and other important substances in the bloodstream.
• Collecting duct: A series of ducts that collect the filtrate from the renal tubules and transport
it to the renal pelvis, where it drains into the ureter and eventually into the bladder.
The nephrons are surrounded by a network of blood vessels, including the afferent arteriole
and the efferent arteriole, which bring blood into and out of the glomerulus, respectively. The
filtrate produced by the nephron passes through the renal tubules, where it is modified by
reabsorption and secretion, before being eliminated from the body as urine.
 21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka

3.1.3 Mechanism of Filtration – Urine Formation

Figure: Schematic of mechanism of filtration in human kidney

The mechanism of filtration in the kidneys is a complex process that involves multiple steps
to remove waste and excess fluids from the bloodstream. The following is a summary of the
steps involved in the filtration process:
• Blood enters the kidney through the renal arteries and flows into tiny filtering units called
glomeruli.
• At the glomerulus, the pressure in the blood vessels causes a portion of the plasma and
dissolved substances to filter out and enter a structure called Bowman's capsule.
• In Bowman's capsule, the filtrate is then transferred into the renal tubules, which are the
main filtering units of the kidneys.
• In the renal tubules, the filtrate passes through a series of specialized cells, such as proximal
tubular cells and distal tubular cells, which reabsorb important substances such as glucose,
amino acids, and electrolytes back into the bloodstream.
• At the same time, the renal tubules secrete waste products, such as urea and creatinine, back
into the filtrate.
• Finally, the filtered fluid, now known as urine, is transported through the renal pelvis and
ureters to the bladder, where it is eventually eliminated from the body.
This process of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion helps to maintain the proper balance
of fluids and electrolytes in the body, as well as to remove waste and excess substances.
 21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

CKD stands for Chronic Kidney Disease. It is a long-term condition in which the kidneys
gradually become less able to function properly. It can be caused by a variety of factors,
including diabetes, high blood pressure, and other health problems that damage the kidneys.
Symptoms of CKD include fatigue, swelling in the legs and feet, trouble sleeping, and
difficulty concentrating. As the disease progresses, it can lead to more serious complications,
such as anemia, nerve damage, and an increased risk of heart disease and stroke.
Treatment for CKD may include lifestyle changes, such as eating a healthy diet and
exercising regularly, as well as medications to manage symptoms and underlying health conditions.
In severe cases, kidney transplant or dialysis may be necessary.
It is important for individuals with risk factors for CKD to get regular check-ups and to talk
to their doctor about how to best manage their condition.

Dialysis Systems
Dialysis is a medical treatment that helps to filter waste and excess fluids from the blood
when the kidneys are unable to function properly. There are two main types of dialysis systems:
hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.
Hemodialysis is a procedure that uses a machine to clean the blood. During hemodialysis,
blood is removed from the body, passed through a dialysis machine that filters out waste and excess
fluids, and then returned to the body. Hemodialysis typically takes place in a hospital or dialysis
center, and is typically performed three times a week for three to four hours at a time.

Figure: Representing a Hemodialysis

Peritoneal dialysis is a type of dialysis that uses the lining of the abdomen, called the
peritoneum, to filter waste and excess fluids from the blood. A sterile solution is introduced into
 21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka

the abdomen, where it absorbs waste and excess fluids, and is then drained and replaced with fresh
solution. Peritoneal dialysis can be performed at home and allows for more flexibility in scheduling.

Figure: Representing a Peritoneal dialysis

Both hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis can effectively treat the symptoms of kidney
failure, but each has its own advantages and disadvantages. The choice of dialysis system
depends on various factors such as the individual's overall health, lifestyle, and personal preferences.

Artificial Kidney
While much progress has been made in developing an artificial kidney, it is still in the
experimental stage and is not yet widely available. Further research and development is needed
to improve the efficiency and safety of artificial kidney devices, and to ensure that they can be
widely adopted as a treatment for chronic kidney disease.
 21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka

a)

b)
Figure: a) Schematic representation b) a prototype of artificial kidney
An artificial kidney is a device that is being developed to mimic the functions of the human
kidney. The goal of an artificial kidney is to provide a more effective and efficient means of treating
patients with chronic kidney disease, who currently rely on dialysis or kidney transplantation.
There are currently two main approaches to developing an artificial kidney: a biological
approach and a technological approach.
The biological approach involves using living cells, such as kidney cells or stem cells, to
create a functional, implantable artificial kidney.
The technological approach involves using synthetic materials, such as silicon or
polymer, to create a dialysis device that can filter the blood and remove waste and excess fluids.
It's important to note that while the development of an artificial kidney holds great promise,
it is not a cure for chronic kidney disease and patients with kidney failure will still need dialysis or
kidney transplantation in the meantime.
21BE45 Biology for Engineers, Common to All 4th Semester Branches of VTU, Karnataka