Text Book for

INTERMEDIATE
First Year

Mathematics
Paper - IA
Algebra, Vector Algebra, Trigonometry

Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi

Andhra Pradesh
Intermediate
Second Year

Mathematics
Paper - IA
Text Book

Pages : xx + 456 + viii + iv

© Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, Andhra Pradesh

Reprint : 2023

Copies : 35000

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on behalf of Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi

Y.S. JAGAN MOHAN REDDY AMARAVATI
CHIEF MINISTER
ANDHRA PRADESH

MESSAGE
I congratulate Akademi for starting its activities with printing of textbooks from
the academic year 2021 – 22.
Education is a real asset which cannot be stolen by anyone and it is the foundation
on which children build their future. As the world has become a global village, children
will have to compete with the world as they grow up. For this there is every need for
good books and good education.
Our government has brought in many changes in the education system and more
are to come. The government has been taking care to provide education to the poor
and needy through various measures, like developing infrastructure, upgrading the skills
of teachers, providing incentives to the children and parents to pursue education. Nutritious
mid-day meal and converting Anganwadis into pre-primary schools with English as medium
of instruction are the steps taken to initiate children into education from a young age.
Besides introducing CBSE syllabus and Telugu as a compulsory subject, the government
has taken up numerous innovative programmes.
The revival of the Akademi also took place during the tenure of our government
as it was neglected after the State was bifurcated. The Akademi, which was started on
August 6, 1968 in the undivided state of Andhra Pradesh, was printing text books,
works of popular writers and books for competitive exams and personality development.
Our government has decided to make available all kinds of books required for
students and employees through Akademi, with headquarters at Tirupati.

I extend my best wishes to the Akademi and hope it will regain its past glory.

(Y.S. JAGAN MOHAN REDDY)

Dr. NANDAMURI LAKSHMIPARVATHi
M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D.
Chairperson, (Cabinet Minister Rank)
Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, A.P.

Message of Chairperson, Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, A.P.

In accordance with the syllabus developed by the Board of Intermediate, State

Council for Higher Education, SCERT etc., we design high quality Text books by recruiting
efficient Professors, department heads and faculty members from various Universities and
Colleges as writers and editors. We are taking steps to print the required number of these
books in a timely manner and distribute through the Akademi’s Regional Centers present
across the Andhra Pradesh.
In addition to text books, we strive to keep monographs, dictionaries, dialect texts,
question banks, contact texts, popular texts, essays, linguistics texts, school level dictionaries,
glossaries, etc., updated and printed and made available to students from time to time.
For competitive examinations conducted by the Andhra Pradesh Public Service
Commission and for Entrance examinations conducted by various Universities, the contents
of the Akademi publications are taken as standard. So, I want all the students and
Employees to make use of Akademi books of high standards for their golden future.
Congratulations and best wishes to all of you.

(NANDAMURI LAKSHMIPARVATHI)
J. SYAMALA RAO, I.A.S., Higher Education Department
Principal Secretary to Government Government of Andhra Pradesh

MESSAGE
I Congratulate Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi for taking up the initiative of
printing and distributing textbooks in both Telugu and English media within a short
span of establishing Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi.

Number of students of Andhra Pradesh are competing of National Level for

admissions into Medicine and Engineering courses. In order to help these students
Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi consultation with NCERT redesigned their Textbooks
to suit the requirement of National Level Examinations in a lucid language.

As the content in Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi books is highly informative

and authentic, printed in multi-color on high quality paper and will be made available
to the students in a time bound manner. I hope all the students in Andhra Pradesh
will utilize the Akademi textbooks for better understanding of the subjects to compete
of state and national levels.

(J. SYAMALA RAO)

 THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
PREAMBLE

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having

solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
[SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC] and to secure to all
its citizens:

JUSTICE, social, economic and political;

LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith

and worship;

EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and

to promote among them all

FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the

individual and the [unity and integrity of the
Nation];
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this
twenty-sixth day of November, 1949 do HEREBY
ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES
THIS CONSTITUTION.
 Textbook Development Committee
Ch i ef Coor d i n at or
Pr of . P.V. Ar u n ac h al am , Fou n der Vi ce-Ch an cel l or, D r avi di an Un i ver sit y, Ku ppam

Edi t or s
Pr of. K . Pat t abh i Ram a Sast r y , Professor of M at h emat ics (Ret d), An dh ra Un i ver sit y,
Visak h apat n am
Pr o f . U . M . Sw a m y , Pr of essor of M at h em a t i c s (Ret d ). A n d h r a U n i ver si t y .
Visak h apat n am
Pr of . I . Ram abh adr a Sar m a, Pr ofessor of M at h em at i cs (Ret d), Ach ar ya Nagarj u n a
Un iversit y, Gu n t u r
Pr of . Y. Ven k at eswar a Reddy , Pr ofessor of M at h emat ics(Ret d.), Ach arya Nagarj u n a
Un i ver si t y, Gu n t u r
Pr of . D. Ram a M ur t h y , Pr ofessor (Ret d). D epar t m en t of M at h em at i cs. Osman i a
Un iver si t y. Hyderabad
Pr of . K . Sam bai ah , Ch airm an , BOS, Depart men t of Mat h emat ics, Kak at i ya Un iver sit y.
War an gal
Sr i A. Padm an abh am , H ead of t h e D epar t m en t of M at h em at i cs (Ret d .), M ah ar an i
Col lege, Peddapu r am
Sr i Son t h i K r i sh n a Sast r y , Resear ch Assist an t (Ret d), Mat h emat ics, Tel u gu Ak ademi,
Hyderabad

Au t h or s
Sr i K .V.S. Pr asad, Lect u rer in Mat h emat ics, Govt . D egree College (Women ), Srik ak u lam
Sm t . S.V. Sai l aj a, Ju n i or Lect u rer in M at h emat i cs, New Gover n m en t J u n i or Col l ege,
Ku k at pall y. Hyder abad
Sr i V. Sr een i v asu l u, Lect u rer i n M at h em at i cs, Govt . Degr ee Col lege, M ah aboobabad,
War an gal.
Sr i G. Set h u M adh ava Rao, Associat e Professor of Math emat ics, Kak at iya Govt . Degree
College, Han amk onda, Waran gal.
Sr i G. Sur y an ar ay an a M ur t h y , Reader in M at h em at i cs (Ret d). R.S.R.K Ran ga Rao
College, Bobbili
Pr of . K . Ram a M oh an a Rao, Professor of Appl i ed M at h em at i cs (Ret d). An dh r a
Un i ver si t y, Vi sak h apat n am
Pr of . G. Ch ak r adh ar a Rao, Professor of Mat h em at i cs & Ch ai r m an , P.G. Boar d of
St u di es, An dh r a Un i ver sit y, Visak h apat n am
Sr i K . Ch an dr a Sek h ar a Rao, J u n ior Lect u rer, Govt . J u n ior coll ege , Uppu gu n du r u .
Prak asam (D i st )
Dr. D. Ch i t t i Babu , Reader, D epar t m en t of Mat h em at ics, Govt . Col lege (Au t on omou s),
Raj ah m u n dr y
Sr i C. Sadasi v a Sast r y , Lect u r er i n M at h em at i cs (Ret d.), Sri Ram abh adr a J u n i or
Col l ege, Ramn agar, H yderabad
Sr i Pot uk uch i Raj am oul i , Sr. Lect u rer in Mat h emat ics (Ret d.), P.B. Siddh ardh a College
of Art s an d Scien ce(A), Vijayawada
 Subj ect Com m i t t ee M em ber s of BI E

Pr of. D. Ram a Mur t h y , Professor of Mathemat ics (Retd.), Osman ia University, Hyderabad
Pr of. S. Raj Reddy , Professor of Mat h emat ics (Ret d.), Kak at iya Un iversit y, Waran gal
Pr of. D.R.V. Pr asada Rao, Professor of Mat h emat ics (Retd.), S.K.University, Anant hapu r
Dr. D. Ch i t t i Babu, Reader. Govt . College (Au t on omou s), Rajah mu n dry
Dr. C.T. Sur y an ar ay an a Ch ar i , Reader, Silver Ju bilee Govt . College. Ku r n ool
Dr. Y. Bh ask ar Reddy , Reader, Govt . Degree College, Ran gasaipet . Waran gal
Dr. M .V.N. Pat r udu, Prin cipal. Govt . Ju n ior College, Veeragh at t am, Srik ak u lam (Dist )
Sr i T. M ar k an dey a Nai du, Lect u rer. P.V.K.N. Govt . Degree College. Ch it t oor
Sr i C. Li n ga Reddy , Prin cipal, Govt . Ju n ior College (Boys), Nirmal, Adilabad (Dist )
Sr i K odi Nageswar a Rao, Sch ool Assist an t (Ret d.), Ch agallu , West Godavari (Dist )
Sr i C. Sadasi v a Sast r y , Lect u rer in Mat h emat ics (Ret d.), Sri Ramabh adra Jr. College,
Hyderabad

Sm t . S.V. Sai l aj a, Ju n ior Lect u rer. New Govt . Ju n ior College, Ku k at pally, Hyderabad
Sr i K . Ch an dr a Sek h ar a Rao, Ju n ior Lect u rer, GJC, Uppu gu n du r. Prak asam (Dist )
Sr i P. H ar i n adh a Ch ar y , Ju n ior Lect u rer, Sri Srin ivasa Jr. College, Tiru ch an u r

Pan el of Ex per t s of BI E

Pr of. D. Ram a M ur t hy , Professor of Math emat ics (Ret d.), Osmania Un iversit y, Hyderabad
Pr of. D.R.V. Pr asada Rao, Professor of Mat hemat ics (Ret d.), S.K. Universit y. An an t hapu r
Dr, C.T. Sur y an ar ay an a Ch ar i , Reader in Mat h emat ics, Silver Ju bilee Gover n men t
College (Au t on omou s) , Ku rnool

Sr i C. Sadasi v a Sast r y , Lectu rer in Math ematics (Retd.), Sri Ramabhadra Ju nlor College.
Hyderabad

Dr. M .V.N. Pat r udu, Prin cipal, Govt . Ju n ior College, Veeragh at t am. Srik ak u lam (Dist )
Sm t . S.V. Sai l aj a, Ju n ior Lect u rer, New Govt . Ju n ior College, Ku k at pally. Hyderabad
 Text Book Review Committee
Editors

Prof. K. Rama Mohan Rao Prof. G. Chakradhara Rao

Professor of Applied Mathematics (Retd.) Professor of Mathematics (Retd.)
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam. Andhra University, Visakhapatnam.

Reviewed by

Prof. S. Kalesha Vali Dr. Y. Purushothama Reddy

Department of Engineering Mathematics Principal (Retd.)
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam. Government Degree Collge, Bantumilli,
Krishna Dist.

Sri K.V.S. Prasad Dr. K. Ravi Babu

Lecturer in Mathematics (Retd.) Lecturer in Mathematics
Government College for Women, Dr. V.S. Krishna Govt. Degree & P.G. Collge(A),
Srikakulam. Visakhapatnam.
 Coordinating Committee of
Board of Intermediate Education, A.P.

Sri M.V. Seshagiri Babu, I.A.S.

Secretary
Board of Intermediate Education,
Andhra Pradesh

Educational Research & Training Wing (Text Books)

Dr. A. Srinivasulu
Professor

Sri. M. Ravi Sankar Naik

Assistant Professor

Dr. M. Ramana Reddy

Assistant Professor

Sri J.V. Ramana Gupta

Assistant Professor
Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, Andhra Pradesh
Coordinating Committee

Sri V. Ramakrishna, I.R.S.

Director

Dr. M. Koteswaramma, M.Com., Ph.D.

Research Officer

Dr. S.A.T. Rajyalakshmi M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A., Ph.D.

Research Assistant

Dr. K. Glory Sathyavani, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Ed.

Research Assistant
 Foreword

The Gover nm ent of India vowed to r em ove the edu cation al dispar ities and
adopt a com m on cor e cu r r icu lu m acr oss th e cou nt r y especially at the Inter m ediate
level. Ever since the Gover nm ent of Andh r a Pr adesh and the Boar d of Inter m ediate
Edu cation (BIE) swu ng into action with th e task of evol ving a r evised syllabu s in
all the Sci ence su bjects on par with that of CBSE, appr oved by NCERT, its chief
in ten tion bei ng enabli ng the st u dents fr om An dhr a Pr adesh to pr epar e for t he
Nati onal Level Com m on Entr ance tests lik e NEET, ISEET etc for adm ission into
Inst itu tion s of pr ofession al cou r ses in ou r Cou n tr y.
For th e fi r st tim e BIE AP has decided t o pr epar e t he Scien ce text book s.
Acc or d i n gl y a n Ac ad em i c Rev i ew C om m i t t ee w a s con s t i t u t ed w i t h t h e
Com m i ssi on er of In t er m ediate Edu cati on, AP as Chai r m an an d t he Secr etar y,
BIE AP; the Dir ector SCERT and th e Dir ect or Telu gu Ak adem i as m em ber s. The
Nation al and State Level Edu cational lu m inar ies wer e involved i n th e textbook
pr epar ation , who did it with m et icu lou s car e. The textbook s ar e pr i nted on the
lines of NCERT m aintain ing National Level Standar ds.
The Edu cation Depar tm ent of Gover n m ent of Andhr a Pr adesh has tak en a
deci sion t o pu bli sh and t o su pply all th e t ext book s wi th fr ee of cost for th e
stu dents of all Gover nm ent and Aided J u nior Colleges of newly for m ed stat e of
An dh r a Pr adesh.
We expr ess ou r sin cer e gr ati t u de t o th e D ir ect or, NCERT for accor di n g
per m i ssion to adopt i ts syl labi and cu r r i cu lu m of Sci en ce t extbook s. We h ave
been per m it ted to m ak e u se of th eir textbook s which will be of gr eat advan tage
to ou r stu dent com m u nity. I also expr ess m y gr atitu de to the Chair m an, BIE and
the honor abl e Minister for HRD and Vice Ch air m an, BIE and Secr et ar y (SE) for
thei r dedicated si ncer e gu idance and h elp.
I si ncer ely hope th at the assor ted m ethods of i nnovation that ar e adopted
in t he pr epar ation of these text book s wi ll be of gr eat help and gu idance to the
st u den t s.
I w h ol eh ear t ed l y ap p r eci at e t h e si n cer e en d eavor s of t h e Tex t b ook
Developm ent Com m itt ee which has accom plish ed this noble t ask .
Constr u ctive su ggestions ar e solicited for the im pr ovem ent of t his text book
fr om t h e st u den ts, t each er s an d gen er al pu bl i c i n t h e su bj ect s con cer n ed so
that next edition will be r evised du ly incor por ating these su ggesti ons.
It i s ver y m u ch com m endabl e that Inter m ediate text book s ar e being pr i nted
for the fir st tim e by the Ak adem i fr om t he 2021-22 academ ic year.

Sr i . V. Ram ak r i sh n a I.R.S.
Di r ec t or
Telu gu and Sansk r it Ak adem i,
An dh r a Pr adesh
 Preface
Th e Boar d of In t er m edi at e Edu cat ion (AP), h as r ecen t l y revi sed t h e syl l abu s i n
M at h em at i cs for t h e In t er m ediat e Cou r se wi t h effect from t h e Ak ademi c year 2012-13.
Accor di n gl y Tel u gu Ak adem i h as prepar ed t h e n ecessary Text Book s i n M at h em at i cs.
In accordan ce wit h th e cu rren t syllabu s, th e topics relat in g to paper I-A : Al gebr a, Vect or
Algebra an d Tri gon om et ry are dealt with in this book. The syllabu s is presented in ten chapt ers.
Algebra part given in t h ree ch apt ers : Fu n ct i on s, Mat h em at i cal I n du ct i on an d Mat r i ces
Vect or Algebra part given in t wo ch apt ers : Addi t i on of Vect or s an d Pr odu ct of Vect or s.
Trigon omet ry part given in five ch apt ers : Tr i gon om et r i c Rat i os u pt o Tr an sf or m at i on ,
Tr i gon om i t r i c Equ at i on s, I n ver se Tr i gon om et r i c Fu n ct i on s, Hy per bol i c Fu n ct i on s an d
Pr oper t i es of Tr i an gl es.
Fu rt h er, for t h e ben fit of st u den t s in t en din g t o appear for All In dia Level Compet it ive
Examin at ion s, t h e Addit ion al Readin g Mat erial is in clu ded in t h e Appen dix, It con t ain s fou r
ch apt ers : Set s, Rel at i on s, Sequ en ces an d Ser i es an d Mat h em at i cal Reason i n g. Th ese
t opics are for addit ion al readin g, bu t n ot for examin at ion s. No qu est i on wi l l be set on t h e
Addi t i on al Readi n g Mat er i al , i n t h e I n t er m edi at e I Year Pu bli c Exam i n at i on , Mat h em at i cs,
paper- I A.
Every ch apt er h erein . i s divided in t o var iou s sect i on s an d su bsect ion s, depen di n g on
t h e con t en t s di scu ssed. Th ese con t en t s ar e st r i ct l y i n accor dan ce wit h t h e pr escri bed
syl labu s an d t h ey r eflect fai t h fu l ly, t h e scope an d spi r it of t h e same. Necessar y defi n i t ion s,
t h eor em s, Cor ol l ar ies, pr oofs an d n ot es ar e gi ven i n det ai l . Key con cept s ar e given at t h e
en d of each ch apt er. Il lu st r at i ve exam pl es an d sol ved pr obl ems ar e i n pl en t y, an d t h ese
sh all h el p t h e st u den t s i n u n der st an di n g t h e su bj ect m at t er.
Every ch apt er con t ai n s exer ci ses in a graded man n er wh i ch en abl e t h e st u den t s t o
solve t h em by applyin g t h e k n owl edge acqu ir ed. Al l t h ese probl ems are classifi ed accor di n g
t o t h e n at u re of t h eir an swer s as I - v er y sh or t I I sh or t an d I I I -l on g. An swers are provided
for al l t h e exer ci ses at t h e en d of each ch apt er.
Keeping in view t he Nat ional level competit ive examinat ion s, some con cept s an d not ion s
ar e h i gh l igh l ed for t h e ben efi t of t h e st u den t s. Car e h as been t ak en r egar di n g r i gor an d
l ogi cal con Si st en cy i n t h e pr esen t at ion of con cept s an d in pr ovi n g t h eorem s. At t h e en d of
t h e t ext Book , a l i sl of som e Ref er en ce Book s i n t h e su bject m al t er i s fu r n i sh ed.
Th e M em b er s of t h e M at h em at i cs Su b j ect Com m i t t ee, con st i t u t ed by Boar d of
In t erm ediat e Edu cat i on , wer e i n vi t ed t o i n t eract wi t h t h e t eam of t h e Au t h or s an d Edit ors.
Th ey pu r su ed t h e con t en t s ch apt er wi se an d gave some u sefu l su ggest ion s an d com m en t s
wh i ch ar e du l y i n corpor at ed. Th e speci al feat u r e of t h is Book , br ou gh t ou t in a n ew for mat,
i s t h at each ch apt er begi n s wi t h a t h ou gh t m ost l y on Mat h em at i cs. t h r ou gh a qu ot at i on
fr om a fam ou s t h i n k er. It car r ies a por t r ai t of a n ot ed m at h em at ici an wi t h a bri ef wr i t e-u p.
In t h e con cl u di n g par t of each ch apt er som e r el evan t h i st or ical n ot es ar e appen ded.
Wh erever fou n d appropr iat e, referen ces are also m ade of t h e con t r ibu t ion s of an ci en t In di an
sci en t i st s t o t h e advan cem en t of M et h amat i cs. Th e pu r pose i s t o en abl e t h e st u den t s t o
h ave a gli m pse i n t o t h e h i st or y of M at h em at i cs i n gen er al an d t h e con t ri bu t i on s of In di an
m at h emat i ci an s i n par t i cu l ar.
In spi t e of en ou gh car e t ak en i n t h e scr u t in y at var i ou s st ages i n t h e pr epar at i on of
t h e book , er r ors m i gh t h ave cr ept i n . Th e r eader s ar e t h er efore, r equ est ed t o i den t i fy an d
br i n g t h em t o t h e n ot ice of t h e Ak adem i . We wi ll appreci at e i f su gget i on s t o en h an ce t h e
qu ali t y of t h e book are gi ven . Effor t s wil l be made t o i n corpor at e t h em in t h e su bsequ en t
edit i on s.

Pr of . P.V. Ar u n ach al am
Ch i ef Coor d i n at or
 Pr ef ace t o t h e Rev i ewed Edi t i on

Telu gu Ak adem i is pu blishin g Text book s for Two year Int er m ediat e in
En gli sh and Telu gu m edi u m sin ce its incept ion , per i odi cal r eview and
r evi sion of these pu blicati ons has been u nder tak en as an d when t her e
was an u pdation of Inter m ediate syllabu s.

In t his r evi ewed Edition, n ow being u nder t ak en by the Tel u gu Ak adem i,

Andh r a Pr adesh t he basi c con t en t of i t s ear l ier Edit i on i s con sider ed
an d it is r eviewed by a t eam of exper i enced teach er s. Modification by
way of cor r ecting er r or s, pr int m istak es, incor por ating additional con tent
wher e necessar y to elu cidate a concept an d / or a defin ition, m odification
of existing conten t to r em ove obscu r ities for r eleasin g the concept m or e
easi ly ar e car r ied ou t m ai nly in t his r eview.

Not withstan ding th e effor t and tim e spent by the r eview team in this
en deavou r, st i l l a few aspect s t h at st i l l n eed m odi fi cat i on or ch an ge
m igh t have been left u nnoti ced.

Con st r u ct i ve su ggest i on s fr om t h e academ i c fr at er n i t y ar e wel com e

and the Ak adem i wil l tak e necessar y steps to incor por ate them in the
for th com ing editi on.

We ap p r eci at e t h e en cou r agem en t an d su p p or t ex t en d ed b y t h e

Academ i c and Adm in i st r ati ve st aff of th e Tel u gu Ak adem i i n fu l fi ll in g
ou r assignm en t wit h satisfact ion.

Edi t or s
(Revi ew ed Ed i t i on )
 Contents

1. Functions 1 - 38
Introduction .................................. 1
1.0 Ordered pairs .................................. 2
1.1 Types of Functions - Definitions .................................. 3
1.2 Inverse Functions and Theorems .................................. 14
1.3 Real valued functions (Domain, Range and Inverse) .................................. 22

2. Mathematical Induction 39 - 54
Introduction .................................. 39
2.1 Principles of mathematical induction & Theorems .................................. 40
2.2 Applications of mathematical induction .................................. 43
2.3 Problems on divisibility .................................. 48

3. Matrices 55 - 130
Introduction .................................. 55
3.1 Types of matrices .................................. 56
3.2 Scalar multiple of a matrix and multiplication of matrices .................................. 61
3.3 Transpose of a matrix .................................. 75
3.4 Determinants .................................. 80
3.5 Adjoint and inverse of a Matrix .................................. 97
3.6 Consistency and Inconsistency of system
of Simultaneous Equations - Rank of a Matrix .................................. 103
3.7 Solution of Simultaneous Linear Equations .................................. 115
4. Addition of Vectors 131 - 164
Introduction .................................. 131
4.1 Vectors as a triad of real numbers, some basic concepts .................................. 132
4.2 Classification (Types) of vectors .................................. 135
4.3 Sum (Addition) of vectors .................................. 136
4.4 Scalar Multiplication of a vector .................................. 139
4.5 Angle between two non-zero vectors .................................. 141
4.6 Linear Combination of Vectors .................................. 145
4.7 Components of a vector in Three Dimensions .................................. 145
4.8 Vector Equations of Line and Plane .................................. 155

5. Product of Vectors 165 - 218

Introduction .................................. 165
5.1 Scalar or dot product of two vectors - Geometrical
interpretation - Orthogonal Projections .................................. 166
5.2 Properties of dot product .................................. 170
5.3 Expression for scalar (dot) product, Angle between two vectors ...................... 171
5.4 Geometrical Vector methods .................................. 171
5.5 Vector equation of a plane - normal form .................................. 174
5.6 Angle between two planes .................................. 175
5.7 Vector product (cross product) of two vectors and properties ........................... 182
5.8 Vector product in (i, j, k) system .................................. 186
5.9 Vector Areas .................................. 187
5.10 Scalar triple product .................................. 196
5.11 Vector equation of a plane - different forms, skew lines,
shortest distance - plane, condition for coplanarity etc. .................................. 200
5.12 Vector triple product - results .................................. 206
6. Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 219 - 296

Introduction .................................. 219

6.1 Trigonometric ratios - variation - Graphs and periodicity .................................. 221
6.2 Trigonometric ratios of compound angles .................................. 243
6.3 Trigonometric ratios of multiple and sub-multiple angles .................................. 260
6.4 Sum and product transformations .................................. 274

7. Trigonometric Equations 297 - 318

Introduction .................................. 297

7.1 General solutions of trigonometric equations .................................. 298
7.2 Simple trigonometric equations - solutions .................................. 305

8. Inverse Trigonometric Functions 319 - 352

Introduction .................................. 319

8.1 To reduce a trigonometric function into a bijective function ................................ 320
8.2 Graphs of Inverse trigonometric functions .................................. 322
8.3 Properties of inverse trigonometric functions .................................. 323

9. Hyperbolic Functions 353 - 372

Introduction .................................. 353

9.1 Definitions of Hyperbolic functions, graphs .................................. 354
9.2 Definition of Inverse hyperbolic functions and graphs .................................. 359
9.3 Addition formulas of Hyperbolic functions .................................. 361

10 Properties of Triangles 373 - 408

Introduction .................................. 373
10.1 Relation between the sides and angles of a triangle .................................. 374
10.2 Sine, Cosine and Tangent Rules - Projection Rules .................................. 374
10.3 Half angle formulae and area of a triangle .................................. 378
10.4 Incircle and excircles of a triangle .................................. 392
 Appendix
(No Question is to be set in the IPE, Mathematics - IA from the topics mentioned below)

1. Sets 409 - 414

Introduction .................................. 409
1.1 Set .................................. 409
1.2 Examples .................................. 409
1.3 Representation of a set .................................. 410
1.4 Classification (Types) of sets .................................. 410
1.5 Venn Diagram .................................. 411
1.6 Operations on sets .................................. 412
1.7 Example .................................. 412
1.8 Complement of a set .................................. 413
1.9 Some Properties of operations on sets .................................. 413
1.10 Cardinal number of a set .................................. 414
2. Relations 415 - 416
Introduction .................................. 415
2.1 Cartesian Product of sets .................................. 415
2.2 Relation on sets .................................. 416
3. Sequences and Series 417 - 422
Introduction .................................. 417
3.1 Definition .................................. 417
3.2 Series .................................. 418
4. Mathematical Reasoning 423-436
Introduction .................................. 423
4.1 Definition (Statement) .................................. 424
4.2 Negation, Conjunction and Disjunction .................................. 426
4.3 Implication - conditional and bi-conditional .................................. 431
4.4 Quantifiers .................................. 433
4.5 Validating Statements .................................. 434

Reference Books 437

Syllabus 438 - 441

Model Question Paper 442- 444

Al gebr a
 Functions 1

“The word function (or its Latin equivalent) seems

to have been introduced into mathematics by Leibnitz
in 1694. The concept now dominates much of
mathematics and is indispensable in sciences”
− E.T. Bell

Introduction

All the scientists use mathematics essentially to study

relationships. Physicists, Chemists, Engineers, Biologists and
Social Scientists, all seek to discern connection among the
various elements of their chosen fields and so to arrive at a
clear understanding of why these elements behave the way
they do. A function is a special case of a relation.
Dirichlet
The famous mathematician Lejeune Dirichlet (1805 - (1805 - 1859 )
1859) defined a function as follows. A variable is a symbol Johann Peter Gustav Lejeune
which represents any one of a set of numbers; if two variables Dirichlet was a German
x and y are so related that whenever a value is assigned to x mathematician credited with the
there is automatically assigned, by some rule or modern “formal” definition of
correspondence, a value to y, then we say y is a (single a function. He was a student of
valued) function of x, the permissible values that x may Gauss. After Gauss’s death in
assume constitute the domain of definition of the function, 1855, he was appointed as
and the values taken on by y constitute the range of values Gauss’s successor at Gottingen.
of the function.
 2 Mathematics - IA

The above definition is a very broad one and does not imply anything regarding
the possibility of expressing the relationship between x and y by some kind of analytic expression. It
stresses the basic idea of a relationship between two sets. Set theory has naturally extended the concept of
function to embrace relationships between any two sets of elements.
In this chapter we focus our attention on a special type of relation, a function,
that plays an important role in mathematics and its many applications. Here we study its basic properties and
then discuss several special types of functions. In order to have various important applications of functions
later, it is essential to get a good grasp of the concepts in this chapter.

1.0 Ordered pairs

Let A and B be sets. If a ∈ A and b ∈ B then (a, b) is an ordered pair. ‘a’ is called the first
component (coordinate) and ‘b’ is called the second component (coordinate) of the ordered pair (a, b).
For example, the coordinates of a point in a plane are ordered pairs of real numbers. If (a1 , b1 ) and (a2 , b2 )
are ordered pairs, then
( a1 , b1 ) = ( a2 , b2 ) ⇔ a1 = a2 and b1 = b2 .
1.0.1 Definition (Cartesian product)
Let A and B be two sets. Then {( a, b)| a ∈ A, b ∈ B} is called the Cartesian product of
A and B, and is denoted by A × B (to be read as A cross B).

1.0.2 Examples
If A = {1, 2, 3} , B = {x, y} then
A×B = {(1, x), (1, y), (2, x), (2, y), (3, x), (3, y)}
B× A = {(x, 1), (x, 2), (x, 3), (y, 1), (y, 2), (y, 3)}
A×A = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
B× B = {(x, x), (x, y), (y, x), (y, y)}
1.0.3 Note
1. If A and B are distinct non-empty sets then A× B ≠ B× A .
2. If one of the sets A and B is empty, then A× B is also empty.
3. Some particular notations
¡ or R : set of all real numbers
R+ : set of all positive real numbers : {x| x ∈ R , x > 0}
Q : set of all rational numbers
Q+ : set of all positive rational numbers
N : set of all natural numbers
Z : set of all integers
 Functions 3

If a, b ∈ R , a < b then
(a, b) = {x ∈ R | a < x < b}
(a, b] = {x ∈ R | a < x ≤ b}
[a, b) = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x < b}
[a, b] = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x ≤ b}
[a, ∞ ) = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x}
(a, ∞ ) = {x ∈ R | a < x}
(− ∞ , a) = {x ∈ R | x < a}
(− ∞ , a] = {x ∈ R | x ≤ a}

1.0.4 Definition (Relation)

If A and B are non-empty sets, then any subset of A × B is called a relation from A
to B. In particular, any relation from A to A is called a binary relation on A.

1.0.5 Examples
If A = {1, 2, 3} , B = {α , β } then

A×B = {(1, α ) , (1, β ) , (2, α ) , (2, β ) , (3, α ) , (3, β ) }

(i) f = {(1, α ) , (2, β ) , (3, α )} is a relation from A to B.
(ii) g = {(1, α ) , (1, β )} is a relation from A to B.
In fact we can define 26 = 64 relations from A to B because the number of elements in A × B is
6 hence there are 26 subsets of A × B.

1.1 Types of Functions - Definitions

1.1.1Definition (Function)
Let A and B be non-empty sets and f be a relation from A to B. If for each element
a ∈ A , there exists a unique b ∈ B such that ( a, b ) ∈ f , then f is called a function (or
mapping) from A to B (or A into B). It is denoted by f : A → B . The set A is called the
domain of f and B is called the co-domain of f.

A function f can also be seen in the following way, which takes an input x and returns an output
f (x).
 4 Mathematics - IA

↓ x

↓
f (x)
For example, if f : A → B is a function defined as f(x) = x + 1 and A = {1, 2, 3}, then
f (A) = {2, 3, 4}.
↓ x∈A

f (x) = x + 1

↓
f(A)

1.1.2 Note
A relation f from A to B (i.e. f ⊆ A × B) is a function from A to B if for each a ∈ A , there
exists exactly one b ∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ f and this 'b' will be denoted by f ( a ) . In other words, for each
a ∈ A , there exists a unique element f (a ) ∈ B such that ( a, f (a) ) ∈ f .

1.1.3 Definition (Image, Pre-Image)

If f : A → B is a function and if f ( a ) = b , then ' b ' is called the image of ' a ' under f or
the f-image of a. The element ' a ' is called a pre-image or an inverse image of b under f and
is denoted by f −1(b) . More generally if E ⊆ B, f −1(E) = {x| x ∈ A, f (x) ∈ E} is called the
inverse image of E under f. Then f −1(b) = f −1({b}) if b ∈ B.

1.1.4 Examples
1. Example: The relation f = {( x, x 2 + 1) | x ∈ R} is a function from R to R+, since every x ∈ R has
association with unique element x 2 + 1 in R+. The function f : R → R+ is given by f ( x ) = x 2 + 1 .
Observe that f (1) = 2 and f ( −1) = 2 . Note that the numbers less than 1 have no pre-image under f.

 1 
2. Example: The relation f = ( x, ) | 0 ≠ x ∈ R  is not a function from R to R since there is no b in
 x 
R such that (0, b ) ∈ f . But f (x ) = is a function from R {0} → R since every x ∈ R {0} has
1
x
association with a unique element in R .
 Functions 5

1.1.5 Definition ( Range )

If f : A → B is a function, then f(A), the set of all f - images of elements in A, is called the
range of f . Clearly f ( A ) = { f ( a ) | a ∈ A} ⊆ B.
Also f (A) = {b ∈ B | b = f (a) for some a ∈ A} .

1.1.6 Examples

1. Example: Let f : N → N be defined by f ( n) = 2n .

Then the range of f = f (N) = {2n | n ∈ N} = set of all even natural numbers.

2. Example: Let f : R → R be defined by f ( x) = x 2 .

Then the range of f = f ( R ) = {x 2 | x ∈ R} = [0, ∞ ) 3 x 2 ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R  .

1.1.7 Definition (Injection or one - one function)

A function f : A → B is called an injection if distinct elements of A have distinct
f - images in B. An injection is also called a one-one function.

f : A → B is an injection ⇔ a1 , a2 ∈ A and a1 ≠ a2 implies that f (a1 ) ≠ f (a2 )

⇔ a1 , a2 ∈ A and f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) implies that a1 = a2

1.1.8 Examples
1. Example

Let A = {a, b, c, d } and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

(i) If f = {(a, 3) , (b, 5) , (c, 1) , (d , 4)} then f is a function from A into B and for different
elements in A, there are different f - images in B. Hence f is an injection.
(ii) If g = {(a, 2) , (b, 2) , (c, 3) , (d , 5)}, then g is a function from A into B, but g (a ) = g (b) .
Hence ‘g’ is not an injection.
2. Example
Let f : R → R be defined by f ( x ) = 2 x + 1 . Then ' f ' is an injection since for any a1 , a2 ∈R
and f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) ⇒ 2a1 + 1 = 2a2 + 1 ⇒ a1 = a2 .

3. Example
Let f : R → R be defined by f (x ) = x 2 . Then ' f ' is not an injection because f ( −1) = 1 = f (1) .
 6 Mathematics - IA

4. Example
Let f : N → N be defined by f ( x) = x 2 . Then ' f ' is an injection since for a1 , a2 ∈ N and

f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) ⇒ a12 = a2 2 ⇒ (a12 − a2 2 ) = 0 ⇒ (a1 − a2 ) (a1 + a2 ) = 0

⇒ a1 − a2 = 0 [3a1 , a2 ∈ N ⇒ a1 + a2 > 0] ⇒ a1 = a2 .

5. Example

Let A = {a,b,c,d } and B = {x, y,z} . We can’t define an injection from A to B because atleast
two distinct elements in A have the same f - image in B for any function f : A → B .

1.1.9 Definition (Surjection)

A function f : A → B is called a surjection if the range of f is equal to the co-domain

of f.

f : A → B is a surjection ⇔ range f = f (A) = B (co-domain )

⇔ B = { f (a) | a ∈ A}
⇔ for every b ∈ B there exists atleast
one a ∈ A such that f ( a ) = b

Hence we may conclude that f : A → B is a surjection if every element of B occurs as the image
of atleast one element of A (i.e., every element in B has a ‘pre image’ in A). A surjection is also called an
onto function.

1.1.10 Examples
1. Example
f
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c}

(i) If f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c), (4, c)} then

f is a function from A to B and range

f = f (A) = {a, b, c} = B , the

co-domain. Hence it is a surjection. Fig. 1.1
Note that f is not an injection.
Functions 7

A B
(ii) If g = {(1, b), (2, b), (3, c), (4, c)} then g
g
is a function from A to B but not a surjection
because there is no pre image to the element
a ∈ B . Note that g is not an injection.

2. Example Fig. 1.2

Let A = {-3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 4, 9}. If f : A → B defined by f ( x) = x2 for all x ∈ A
then, range f = f (A) = { f ( − 3) , f ( − 2) , f ( − 1) , f (1) , f (2) , f (3)}= {1, 4,9} = B .
∴ f : A → B is a surjection. Note that f is not an injection.
3. Example
Let f : R → R be defined by f ( x ) = ax + b (a, b ∈ R and a ≠ 0) . Then f is a surjection
y −b
since for any y ∈R (co-domain) there exists x = ∈ R (domain) such that
a
a (y − b)
f ( x) = ax + b = + b = y (i.e., every element in the co-domain has a pre-image in the domain).
a
Note that f is an injection too.

4. Example

Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = x2 + 4 . Then range of f = [4, ∞ ) [3 for any x ∈R we

have x 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ x 2 + 4 ≥ 4] and it is not equal to co-domain R . Hence f : R → R is not a surjection. In
particular there are no pre-images for all real numbers less than 4 in its co-domain R . Note that f is not an
injection.

1.1.11 Definition (Bijection)

If f : A → B is both an injection and a surjection then f is said to be a bijection or
one-to-one from A onto B.

i.e., f : A → B is a bijection ⇔ f is both injection and surjection

⇔ (i) If a1 , a2 ∈ A and f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) then a1 = a2

(ii) for every b ∈ B there exists atleast one a ∈ A

such that f (a ) = b .
 8 Mathematics - IA

1.1.12 Definition (Finite set)

If A is empty or there exists n ∈ N such that there is a bijection from A onto
{1, 2, 3, ..., n} then A is called a finite set. In such a case we say that the number of elements
in A is n and denote it by |A| or n(A).

1.1.13 Remarks
(i) In particular, if A and B are two finite sets with |A| > |B| then we can’t define an injection from A into
B. Hence if there is an injection from A to B then |A| ≤ |B|. The converse of this also holds good, that
is, if A and B are finite sets such that |A| ≤ |B|, then we can define an injection f : A → B , for, if
A = {a1 , a2 , .....,an } then there exist distinct elements b1 , b2 ,....,bn ∈ B (since n = A ≤ B ) and
the function f : A → B , defined by f (ai ) = bi , for 1 ≤ i ≤ n , is an injection.

(ii) Let A and B be two finite sets and |A| < |B|, then we can’t define a surjection from A to B. Since

if f : A → B then range f = f (A) contains atmost |A| elements ≠ | B| (codomain) 3 A < B  .

Hence if there is an onto function from A to B then A ≥ B . The converse of this also holds good.
That is if A and B are finite sets such that A ≥ B , then we can define a surjection f : A → B ; for
if B = {b1 , b2 ,....,bn } then n ≤ | A | and hence there exist distinct elements a1 , a2 , ........,an ∈ A
and we can define f : A → B by

bi if a = ai for some i

f (a) = 
b1 if a ≠ ai for all i , which becomes a surjection.

(iii) Note that if there is a bijection ' f ' from a finite set A to a finite set B then, since f is both injection and
surjection, A ≤ B and A ≥ B hence |A| = |B|. Thus for any two finite sets A and B, A = B if and
only if there is a bijection f : A → B .

1.1.14 Example

Let f : R → R be defined by f ( x ) = 2 x + 3 , then from example 3 (1.1.10), f is a bijection.

However if we change the domain of f as N then f (x) = 2x + 3 ∈ N ∀ x ∈ N. Also,

(i) If x1 ,x2 ∈ N (domain), f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) ⇒ 2 x1 + 3 = 2 x2 + 3 ⇒ x1 = x2 .

∴ f : N → N is an injection.
Functions 9

(ii) Range f = f (N ) = { f (1) , f (2) , f (3) , ... } = {5,7 ,9 ,...} ≠ N . (codomain)

Hence f : N → N is not a surjection.

Observe that the natural numbers less than 5 and the even natural numbers in the
co-domain N of f have no pre-images in domain N.

1.1.15 Definition (Equality of functions)

Let f and g be functions. We say f and g are equal and write f = g if domain of
f = domain of g and f(x) = g(x) for all x ∈ domain f.

Problem : On what domain the functions f (x) = x2 − 2x and g(x) = − x + 6 are equal?
Solution : f (x) = g(x)
⇔ x2 − 2x = − x + 6
⇔ x2 − x − 6 = 0
⇔ (x − 3) (x + 2) = 0
⇔ x = −2, 3
∴ f (x) and g(x) are equal on the domain {−2, 3}.

1.1.16 Definition (Constant function)

A function f : A → B is said to be a constant function, if the range of f contains one
and only one element. i.e. f(x) = c for all x ∈ A , for some fixed c ∈ B. In this case the
constant function f will be denoted by ‘c’ itself.

1.1.17 Example
Let A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {1, 2, 3} and f = {(a, 2), (b, 2), (c, 2), (d, 2)} then f : A → B is a
constant function.

1.1.18 Definition (Identity function)

Let A be a non-empty set. Then the function f : A → A defined by f (x) = x for all x ∈ A
is called the identity function on A and is denoted by I A .

1.1.19 Example
If A = {a, b, c}, then IA = {(a, a) , (b, b) , (c, c)} .

1.1.20 Solved Problems

1
1. Problem: If f : R {0} → R is defined by f (x) = x + then prove that
x
( f (x) )2 = f (x 2 ) + f (1) .
 10 Mathematics - IA

 1
Solution: Since f ( x) =  x + 
 x
1  1 1
f (x 2 ) + f (1) = x 2 + + 1 +  = x 2 + 2 + 2
 1
2
x x
2
 1
=x+  = (f (x) ) .
2

 x
3x − 2,x > 3

2. Problem: If the function f is defined by f (x) =  x 2 − 2, − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2
2 x + 1,x < −3

then find the values, if exist, of f(4), f(2.5), f(−2), f(−4), f(0), f(−7).
Solution: Note that the domain of f is ( − ∞, − 3) ∪ [−2, 2] ∪ (3,∞) .
(i) Since f ( x ) = 3 x − 2, for x > 3 , we have f (4) = 12 − 2 = 10
(ii) 2.5 does not belong to domain f, f (2.5) is not defined.
(iii) Since f ( x ) = x 2 − 2, − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2 , we have f (−2) = (−2) 2 − 2 = 2
(iv) Since f ( x) = 2 x + 1, x < −3, we have f ( −4) = 2 ( −4) + 1 = −7
(v) Since f (x) = x2 − 2 when − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2, we have f (0) = 02 − 2 = − 2
(vi) Since f ( x) = 2 x + 1, for x < - 3, we have f ( −7) = 2 ( −7) + 1 = −13 .

 π π π π
3. Problem: If A = 0, , , ,  and f : A → B is a surjection defined
 6 4 3 2
by f (x) = cos x then find B.
Solution: Let f : A → B be a surjection defined by f ( x ) = cos x .
 π  π  π  π  
Then B = range f = f (A) =  f (0), f   , f   , f  , f   
 6 4 3 2
 π π π π 
= cos 0, cos , cos , cos , cos 
 6 4 3 2 
 3 1 1 
= 1, , , , 0 .
 2 2 2 
4. Problem: Determine whether the function f : R → R defined by
e − e− x
x
f ( x) = is an injection or a surjection or a bijection.
e x + e− x
e − e− x
x
Solution: Let f : R → R be defined by f ( x ) = x , then f is not an injection as
e + e− x
 Functions 11

e0 − e0 e−e
f (0) = 0 0 = 0 and f (−1) = −1 = 0 and also f is not a surjection since, for y = 1
e +e e +e
there is no x ∈ R such that f ( x) = 1 .
If there is such x ∈ R then e x − e − x = e x + e − x , clearly x ≠ 0
for x > 0 this equation gives − e − x = e − x which is not possible
for x < 0 this equation gives − e − x = e x which is also not possible.
5. Problem: Determine whether the function f : R → R defined by
x if x > 2
f ( x) =  is an injection or a surjection or a bijection.
5 x − 2 if x ≤ 2
Solution: Since 3 > 2, we have f (3) = 3,
Since 1 < 2, we have f (1) = 5(1) − 2 = 3
∴ 1 and 3 have same ‘f’ image. Hence f is not an injection.
Let y ∈ R then y > 2 (or) y ≤ 2
If y > 2 take x = y ∈ R so that f ( x) = x = y .
y+2 y+2
If y ≤ 2 take x = ∈ R and x = < 1.
5 5
y+2
∴ f ( x) = 5 x − 2 = 5   − 2 = y.
 5 
∴ f is a surjection.
Since f is not an injection, it is not a bijection.
6. Problem: Find the domain of definition of the function y(x), given by the equation
2 x + 2 y = 2.
Solution: 2x = 2 − 2y < 2 (3 2y > 0)
⇒ log2 2x < log2 2
⇒ x<1
∴ Domain = (− ∞ , 1).
7. Problem: If f : R → R is defined as f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) ∀ x, y ∈ R and f (1) = 7,
n
then find ∑ f (r ) .
r =1
Solution: Consider f (2) = f (1 + 1) = f (1) + f (1) = 2 f (1)
f (3) = f (2 + 1) = f (2) + f (1) = 3 f (1)
Similarly f (r) = r f (1)
n
∴ ∑ f (r ) = f (1) + f (2) + ..... + f (n)
r =1
= f (1) + 2 f (1) + ..... + n f (1)
 12 Mathematics - IA

= f (1) (1 + 2 + ..... + n)
7 n( n + 1)
= .
2

cos 2 x + sin 4 x
8. Problem : If f ( x) = ∀ x ∈ R then show that f(2012) = 1.
sin 2 x + cos 4 x
cos 2 x + sin 4 x
Solution: f ( x) =
sin 2 x + cos 4 x

1 − sin 2 x + sin 4 x
=
1 − cos 2 x + cos 4 x

1 − sin 2 x(1 − sin 2 x)

=
1 − cos 2 x(1 − cos 2 x)

1 − sin 2 x cos 2 x
=
1 − sin 2 x cos 2 x
= 1.
∴ f (2012) = 1.

Exercise 1(a)

 x + 2, x > 1

I. 1. If the function f is defined by f ( x) = 2 , − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 , then find the values of
 x − 1, − 3 < x < −1


(i) f (3) , (ii) f (0) , (iii) f (−1.5) ,

(iv) f (2) + f ( −2) , (v) f (−5)

1
2. If f : R {0} → R is defined by f (x) = x − , then show that f ( x ) + f (1/ x ) = 0 .
3

x3

1 − x2
3. If f : R → R is defined by f ( x) = , then show that f (tan è) = cos 2è .
1 + x2

1+ x  2x 
4. If f : R {+1} → R is defined by f ( x ) = log , then show that f  2 
= 2 f ( x) .
1− x  1+ x 
 Functions 13

5. If A = {−2, − 1, 0, 1, 2} and f : A → B is a surjection defined by f ( x) = x 2 + x + 1 , then

find B.
6. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and f : A → R is a function defined by
x2 − x + 1
f ( x) = , then find the range of f.
x +1
7. If f (x + y) = f (xy) ∀ x, y ∈ R then prove that f is a constant function.

II. 1. If A = {x | −1 ≤ x ≤ 1}, f ( x) = x 2 , g ( x) = x3 , which of the following are surjections?

(i) f : A → A (ii) g : A → A
2. Which of the following are injections or surjections or bijections? Justify your answers.
2x +1
(i) f : R → R defined by f ( x) =
3
(ii) f : R → (0, ∞ ) defined by f ( x) = 2 x

(iii) f : (0, ∞ ) → R defined by f ( x) = log e x

(iv) f : [0, ∞ ) → [0, ∞ ) defined by f ( x) = x 2

(v) f : R → [0, ∞ ) defined by f ( x) = x 2

(vi) f : R → R defined by f ( x) = x 2
3. Is g = {(1,1), (2,3), (3,5), (4, 7)} a function from A = {1, 2, 3, 4} to B = {1,3,5, 7}? If this is
given by the formula g ( x ) = ax + b , then find a and b.
−x
4. If the function f : R → R defined by f ( x) = 3 + 3 , then show that
x

2
f ( x + y ) + f ( x − y ) = 2 f ( x) f ( y ) .

4x
5. If the function f : R → R defined by f ( x) = , then show that
4x + 2
1 1 3
f (1 − x ) = 1 − f ( x ) , and hence deduce the value of f   + 2 f  + f  .
4 2 4
6. If the function f : {−1, 1} → {0, 2} , defined by f ( x ) = ax + b is a surjection, then find
a and b.

1 1 1 x 

7. If f ( x ) = cos (log x ) , then show that f   f   −  f   + f ( xy )  = 0.
x  y 2  y 
 14 Mathematics - IA

1.2 Inverse Functions and Theorems

If f is a relation from A to B, then the relation {(b, a) | (a, b) ∈ f } is denoted by f −1 .

1.2.1 Theorem
If f : A → B is an injection, then f −1 is a bijection from f (A) to A.

Proof: Let f : A → B be an injection. clearly f −1 is a relation from f (A) to A.

Let b ∈ f (A) . Then there exists atleast one a ∈ A such that f ( a ) = b . Since f is an injection ‘a’ is the
only element of A such that f(a) = b. Thus given b ∈ f (A) , there is a unique element a in A such that
( a, b) ∈ f . Hence given b ∈ f (A) there is a unique a ∈ A such that (b, a ) ∈ f −1 . Hence f −1 is a
function from f (A) to A, and f −1 (b) = a if and only if f ( a ) = b . Clearly f −1 is a surjection. If
b1 , b2 ∈ f (A) and f −1 (b1 ) = f −1 (b2 ) = a ( say ) then b1 = f (a ) = b2 . Thus f −1 is an injection.

∴ f −1 : f (A) → A is a bijection.
1.2.2 Corollary

If f : A → B is a bijection, then f −1 is a bijection from B to A.

Proof: This is an immediate consequence of Theorem 1.2.1, since f (A) = B.

( )
−1
Note : Since f −1 = f , it follows from 1.2.2 that f −1 : B → A is a bijection if and only if f : A → B is
a bijection.

1.2.3 Definition (Inverse function)

If f : A → B is a bijection, then the relation f −1 = {(b, a) | (a, b) ∈ f } is a function from B to
A and is called the inverse of f.

1.2.4 Examples
1. Example: If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b, c} then f = {(1, c), (2, b), (3, a)} is a bijection from A to B
and f −1 = {(a,3), (b, 2), (c,1)} is a bijection from B to A.
2. Example: If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b, c, d } then f = {(1, c), (2, b), (3, a)} is an injection but not a
surjection, f −1 = {(c, 1), (b, 2), (a, 3)} is a relation from B to A but not a function because ' d ' ∈ B has
no f −1 image in A.
3. Example: If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b} ; then f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, a)} is a surjection but not an
injection, f −1 = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (a, 3)} is a relation from B to A but not a function from B to A because
for a ∈ B there are two f −1 images in A.
 Functions 15

1.2.5 Definition Composite Function f

A B

If f :A → B, g : B → C , then the relation

g
{(a, g ( f (a ))) | a∈A}
gof
is called composite of ‘g’

with ‘ f ’ and is denoted as gof .

C
Fig. 1.3

1.2.6 Theorem: Let f : A → B and g : B → C be functions. Then gof is a function from A to

C, and (gof) (a) = g ( f ( a ) ) for all a ∈ A .

Proof : Let a ∈ A . Since f is a function from A to B then f (a ) ∈ B . Since g is a function from B to

C then g ( f (a) ) ∈ C . Hence gof is a relation from A to C. Further, given a ∈ A there is one and only one
element c in C, namely, g ( f (a) ) , such that ( a, c) ∈ gof . Hence gof is a function from A to C and
( gof ) (a) = g ( f (a) ) for all a ∈ A .
1.2.7 Theorem: Let f : A → B, g : B → C be injections, then gof : A → C is an injection.
Proof : Let a1 , a2 ∈ A be such that ( gof ) (a1 ) = ( gof ) (a2 )
g ( f (a1 ) ) = g ( f (a2 ) )
f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) [since g is an injection]
a1 = a2 [since f is an injection]
∴ gof : A → C is an injection.

1.2.8 Theorem: Let f : A → B and g : B → C be such that gof is an injection. Then f is an

injection.
Proof : Let a1 , a2 ∈ A be such that f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) then g ( f (a1 ) ) = g ( f (a2 ) )
⇒ gof (a1 ) = gof (a2 )
⇒ a1 = a2 . [3 gof is an injection]
∴ f is an injection.
1.2.9 Note
If f : A → B , g : B → C are such that gof is injection then g need not be injection. For example,
let A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b, c}, C = {d , e} , f = {(1, a), (2, b)} and g = {(a, d ), (b, e), (c, e)} , then
gof = {(1, d ), (2, e)} .
 16 Mathematics - IA

Hence gof is an injection but g is not an injection. However, if gof is an injection then necessarily f
is an injection.
1.2.10 Theorem: Let f : A → B , g : B → C be surjections. Then gof : A → C is a surjection.
Proof : Let c ∈ C . Since g : B → C is a surjection then there exists b ∈ B such that g (b) = c . Since
f : A → B is a surjection then there exists ' a ' ∈ A such that f ( a ) = b .

∴ c = g (b) = g ( f (a) ) = ( gof ) (a) .

∴ for each ' c ' ∈ C there exists ' a ' ∈ A such that ( gof ) ( a ) = c .
Hence gof : A → C is a surjection.

1.2.11 Theorem: Let f : A → B, g : B → C be such that gof is a surjection. Then g is a surjection.

Proof : Let c ∈ C . Since gof : A → C is a surjection then there exists a ∈ A such that ( gof ) (a ) = c , i.e.,
g ( f (a) ) = c . Let b = f ( a ) . Then f ( a ) = b ∈ B and g (b) = c .

∴ g is a surjection.

1.2.12 Note
If f : A → B, g : B → C are such that gof is a surjection then f need not be a surjection. In Note
1.2.9, gof is a surjection but f is not a surjection. However, if gof is a surjection then necessarily ‘g’ is
a surjection.

1.2.13 Theorem: Let f : A → B, g : B → C be bijections. Then gof : A → C is a bijection.

Proof: This is a consequence of Theorems 1.2.7 and 1.2.10.

1.2.14 Theorem: Let f : A → B, g : B → C be bijections. Then ( gof ) = f −1og −1 .

−1

Proof: Since f : A → B, g : B → C are bijections, so is gof from A to C (from Theorem 1.2.13).

Hence (gof)− 1 is a bijection from C to A. Further, f −1 : B → A; g −1 : C → B are also bijections.
Hence f −1og −1 is a bijection from C to A.

∴ The functions ( gof ) −1 and f −1og −1 are defined on the same domain ‘C’.

Let c ∈ C . Since g : B → C is a bijection, there exists a unique b ∈ B such that g (b) = c i.e.,
g −1 (c) = b .
Now b ∈ B and f : A → B is a bijection. Hence there exists a unique a ∈ A such that f ( a ) = b
i.e., f −1 (b) = a .
 Functions 17

Thus c = g (b) = g ( f (a) ) = ( gof ) (a) (or) ( gof ) −1 (c) = a

Now ( f −1og −1 ) (c ) = f −1 ( g −1 (c )) = f −1 (b) = a

Hence ( gof ) −1 = f −1og −1 .

1.2.15 Theorem: The identity function I A : A → A is a bijection and I A−1 = I A .

Proof: We have I A = {( a, a ) | a ∈ A} .
Given a ∈ A we have I A (a ) = a . Hence IA is a surjection.
Let a1 , a2 ∈ A, I A (a1 ) = I A (a2 ) ⇒ a1 = a2 . Hence IA is an injection.
∴ I A : A → A is bijection and I −A 1 = I A .
1.2.16 Theorem: Let f : A → B, IA and IB be identity functions on A and B respectively. Then
foI A = f = I B of .

Proof: Since I A : A → A and f : A → B are functions, foI A is a function from A to B. Hence

functions foI A and f are defined on same domain A.

Let a ∈ A , then ( foI A ) (a) = f ( I A (a) ) = f (a) [3 I A (a) = a for all a ∈ A]

∴ foI A = f ... (1)

Since f : A → B, I B : B → B , are functions then I B of is a function from A to B.
∴ The functions I B of and f are defined on the same domain A.

Let a ∈ A , then ( I B of ) (a) = I B ( f (a) ) = f (a) [3 f : A → B we have f ( a ) ∈ B ]

∴ I B of = f ... (2)
From (1) and (2) we have foI A = f = I B of .

1.2.17 Theorem: Let f : A → B be a bijection. Then fof −1 = I B and f −1of = I A .

Proof : Since f : A → B is a bijection then f −1 : B → A is also a bijection. Hence fof −1 is a bijection

from B to B and f −1of is a bijection from A to A. We have that I B is a bijection from B to B and I A
is a bijection from A to A.
∴ The functions fof −1 and I B are defined on the same domain B.
Let b ∈ B . Since f : A → B is a bijection then there exists a unique a ∈ A such that
f ( a ) = b i.e., f −1 (b) = a .
 18 Mathematics - IA

Thus fof −1 (b) = f ( f −1 (b) ) = f ( a ) = b = I B (b)

∴ fof −1 = I B

The functions f −1of and I A are defined on the same domain.

We have f −1of (a) = f −1 ( f (a) ) = f −1 (b) = a = I A (a)

∴ f −1of = I A .

1.2.18 Theorem: Let f : A → B be a function. Then f is a bijection if and only if there exists a
function g : B → A such that fog = I B and gof = I A and, in this case, g = f −1 .

Proof: Let f : A → B be a bijection. Then f −1 : B → A is a bijection [from Corollary 1.2.2]. Take g = f −1 .

Then from Theorem 1.2.17, fog = I B and gof = I A .

Conversely, if there exists a function g : B → A such that fog = I B and gof = I A then gof = I A is an
injection, we get from Theorem 1.2.8 that f is an injection. Also, since fog = I B is a surjection, we get from
Theorem 1.2.11 that f is a surjection.

∴ f : A → B is a bijection. Hence f −1 : B → A is a bijection. We also have g : B → A .

∴ f −1 and g are defined on the same domain B.

Let b ∈ B . Since f : A → B is a bijection then there exists a unique ' a ' ∈ A such that f ( a ) = b or
f −1 (b) = a . Now
f −1 (b) = a = I A (a) = ( gof ) (a) = g ( f (a) ) = g (b)
∴ g = f −1 .

1.2.19 Theorem: Let f : A → B , g : B → C and h : C → D . Then ho ( gof ) = (hog ) of , that is,

composition of functions is associative.
Proof: Since f : A → B, g : B → C and h : C → D ,
gof : A → C and h : C → D ⇒ ho ( gof ) : A → D . Further

f : A → B and hog : B → D ⇒ ( hog ) of : A → D .

Thus ho ( gof ) and ( hog ) of have the same domain A . Let ‘a’ be any element of A. Now

[ho ( gof )] (a) = h (( gof ) (a) ) = h ( g ( f (a) )) = ( hog ) ( f ( a )) = ((hog )of ) (a)
∴ ho ( gof ) = ( hog ) of .
Functions 19

1.2.20 Solved Problems

1. Problem: If f : R → R, g : R → R are defined by f ( x ) = 4 x − 1 and g ( x) = x 2 + 2 then find
 a +1 
(i) ( gof ) ( x ) (ii) ( gof )  
 4 
(iii) fof ( x ) (iv) go( fof )(0) .

Solution

(i)) ( gof ) ( x) = g ( f ( x) ) = g (4 x − 1) = (4 x − 1)2 + 2 = 16 x 2 − 8 x + 3 ... (1)

a +1   a +1   a +1 
2
(ii) from (1) we have ( gof )   = 16   − 8 +3= a +2
2

 4   4   4 
(iii) ( fof ) ( x) = f ( f ( x) ) = f (4 x − 1) = 4 (4 x − 1) − 1 = 16 x − 5 ... (2)
(iv) from (2) we have ( fof ) (0) = 0 − 5 = −5
∴ go ( fof ) (0) = g ( fof (0) ) = g (−5) = 25 + 2 = 27 .

1 + x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
2. Problem: If f : [0,3] → [0,3] is defined by f ( x ) =  , then show that
3 − x, 2 < x ≤ 3
f [0, 3] ⊆ [0, 3] and find fof.
Solution: 0≤x≤2 ⇒ 1 ≤ 1+x ≤ 3 ... (1)
2<x ≤ 3 ⇒ − 3 ≤ − x< − 2
⇒ 3−3 ≤ 3− x<3−2
⇒ 0 ≤ 3−x<1 ... (2)
From (1) and (2), f [0, 3] ⊆ [0, 3].
When 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 we have
( fof ) ( x) = f ( f ( x) ) = f (1+ x) =1 + 1 + x = 2 + x. [31 ≤ 1 + x ≤ 2]
When 1 < x ≤ 2 we have
fof ( x) = f ( f ( x) ) = f (1+ x) = 3 − (1 + x) = 2 − x. [3 2 < 1 + x ≤ 3]
When 2 < x ≤ 3 we have
fof ( x) = f ( f ( x) ) = f (3 − x) = 1 + 3 − x = 4 − x. [3 0 ≤ 3 − x < 1]
 2 + x, 0 ≤ x < 1

∴ ( fof ) ( x) = 2 − x, 1 < x ≤ 2
 4 − x, 2 < x ≤ 3

 20 Mathematics - IA

0 if x ∈Q
3. Problem: If f , g : R → R are defined by f ( x) = 
1 if x ∉Q
 −1 if x ∈Q
and g ( x) =  then find ( fog) (π) + (gof )(e).
 0 if x ∉ Q
Solution: ( fog) (π) = f (g(π)) = f(0) = 0
(gof ) (e) = g( f (e)) = g(1) = −1
∴ ( fog) (π) + (gof ) (e) = −1.
4. Problem: Let A = {1, 2,3}, B = {a, b, c}, C = { p, q, r} . If f : A → B, g : B → C are defined by
f = {(1, a), (2, c), (3, b)}, g = {(a, q), (b, r ), (c, p)} then show that f −1og −1 = ( gof ) −1 .

Solution: Given that f = {(1, a), (2, c), (3, b)} and g = {(a, q), (b, r ), (c, p)} then

gof = {(1, q), (2, p), (3, r )} ⇒ ( gof ) −1 = {(q,1), ( p, 2), (r ,3)} .

g −1 = {(q, a), (r , b), ( p, c)}, f −1 = {(a,1), (c, 2), (b,3)} then

f −1og −1 = {(q,1), (r ,3), ( p, 2)} .
∴ ( gof ) −1 = f −1og −1 .

5. Problem: If f : Q → Q is defined by f ( x ) = 5 x + 4 for all x ∈Q , show that f is a bijection and

find f −1 .
Solution: Let x1 , x2 ∈ Q, f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) ⇒ 5 x1 + 4 = 5 x2 + 4 ⇒ x1 = x2 .
∴ f is an injection.
y−4
Let y ∈ Q . Then x = ∈ Q and
5
 y − 4  y − 4
f ( x) = f   = 5 +4= y.
 5   5 
∴ f is a surjection and hence f is a bijection.

∴ f −1 : Q → Q is a bijection.
We have fof −1 ( x) = I ( x)

( )
f f −1 ( x ) = x
5 f −1 ( x) + 4 = x
x−4
f −1 ( x) = for all x ∈Q .
5
Functions 21

Exercise 1(b)
I. 1. If f ( x) = e x and g ( x) = log e x , then show that fog = gof and find f −1 and g −1 .
y y
2. If f ( y ) = , g ( y) = then show that ( fog ) ( y ) = y .
1− y2 1+ y2
3. If f : R → R and g : R → R are defined by f ( x) = 2 x 2 + 3 and g ( x ) = 3 x − 2 , then find
(i ) ( fog ) ( x), (ii ) ( gof ) ( x), (iii ) fof (0), (iv ) go ( fof ) (3) .
4. If f : R → R , g : R → R are defined by f ( x) = 3 x − 1, g ( x) = x 2 + 1 , then find

(i ) fof ( x 2 + 1), (ii ) fog (2), (iii ) gof (2a − 3) .

1
5. If f ( x) = , g ( x) = x for all x ∈ (0, ∞ ) , then find ( gof ) ( x ) .
x
x +1
6. If f ( x) = 2 x − 1, g ( x) = for all x ∈R , then find ( gof ) ( x) .
2
7. If f ( x) = 2, g ( x) = x 2 , h ( x) = 2 x for all x ∈R , then find ( fo ( goh) ( x) ) .

8. Find the inverse of the following functions.

(i) a, b ∈ R , f : R → R defined by f ( x ) = ax + b ( a ≠ 0) .
(ii) f : R → (0, ∞) defined by f ( x) = 5 x .
(iii) f : (0, ∞ ) → R defined by f ( x) = log 2 x .

9. If f (x) = 1 + x + x2 + ..... for | x | < 1 then show that f −1 ( x) = x − 1 .

x
10. If f : [1, ∞ ) → [1, ∞ ) defined by f (x) = 2x(x − 1) then find f −1(x).
x −1
II. 1. If f ( x) = , x ≠ ±1, then verify fof −1 ( x) = x.
x +1
2. If A = {1, 2,3}, B = {α , β , γ }, C = { p, q, r} and f : A → B, g : B → C are defined by
f = {(1, α ), (2, γ ), (3, β )}, g = { (α , q), ( β , r ), (γ , p)} ,
then show that f and g are bijective functions and ( gof ) −1 = f −1og −1 .

3. If f : R → R , g : R → R defined by f ( x) = 3 x − 2, g ( x) = x 2 + 1, then find

(i ) ( gof −1 ) ( 2 ) , (ii ) ( gof ) ( x − 1) .
4. Let f = {(1, a), (2, c), (4, d ), (3, b)} and g −1 = {(2, a), (4, b), (1, c), (3, d )} ,
then show that ( gof ) −1 = f −1og −1 .
 22 Mathematics - IA

5. Let f : R → R , g : R → R be defined by f ( x) = 2 x − 3, g ( x) = x3 + 5 then find ( fog ) −1 ( x) .

6. Let f ( x ) = x 2 , g ( x ) = 2 x . Then solve the equation ( fog ) ( x ) = ( gof ) ( x ) .

x +1
7. If f ( x) = ( x ≠ ±1) then find ( fofof ) ( x ) and ( fofofof ) ( x) .
x −1

1.3 Real valued functions (Domain, Range and Inverse)

If X is any set, f : X → R then f is called a real valued function. For example let
  a b  
X =   a, b, c, d ∈ R  , define f : X → R by f (A) = det A for all A ∈ X ,
  c d  
then f is a real valued function.

In this section a function f is defined through a formula, without mentioning the domain and the range
explicitly. In such cases, the domain of f is taken to be the set of all real x for which the formula is
meaningful. The range of f is the set { f ( x ) | x is in the domain of f }.

1.3.0 (a) : nth root of a non-negative real number

Let x be a non-negative real number and n be a positive integer. Then there exists a unique non-
negative real number y such that y n = x . The proof is beyond the scope of this book. This number y is
called the nth root of x and is denoted as x1/ n (or) n
x.

When n = 2, 2
x is called the square root of x . 2
x is written simply as x.
If x is any real number and n is an odd positive integer there exists a unique real number y such that
1
y = x so that we write y = n x or x n .
n

1.3.0 (b): ax when 1 ≠ a > 0 and x is a rational number:

1
If 1 ≠ a > 0 and x =
m
n
where m, n are integers and n > 0 we define a x = a m ( ) n .

1.3.1 Examples
1. Example: The domain of the real valued function f ( x) = a 2 − x 2 (a > 0) is [−a, a ] .

[Since a − x ∈ R, (a > 0) ⇔ a − x ≥ 0 ⇔ x ≤ a ⇔ x ≤ a ⇔ −a ≤ x ≤ a] .
2 2 2 2 2 2

is R  −  .
1 1
2. Example: The domain of the real valued function f ( x) =
2x +1  2
 1 1
 Since 2 x + 1 ∈ R ⇔ 2 x + 1 ≠ 0 ⇔ x ≠ − 2 
Functions 23

1.3.2 Algebra of real valued functions

If f and g are real valued functions with domains A and B respectively, then both
f and g are defined on A ∩ B when A ∩ B ≠ φ .

(i) Let f : A → R and g : B → R . Suppose that A ∩ B ≠ φ , we define

f + g , f − g and fg on A ∩ B as ( f ± g ) ( x ) = f ( x ) ± g ( x ) and
( fg ) ( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x ) .
Let f : A → R and c be a constant function defined on A. Then from the
above definition ( f + c ) ( x ) = f ( x ) + c and (cf ) ( x) = cf ( x ) for all x ∈ A .
The function ( −1) f is denoted by − f.

f
(ii) Let E = {x ∈ A ∩ B g ( x ) ≠ 0} ≠ φ . We define on E by
g

 f  f ( x) f ( x)
  ( x) = for all x ∈ E . Note that if g ( x ) = 0 , then is not
g g ( x) g ( x)

defined.

(iii) Let f : A → R and n ∈ N . We define f and f n on A by f ( x) = f ( x)

and f n ( x) = ( f ( x) ) for all x ∈ A .

n

(iv) If E = {x ∈ A f ( x) ≥ 0} ≠ φ , then we define f on E by

f ( x) = f ( x) , for all x ∈ E .
In view of the above, we can conclude that if f, g are defined on their
respective domains then
domain ( f + g) = domain of f ∩ domain of g
domain ( fg) = domain of f ∩ domain of g

 f 
domain   = domain of f ∩ domain of g ∩ {x : g(x) ≠ 0}
g

domain ( f ) = domain of f ∩ {x : f (x) > 0}

 24 Mathematics - IA

1.3.3 Solved Problems

1. Problem: Find the domains of the following real valued functions.
1 1
(i) f (x) = (ii) f (x) = (a > 0)
6x − x2 − 5 x2 − a2
(iii) f (x) = ( x + 2) ( x − 3) (iv) f (x) = ( x − α ) ( β − x)(0 < α < β )
1
(v) f (x) = 2 − x + 1+ x (vi) f (x) = x2 −1 +
x 2 − 3x + 2
1
(vii) f (x) = (viii) f (x) = x −x
x −x
Solution
1 1
(i) f ( x) = = ∈ R ⇔ ( x − 1) (5 − x) ≠ 0
6 x − x − 5 ( x − 1) (5 − x)
2

⇔ x ≠ 1,5
∴ Domain of f is R {1, 5}.
1
(ii) f ( x) = ∈ R ⇔ x2 − a2 > 0
x −a
2 2

⇔ ( x − a) ( x + a) > 0
⇔ x < −a (or) x > a
⇔ x ∈ ( −∞, − a ) ∪ ( a, ∞ )
∴ Domain of f is ( −∞, − a ) ∪ ( a, ∞ ) = R [ − a, a ] .
(iii) f ( x) = ( x + 2) ( x − 3) ∈ R ⇔ ( x + 2) ( x − 3) ≥ 0
⇔ x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 3
⇔ x ∈ ( −∞, − 2] ∪ [3, ∞ ) = R (−2, 3)
∴ Domain of f is ( −∞, − 2] ∪ [3, ∞ ) = R (−2, 3).

(iv) f ( x) = ( x − α ) ( β − x) ∈ R ⇔ ( x − α ) ( β − x) ≥ 0
⇔ α ≤ x ≤ β (3 α < β )
⇔ x ∈ [α , β ]
∴ Domain of f is [α , β ] .
(v) f ( x) = 2 − x + 1 + x ∈ R ⇔ 2 − x ≥ 0 and 1 + x ≥ 0
⇔ 2 ≥ x and x ≥ −1
⇔ −1 ≤ x ≤ 2
⇔ x ∈ [−1, 2]
∴ Domain of f is [ − 1, 2].
 Functions 25

1
(vi) f ( x) = x 2 − 1 + ∈ R ⇔ x 2 − 1 ≥ 0 and x 2 − 3 x + 2 > 0
x − 3x + 2
2

⇔ ( x + 1) ( x − 1) ≥ 0 and ( x − 1) ( x − 2) > 0

⇔ x ∈ ( −∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) and x ∈ ( −∞,1) ∪ (2, ∞ ) .

⇔ x ∈ ( R (−1, 1) ∩ (R [1, 2])).

⇔ x ∈R {( −1,1) ∪ [1, 2]}

⇔ x ∈R ( −1, 2] = ( − ∞, −1] ∪ (2, ∞ ) .
∴ Domain of f is ( −∞, − 1] ∪ (2, ∞ ) = R ( −1, 2] .

1
(vii) f ( x) = ∈R ⇔ x − x > 0 ⇔ x > x
x −x
⇔ x ∈ ( −∞, 0) .
∴ Domain of f is ( −∞, 0) .

(viii) f ( x) = x − x ∈ R ⇔ x − x ≥ 0 , which is true for all x ∈ R .

∴ Domain of f is R .

2. Problem: If f = {(4,5), (5, 6), (6, −4)} and g = {(4, −4), (6,5), (8,5)} then find
(i) f + g (ii) f − g (iii) 2f + 4g (iv) f + 4
(v) fg (vi) f / g (vii) | f | (viii) f
2 3
(ix) f (x) f

Solution: Domain of f = A = {4,5,6} , Domain of g = B = {4, 6,8} .

Domain of f ± g = A ∩ B = {4, 6} .

(i) f + g = {(4, 5 − 4), (6, −4 + 5)} = {(4,1), (6,1)} and

(ii) f − g = {(4,5 + 4), (6, −4 − 5)} = {(4,9), (6, −9)} .

(iii) Domain of 2 f = A = {4, 5, 6}, Domain of 4 g = B = {4,6,8} .

∴ 2 f = {(4,10), (5,12), (6, −8)}, 4 g = {(4, −16), (6, 20), (8, 20)} .

Domain of 2 f + 4 g = {4, 6}

∴ 2 f + 4 g = {(4,10 − 16), (6, −8 + 20)} = {(4, −6), (6,12)} .

 26 Mathematics - IA

(iv) Domain of f + 4 = A = {4,5, 6}

f + 4 = {(4,5 + 4), (5, 6 + 4), (6, −4 + 4)} = {(4,9), (5,10), (6, 0)} .
(v) Domain of fg = A ∩ B = {4, 6}
fg = {( 4, (5) ( −4) ) , (6, ( −4) ( −5) )} = {(4, −20), (6, 20)} .
f
(vi) Domain of = {4, 6} .
g
f  −5   −4  
∴ =  4,  ,  6,   .
g  4   5 
(vii) Domain of f = A = {4,5, 6}.

∴ f = {(4,5), (5, 6), (6, 4)} .

(viii) Domain of f = {4,5} .

{
∴ f = (4, 5), (5, 6) . }
(ix) Domain of f 2 = A = {4,5, 6} .

∴ f 2 = {(4, 25), (5,36), (6,16)}.

(x) Domain of f 3 = A = {4,5, 6} .
∴ f 3 = {(4,125), (5, 216), (6, −64)}.
3. Problem: Find the domains and ranges of the following real valued functions.
2+ x x
(i ) f ( x) = (ii ) f ( x) = (iii ) f ( x) = 9 − x2
2− x 1 + x2
Solution
2+ x
(i) ∈ R ⇔ 2 − x ≠ 0 ⇔ x ≠ 2 ⇔ x ∈ R {2}.
2− x
∴ Domain of f is R {2}.
2+ x 2 ( y − 1)
Let f ( x) = y ⇒ = y⇒x= , clearly, x is not defined for
2− x ( y + 1)
y + 1 = 0 i.e., when y = −1 . ∴ range of f = R {−1}.
x
∈ R ⇔ x ∈ R is defined for all x∈R , since x + 1 ≠ 0 for x∈R .
2
(ii) f ( x) =
1+ x 2

∴ Domain of f is R .
If x = 0 then f (x) = 0, If x ≠ 0 then f (x) ≠ 0.
 Functions 27

x 1± 1− 4 y2
Let y = f ( x) = ⇒ x y−x+ y =0⇒ x =
2
is a real number
1 + x2 2y
iff 1 − 4 y 2 ≥ 0 ⇔ (1 + 2 y ) (1 − 2 y ) ≥ 0;
 −1 1 
⇒ y∈ , 
 2 2
 −1 1 
∴ range of f =  ,  .
 2 2
(iii) f ( x) = 9 − x 2 ∈ R ⇔ 9 − x 2 ≥ 0
⇔ (3 + x) (3 − x) ≥ 0 ⇔ x ∈ [−3,3] .

∴ domain of f = [−3,3] .

Clearly f (x) = 9 − x 2 ∈ [0, 3] . Suppose y ∈ [0, 3] .

Then x = 9 − y 2 ∈ [0, 3] and f ( x) = 9 − (9 − y 2 ) = y .

∴ range of f = [0,3] .
1.3.4 Some more types of functions
1. Even and odd functions : Let A be a nonempty subset of R such that − x ∈ A for all x ∈ A and
f :A → R.
(i) If f (− x ) = f ( x ) for every x in A then f is called an even function.
(ii) If f ( − x ) = − f ( x ) for every x in A then f is called an odd function.

Examples
(i) f ( x) = x 2 , g ( x) = cos x, h( x) = x ( x ∈ R ) are all even functions.
(ii) f ( x ) = x, ( x ∈R ) is an odd function.
 2n + 1 
g (x) = tan x is an odd function on R  π , n ∈ Z .
 2 
(iii) f ( x) = x + x , g ( x) = cos x + sin x are neither even nor odd.
2 3

Every real valued function defined on a nonempty subset A of R such that x ∈ A ⇒ − x ∈ A can be
written as sum of an even and odd functions.
f ( x) + f (− x) f ( x) − f (− x)
Consider g ( x) = and h ( x) = then g is even and h is odd since
2 2
g (x) = g (− x) and h (x) = − h (− x). Clearly
f ( x) = g ( x) + h ( x) .
 28 Mathematics - IA

2. Polynomial function : If n is a non negative integer, a0 , a1 , a2 , ...., an are real numbers (at least
one ai ≠ 0 ) then the function f defined on R by
f ( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + .... + an x n for all x ∈R is called a polynomial function.

Examples
(i) f ( x ) = ax + b ( a, b ∈ R ) is a polynomial function.

(ii) g ( x) = −7 x 4 + 3x 2 + 2 is a polynomial function.

(iii) h ( x ) = k (0 ≠ k ∈ R ) is a polynomial function.

3. Rational function : If f and g are polynomial functions and g ( x ) ≠ 0 for all x ∈R then the
f  f  f ( x)
function defined by   ( x) = is called a rational function.
g g g ( x)
x 2 − 3x + 2
Examples: 1. is a rational function.
x2 + 1
1
2. f ( x) = , x ∈ R {0} is a rational function.
x
Y

0 X

1
Fig. 1.4 Graph of f ( x) = .
x
4. Algebraic function: Operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and extraction
of square root etc., are called algebraic operations. A function obtained by applying a finite number
of algebraic operations on polynomial functions is called an algebraic function.

3x 2 + 9 − x 2
Examples : (i ) f ( x) = , ( x ∈ [−3,3] {0} ).
2x

( ii ) f ( x) = x 2 − a 2 + 7 x, (a > 0), ( x ∈ R ( − a, a )) .
Functions 29

5. Exponential function: The function ax when 1 ≠ a > 0 and x is rational, is already defined in this
chapter. This can be extended to real x as well, inheriting all the exponential properties. We do not
present a formal definition of ax (x ∈ R ) but assume the existence of such a (unique) function. This
function is called an exponential function. Even though the definition presented in chapter 9 is
slightly different, these two are equivalant. The domain of the function ax is R and the range is R+.

Y
Y Y

y = ax, (a > 1)
y = ax, (a = 1) y = ax, (0 < a < 1)
0 X 0 X 0 X

Fig. 1.5 graph of ax

6. Logarithmic function: If a > 0, a ≠ 1, given y > 0 there is a unique x ∈ R such that ax = y.

The function defined on R+ by f(y) = x, where ax = y, is called the logarithmic function to the
base ‘a’. This function is denoted by loga. Thus log a y = x iff ax = y. The logarithmic function to
the base e is called the natural logarithmic function and is denoted by ‘log’ and also ln. Thus
log y = lny = x iff ex = y. Clearly the domain of loga function is (0, ∞) . Further its range is R.
Y
Y

y = loga x, (a > 1) y = loga x, (0 < a < 1)

0 X
0 X

Fig. 1.6 Graph of loga x

7. Greatest Integer function: For any real number x, we denote by [ x ] , the greatest integer less than or
equal to x. For example [1.72] = 1,[ −3.41] = −4, [0.22] = 0, [ −0.71] = −1 .
 30 Mathematics - IA

The function f : R → R defined by f ( x) = [ x ] for all x ∈R is called the greatest integer

function. The domain of the greatest integer function is R and the range is the set Z of all integers.
Y

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 X

−1

−2

−3

Fig. 1.7 Graph of greatest integer function

8. Modulus function : The function f : R → R defined by f (x) = |x| for each x ∈R is called
modulus function. For each non-negative value of x, f (x) is equal to x. But for negative values of
x, the value of f (x) is the negative of the value of x i.e.,
 x, x ≥ 0
f ( x) = 
 − x, x < 0
The graph is

y = |x|

0
X

Fig. 1.8 f (x) = | x |

 Functions 31

9. Signum function: The function f : R → R defined by

 1, x > 0
|x| 
sgn( x) = f ( x) = =  0, x = 0 is called signum function. The domain is R and range is
x 
 −1, x < 0
Y
{−1, 0, 1}.

y=1
1

X′
0 X

y=−1 −1

Y′
Fig. 1.9 Graph of Signum function

1.3.5 Solved Problems

1. Problem: If f ( x) = x 2 and g ( x) = x , find the following functions.
(i) f + g , (ii) f − g , (iii) fg , (iv) 2 f , (v) f 2 , (vi) f + 3
 x, x ≥ 0
Solution: Given that f ( x) = x 2 , g ( x) = x =  , domain f = domain g = R. Hence the domain
 − x, x < 0
of all the functions (i) through (vi) is R.
 x 2 + x, x ≥ 0
(i) ( f + g ) ( x) = f ( x) + g ( x) = x + x =  2
2

 x − x, x < 0
 x 2 − x, x ≥ 0
(ii) ( f − g ) ( x) = f ( x) − g ( x) = x − x =  22

 x + x, x < 0
 x 3 , x ≥ 0
(iii) ( fg ) ( x) = f ( x) g ( x) = x 2 x =  3
− x , x < 0
(iv) (2 f ) ( x) = 2 f ( x) = 2 x .
2

f 2 ( x) = ( f ( x) ) = ( x 2 ) 2 = x 4 .
2
(v)
(vi) ( f + 3) ( x) = f ( x) + 3 = x 2 + 3 .
2. Problem: Determine whether the following functions are even or odd.
 ex −1 
(i) f ( x ) = a − a
x −x
+ sin x , (ii) f ( x) = x  x ,
 e +1 
 32 Mathematics - IA

(iii) f ( x) = log ( x + x 2 + 1)
Solution: Clearly in all the cases domain f = R

(i) We have f ( x ) = a x − a − x + sin x

∴ f ( − x ) = a − x − a x + sin ( − x) = a − x − a x − sin x = − ( a x − a − x + sin x ) = − f ( x ) .

∴ f is an odd function.
 e x − 1
(ii) f ( x ) = x  x
 e + 1 
 e− x − 1   1 − ex   ex −1 
f (− x) = (− x)  − x  = − x   = x  x  = f ( x) .
 e +1   1+ e +
x
  e 1 
∴ f is an even function.
(iii) f ( x) = log ( x + x 2 + 1) ⇒ f ( − x) = log ( − x + x 2 + 1)
 ( x + x 2 + 1) (− x + x 2 + 1) 
∴ f ( − x ) = log  
 ( x + x 2 + 1) 
 x2 + 1 − x2  −1
= log   = log ( x + x + 1)
2

 x + x +1 
2

∴ f (− x) = − log ( x + x 2 + 1) = − f ( x) .
∴ f is an odd function.
3. Problem: Find the domains of the following real valued functions.

(ii) f ( x) = log ( x − [ x ])
1
(i) f ( x) =
[ x] − [ x] − 2
2

 3− x  1
(iii) f ( x) = log10   (iv) f ( x) = x + 2 +
 x  log10 (1 − x)

(v) f ( x) = 3 + x + 3 − x
x
Solution
1
(i) f ( x) = ∈ R ⇔ [ x] − [ x] − 2 > 0
2

[ x] − [ x] − 2
2

⇔ ([ x ] + 1) ([ x ] − 2 ) > 0
⇔ [ x ] < −1 (or) [ x ] > 2 .
Functions 33

But [ x ] < −1 ⇒ [ x] = −2, −3, −4............ ⇒ x < −1

[ x] > 2 ⇒ [ x ] = 3, 4,5,.......... ⇒ x ≥ 3

∴ Domain of f = ( −∞, −1) ∪ [3, ∞ ) = R [−1, 3).

(ii) f ( x) = log ( x − [ x ]) ∈ R ⇔ x − [ x ] > 0 ⇔ x > [ x ]

⇔ x is a non-integer
∴ Domain of f is R Z.

 3− x   3− x  3− x
(iii) f ( x) = log10   ∈ R ⇔ log 10   ≥ 0 and >0
 x   x  x
3− x
⇔ ≥ 100 = 1 and 3 − x > 0, x > 0
x
⇔ 3 − x ≥ x and 0 < x < 3
⇔ x ≤ 3 / 2 and 0 < x < 3

 3  3
⇔ x ∈  −∞,  ∩ (0, 3) =  0, 
 2  2

 3
∴ Domain of f is  0,  .
 2

1
(iv) f ( x) = x + 2 + ∈ R ⇔ x + 2 ≥ 0 and 1 − x > 0 and 1 − x ≠ 1
log10 (1 − x)

⇔ x ≥ −2 and 1 > x and x ≠ 0

⇔ x ∈[ −2, ∞ ) ∩ ( −∞,1) {0} ⇔ x ∈[ −2,1) {0}

∴ Domain of f is [−2, 1) {0} .
3+ x + 3− x
(v) f ( x) = ∈ R ⇔ 3 + x ≥ 0, 3 − x ≥ 0, x ≠ 0
x
⇔ − 3 ≤ x ≤ 3, x ≠ 0

⇔ x ∈ [−3,3] {0}

∴ Domain of f is [−3,3] {0} .

 34 Mathematics - IA

Exercise 1(c)

I. 1. Find the domains of the following real valued functions.

1 2 x2 − 5x + 7
(i) f (x) = (ii) f (x) =
( x − 1) ( x + 3)
2
( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 3)
1
(iii) f (x) = (iv) f (x) = x − 3
log (2 − x )

1
(v) f (x) = 4x − x 2 (vi) f (x) =
1 − x2

3x
(vii) f (x) = (viii) f (x) = x 2 − 25
x +1
(ix) f (x) = x − [ x] (x) f (x) = [ x] − x
2. Find the ranges of the following real valued functions.
sin π [ x ]
(i ) log 4 − x 2 (ii ) [ x ] − x (iii )
1 + [ x]
2

x2 − 4
( iv ) (v) 9 + x2
x−2
3. If f and g are real valued functions defined by f ( x ) = 2 x − 1 and g ( x) = x 2 then find
 f 
(iii) 
 g 
(i) (3 f − 2 g ) ( x ) (ii) ( fg ) ( x) ( x)
 
(iv) ( f + g + 2) ( x )

4. If f = {(1, 2), (2, −3), (3, −1)} then find

(i) 2 f (ii) 2 + f (iii) f 2 (iv) f

II. 1. Find the domains of the following real valued functions.

(i) f ( x) = x 2 − 3 x + 2 (ii)i) f (x) = log (x 2 − 4 x + 3)
2+ x + 2− x 1
(iii) f ( x) = (iv)v f (x) =
x 3 (x − 2) log(4− x) 10
4 − x2
(v) f ( x) = (vi)i f (x) = log0.3 (x − x 2 )
[x] + 2
1
(vii) f ( x) =
x+ x
Functions 35

x x
2. Prove that the real valued function f ( x ) = + + 1 is an even function on
e −1 2
x

R {0}.
3. Find the domain and range of the following functions.
tan π [ x ] x
(i) f (x) = (ii) f (x) = (iii) f (x) = x + 1 + x
1 + sin π [ x ] +  x 2  2 − 3x

Key Concepts

L If f : A → B is a function then f (A) = { f (a) | a ∈ A} is called the range f. It is a subset of B,

and is denoted by Range f.

L f : A → B is an injection ⇔ a1 , a2 ∈ A, f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) imply a1 = a2 .

L f : A → B is a surjection ⇔ range f = codomain B ⇔ for any b ∈ B there exists atleast one

a ∈ A such that f ( a ) = b .

L f : A → B is a bijection ⇔ f is both an injection and a surjection.

L If f : A → B is a bijection then the relation f −1 = {(b, a) | (a, b) ∈ f } is a bijection from B to A

and is called the inverse function of f.

L Let f : A → B , g : B → C be functions then ( gof ) : A → C is a function and

( gof ) (a) = g ( f (a) ) for all a ∈ A.

L If f : A → B , g : B → C are bijections so is ( gof ) : A → C and ( gof ) −1 = f −1og −1 .

L If f : A → B is a bijection, then fof −1 = I B and f −1of = I A .

L If f : A → B , g : B → C are such that gof = I A , fog = I B then f is a bijection and g = f −1 .

L Let A be a nonempty subset of R such that − x ∈ A for all x ∈ A and f : A → R .

(i) If f (− x ) = f ( x ) for all x ∈ A then f is called an even function.

(ii) If f ( − x ) = − f ( x ) for all x ∈ A then f is called an odd function.

 36 Mathematics - IA

Historical Note

The history of the term “Function” furnishes an interesting example of the enthusiasm in
mathematicians to modify, refine and generalize their concepts.
The word “Function” seems to have been known to Descartes (1596 - 1650) in 1637,
who employed the term simply to mean some positive integral powers, x n , of a variable x. Somewhat
later, Leibnitz (1646 - 1716) employed the term to denote any quantity connected with a curve,
such as the coordinates of a point on the curve, the slope of the curve etc. Johann Bernoulli
(1667 - 1748) regarded a function as any expression made up of a variable and some constants and
Euler (1707 - 1783) gave a symbolic representation as f(x) to a function. Euler’s concept remains
unchanged till Fourier (1768 - 1830) has modified the earlier definition of a function in his
investigations of trigonometric series. These series involve a more general type of relationship between
variables that had previously been studied and have become instrumental in his attempt to furnish the
present definition of function broad enough to encompass such relationships by Lejeune Dirichlet
(1805 - 1859).

Answers
Exercise 1(a)

I. 1. (i) 5 (ii) 2 (iii) −2.5 (iv) 1 (v) Not defined

5. {3, 1, 7}

 1 7 13 
6.  ,1, , 
2 4 5 

II. 1. (i) f is not a surjection (ii) g is a surjection

2. (i) bijection (ii) bijection

(iii) bijection (iv) bijection

(v) not an injection but a surjection (vi) neither injection nor surjection

3. a = 2; b = −1 5. 2 6. a = ± 1, b = 1
 Functions 37

Exercise 1(b)

I. 1. f −1 ( x) = log e x, g −1 ( x) = e x

3. (i) 18 x 2 − 24 x + 11 (ii) 6 x 2 + 7 (iii) 21

(iv) 2653

4. (i) 9 x 2 + 5 (ii) 14 (iii) 36a 2 − 120a + 101

1
5. 6. x 7. 2
x

x−b
8. (i) (ii) log 5 x (iii) 2 x
a

1 + 4 log 2 x
10.
2
 x−7
1/ 3
25
II. 3. (i) (ii) 9 x − 30 x + 26
2
5.  
9  2 
6. x = 0, 2 7. f ( x ) , x

Exercise 1(c)

I. 1. (i) R {−1, 1, −3} (ii) R {1, 2, 3}

(iii) ( −∞, 2 ) {1} (iv) R

(v) [0,4] (vi) (−1, 1)

(vii) R {−1} (viii) R (−5, 5,)
(ix) R (x) Z
2. (i) R (ii) {0}

(iii) {0} (iv) R {4}

(v) [3, ∞ )

3. (i) −2 x 2 + 6 x − 3 (ii) 2x 3 − x 2
2x −1
(iii) (iv) ( x + 1) 2
x2
 38 Mathematics - IA

4. (i) {(1, 4), (2, −6), (3, −2)} (ii) {(1, 4), (2, −1), (3,1)}

(iii) {(1, 4), (2,9), (3,1)} {

(iv) (1, 2) }
II. 1. (i) R (1,2) (ii) R [1, 3]

(iii) [−2, 2] {0} (iv) ( −∞, 4) {2, 3}

(v) (−∞, −2) ∪ [−1, 2] , (vi) (0,1)

(vii) (0, ∞ )

3. (i) Domain R , range {0}

2  −1 
(ii) Domain R   , Range R  
3 3

(iii) Domain R , range [1, ∞)

 Mathematical Induction 39

“Analysis and natural philosophy owe their most

important discoveries to this fruitful means,
which is called induction”
− Laplace

Introduction

A famous Italian Mathematician, Peano

defined a function f : N → N as f ( n) = n + 1
which is known as Peano successor function. He
obtained some algebraic properties of the set N of all
natural numbers by using this function f in his
axiomatic approach. One of his axioms is known as Laplace
(1749 - 1827)
Inductive axiom or Induction Theorem.
Pierre Simon de Laplace was a
To understand the basic principles of French mathematician and
astronomer whose work was pivotal
mathematical induction consider the following simple
to the development of mathematical
example. astronomy. His most outstanding
work was done in the fields of
Suppose a set of bicycles are placed, very celestial mechanics, probability,
closely adjacent to each other. differential equations, and geodesy.
His five volume work on celestial
When the first bicycle is pushed in a particular mechanics earned him the title of the
Newton of France.
direction, all the bicycles will fall in that direction.
 40 Mathematics - IA

To be absolutely sure that all the bicycles will fall, it is sufficient to know that
(a) the first bicycle falls and
(b) in the event that any bicycle falls, its successor necessarily falls.
This is the underlying principle of mathematical induction.
Mathematical Induction is a powerful tool frequently used to establish the validity of statements that
are given in terms of the natural numbers.
The inductive aspect is concerned with the search for facts by observation and experimentation.
For example, we all know the fact that “Sun rises in the east”. How can we say this happens always ? By
observing this phenomenon from ages, we conclude that this goes on. Thus, we arrive at a conjecture for
a general rule by inductive reasoning.

2.1 Principles of Mathematical Induction & Theorems

Here under we state the well-ordering principle of the positive integer, which can be used for the
proof of principle of finite mathematical induction. However, we do not attempt to prove these theorems
at this stage. Students who aspire to choose mathematics as major subject at the degree level have an
opportunity to learn the proof of both these theorems, the well-ordering principle and the principle of finite
mathematical induction.

2.1.1 Well - Ordering principle

Any non-empty set of positive integers has a least element.

2.1.2 Principle of finite mathematical induction

Let S be a subset of N such that

1. 1 ∈ S
2. For any k ∈ N , k ∈ S ⇒ k + 1 ∈ S .
Then S = N.

2.1.3 Equivalent forms of principle of finite mathematical induction

Principle of finite mathematical induction has a good number of equivalent forms which are used in
appropriate occasions. Three of them are stated here in 2.1.4, 2.1.5 and 2.1.6. We present proof for
2.1.5 as it is an immediate consequence of 2.1.2, the principle of finite mathematical induction and leave
the others as exercises.
 Mathematical Induction 41

2.1.4 Statement : For each n ∈ N , let P(n) be a statement. Suppose that

(i) P(1) is true.
(ii) for any k ∈ N , if P(k) is true, then P(k + 1) is true.

Then P(n) is true for all n ∈ N .

2.1.5 Principle of complete mathematical induction

Let S be a subset of N such that
(i) 1 ∈ S
(ii) for any k ∈ N , {1, 2, 3,..., k } ⊆ S ⇒ k + 1 ∈ S
Then S = N.

Proof: Let T = {m ∈ N : 1, 2, ..., m ∈ S}

Then 1 ∈ S ⇒ 1 ∈ T and
n ∈ T ⇒ 1, 2, ..., n ∈ S
⇒ (n + 1) ∈ S
⇒ (n + 1) ∈ T
By the principle of finite induction (2.1.2), it follows that T = N.
∴ N = T ⊆ S. But by hypothesis S ⊆ N.
Accordingly S = N.

2.1.6 Statement : For each n ∈ N , let P(n) be a statement. Suppose that

(i) P(1) is true
(ii) for any k ∈ N , if P(1), P(2), ... , P(k) are true, then P(k + 1) is true.
Then P(n) is true for all n ∈ N .
It may happen that statements P(n) are false for certain natural numbers but they are true for all
n ≥ n0 for some particular n0.
For example, the statement P(n) = (n − 1) (n − 3) (n − 5) is a positive integer is true for all n ≥ 6 but
not true when n = 1 or n = 3 or n = 4 or n = 5. However it is true for n = 2 also. The principle of
mathematical induction can be modified to deal with this situation. We will formulate the modified
principle, without proof.
 42 Mathematics - IA

2.1.7 Principle of mathematical induction (Modified version)

Let n0 ∈ N and let P(n) be a statement for each natural number n ≥ n0 . Suppose that
(i) The statement P (n0 ) is true.
(ii) For all k ≥ n0 , P(k) is true ⇒ P(k + 1) is true.
Then P(n) is true for all n ≥ n0 .

2.1.8 Steps to prove a statement using the principle of mathematical induction

The starting point or basis of induction is usually 1, but could be negative integer, positive integer or
zero. Normally we expect to prove that P(k) ⇒ P(k + 1). So there are 3 steps to prove a statement
using the principle of mathematical induction.
1. Basis of induction : Show that P (1) is true.
2. Inductive hypothesis : For k ≥ 1 , assume that P (k) is true.
3. Inductive step : Show that P (k + 1) is true on the basis of
the inductive hypothesis.
Let us consider an example from which we observe that the principle of mathematical induction is
only a method of proof for a known or guessed or predicted formula and it is not a tool for finding such
formula.

2.1.9 Example
Let S(n) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n.
Let us examine a few values for S(n) and list them in the following table:

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

S(n) 1 3 6 10 15 21 28 36 45 55 66

To guess a formula for S(n) may not be an easy task. But we can observe the following pattern :
2 S(1) = 2 = 1.2
2 S(2) = 6 = 2.3
2 S(3) = 12 = 3.4
2 S(4) = 20 = 4.5 , and so on.
This leads us to conjecture that
n ( n + 1)
2 S(n) = n(n + 1) so that S(n) =
2
 Mathematical Induction 43

n (n + 1)
i.e., 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = .
2
Now let us use mathematical induction to prove the above formula.
n (n + 1)
Let P(n) be the statement : The sum S(n) of the first n positive integers is equal to .
2
1 (1 + 1)
1. Basis of induction : Since S(1) = 1 = , the formula is true for n = 1 .
2
2. Inductive hypothesis : Assume the statement P(n) is true for n = k .
k ( k + 1)
i.e., S(k ) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k = .
2
3. Inductive step : To show that the formula is true for n = k + 1 .
( k + 1) ( k + 2)
i.e., to show that S ( k + 1) = .
2
We observe that S (k + 1) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k + ( k + 1)
= S ( k ) + ( k + 1)
k (k + 1)
Since S(k ) = , by the inductive hypothesis,
2
k (k + 1)
we have S (k + 1) = + (k + 1)
2
(k + 1) (k + 2)
=
2
Therefore the formula holds for n = (k + 1) .
∴ By the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all n ∈N .
n (n + 1)
i.e., the formula, 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = is true for all n ∈ N .
2

2.2 Applications of Mathematical Induction

Mathematical induction is very useful in proving many theorems and statements. For example, it is
useful in proving Binomial theorem, Leibnitz theorem for finding nth order derivative of the product of two
functions and evaluation of some integrals etc.
We now illustrate the utility of mathematical induction in proving some statements.

2.2.1 Solved Problems

1. Problem: Use mathematical induction to prove the statement,
n 2 (n + 1) 2
1 +2 +3 + +n =
3 3
... 3 3
, ∀ n ∈ N.
4
 44 Mathematics - IA

Solution: Let P(n) be the statement :

n 2 (n + 1) 2
13 + 23 + 33 + ... + n3 =
4
1 (1 + 1) 2
Since 1 = ,the formula is true for n = 1.
4
Assume that statement P(n) is true for n = k, k > 1
k 2 (k + 1) 2
i.e., 13 + 23 + 33 + ... + k 3 = .
4
We show that the formula is true for n = k + 1,

(k + 1)2 (k + 2)2
i.e., we show that S(k + 1) = (where S(k) = 13 + 23 + ... + k3)
4
We observe that S(k + 1) = 13 + 23 + 33 + ... + k 3 + ( k + 1)3
= S(k ) + ( k + 1)3 .
k 2 (k + 1) 2
Since, S(k ) = ,
4
we have S ( k + 1) = S( k ) + ( k + 1)3
k 2 ( k + 1) 2
= + ( k + 1)3
4
(k + 1)2 2
= k + 4 (k + 1) 
4  
(k + 1) 2 (k + 2) 2
=
4
∴ The formula holds for n = k + 1.
∴ By the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all n ∈ N .
n 2 (n + 1) 2
i.e., the formula 1 + 2 + 3 + + n =
3 3 ... 33
is true for all n ∈ N .
4
2. Problem: Use mathematical induction to prove the statement,
n
n (2n − 1) (2n + 1)
∑ (2k −1)
k =1
2
=
3
for all n ∈ N .

Solution: Let P(n) be the statement :

n (2 n − 1) (2 n + 1)
12 + 32 + 52 + ... + (2 n − 1) 2 = .
3
Let S(n) be the sum 12 + 32 + ... + (2n − 1)2.
Mathematical Induction 45

1 (2 − 1) (2 + 1)
Since S(1) = 1 = , the formula is true for n = 1.
3
Assume that the statement P(n) is true for n = k, k > 1.
k (2 k − 1) (2 k + 1)
i.e., S (k ) = 12 + 32 + 52 + ... + (2 k − 1) 2 = .
3
We show that the formula is true for n = k + 1,
(k + 1) (2 k + 1) (2 k + 3)
i.e., we show that S(k + 1) = .
3
We observe that S(k + 1) = 12 + 32 + 52 + ... + (2 k − 1) 2 + (2 k + 1) 2
= S ( k ) + (2 k + 1) 2
k (2 k − 1) (2 k + 1)
Since S (k ) = ,
3
we have S ( k + 1) = S ( k ) + ( 2 k + 1)
2

k (2 k − 1) (2 k + 1)
= + (2 k + 1)2
3
 k (2 k − 1) 
= (2 k + 1)  + (2 k + 1) 
 3 
 2 k2 + 5k + 3
= (2 k + 1)  
 3 
(2 k + 1) (k + 1) (2 k + 3)
=
3
(k + 1) (2 k + 1) (2 k + 3)
∴ S(k + 1) = .
3
∴ The formula holds for n = k + 1.
∴ By the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all n∈N .
n
n (2 n − 1) (2 n + 1)
i.e., the formula ∑ (2k − 1)2 = 3
is true for all n ∈ N .
k =1

3. Problem: Use mathematical induction to prove the statement,

2 + 3.2 + 4.22 + ... upto n terms = n. 2 n , ∀ n ∈ N .

Solution: Let P(n) be the statement :

2 + 3.2 + 4.22 + ... + ( n + 1) 2n − 1 = n .2n
Let S(n) be the sum 2 + 3.2 + 4.22 + ... + (n + 1) 2n−1.
Since S(1) = 2 = 1. 21 , the formula is true for n = 1.
 46 Mathematics - IA

Assume that the statement P(n) is true for n = k, k > 1.

i.e., S( k ) = 2 + 3.2 + 4.22 + ... + ( k + 1) 2k − 1 = k .2k
We show that the formula is true for n = k + 1
i.e., we show that S (k + 1) = (k + 1) .2k + 1 .
We observe that S( k + 1) = 2 + 3.2 + 4.22 + ... + (k + 1) 2k − 1 + (k + 2) 2k
= S (k ) + ( k + 2) 2k .
Since , S(k) = k 2k, we have, S( k + 1) = S( k ) + ( k + 2) 2k
= k . 2k + ( k + 2) 2k
= 2k (k + k + 2)
= (k + 1) 2k + 1 .
∴ The formula holds for n = k + 1.
∴ By the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all n ∈N .
i.e., the formula 2 + 3.2 + 4.22 + ... + ( n + 1) 2n − 1 = n 2n is true for all n ∈N .

1 1 1
4. Problem: Show that, ∀ n ∈ N , + + + ... upto n terms = n .
1.4 4.7 7.10 3n + 1
Solution: 1, 4, 7, ... are in Arithmetic Progression whose nth term is 3n − 2.
4, 7, 10, ... are also in Arithmetic Progression whose nth term is 3n + 1.
th 1
∴ The n term in the given series is .
(3 n − 2) (3 n + 1)
Let P(n) be the statement :
1 1 1 1 n
+ + + ... + =
1.4 4.7 7.10 (3 n − 2) (3 n + 1) (3 n + 1)
and let S(n) be the sum on the left hand side.
1 1
Since S (1) = = , the formula is true for n = 1.
1.4 3.1 + 1
Assume that the statement P(n) is true for n = k, k > 1.
1 1 1 1 k
i.e., S(k ) = + + + ... + = .
1.4 4.7 7.10 (3 k − 2) (3 k + 1) 3k + 1
We show that the formula is true for n = k + 1,
k +1
i.e., we show that S (k + 1) = .
3k + 4
We observe that
Mathematical Induction 47

1 1 1 1 1
S(k + 1) = + + + ... + +
1.4 4.7 7.10 (3 k − 2) (3 k + 1) (3 k + 1) (3 k + 4)
1
= S(k ) + .
(3 k + 1) (3 k + 4)
k 1
Since S(k ) = we have, S(k + 1) = S(k ) +
3k + 1 (3 k + 1) (3 k + 4)
k 1
= +
(3 k + 1) (3 k + 1) (3 k + 4)
k (3 k + 4) + 1
=
(3 k + 1) (3 k + 4)

( k + 1) (3 k + 1)
=
(3 k + 1) (3 k + 4)

k+1 .
=
3k + 4
∴ The formula holds for n = k + 1.
∴ By the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all n ∈ N .
5. Problem: Use mathematical induction to prove that 2n − 3 < 2n−2 for all n > 5, n ∈ N.
Solution: Let P(n) be the statement : 2n − 3 < 2n−2, ∀ n ≥ 5, n ∈ N.
Here we note that the basis of induction is 5.
Since 2.5 − 3 < 25−2, the statement is true for n = 5.
Assume the statement is true for n = k, k > 5.
i.e., 2k − 3 < 2k−2, for k > 5.
We show that the statement is true for n = k + 1, k > 5
i.e., [2(k + 1) − 3] < 2(k + 1) − 2 , for k > 5.
We observe that [2(k + 1) − 3] = (2k − 3) + 2
< 2k − 2 + 2, (By inductive hypothesis)
< 2k−2 + 2k−2 for k > 5
= 2.2k−2
= 2(k + 1) − 2
∴ The statement P(n) is true for n = k + 1, k > 5.
∴ By the principle of mathematical induction, the statement is true for all n > 5, n ∈ N.
 48 Mathematics - IA

6. Problem: Use mathematical induction to prove that (1 + x)n > 1 + nx for n >2, x > −1, x ≠ 0.
Solution: Let the statement P(n) be : (1 + x)n > 1 + nx.
Here we note that the basis of induction is 2 and that x ≠ 0, x > − 1
⇒ 1 + x > 0.
Since (1 + x)2 = 1 + 2x + x2 > 1 + 2x, the statement is true for n = 2.
Assume that the statement is true for n = k, k > 2.
i.e., (1 + x)k > 1 + k x for k > 2
We show that the statement is true for n = k + 1,
i.e., (1 + x)k+ 1 > 1 + (k + 1)x.
We observe that (1 + x)k + 1 = (1 + x)k . (1 + x)
> (1 + k x) . (1 + x), (By inductive hypothesis)
= 1 + (k + 1)x + kx2
> 1 + (k + 1)x, (since kx2 > 0)
∴ The statement is true for n = k + 1.
∴ By the principle of mathematical induction, the statement P(n) is true for all n > 2.
i.e., (1 + x)n > 1 + nx, ∀ n > 2, x > −1, x ≠ 0.

2.3 Problems on divisibility

In the following problems, we illustrate the method of using mathematical induction to prove the
statements on divisibility.

2.3.1 Solved Problems

1. Problem: If x and y are natural numbers and x ≠ y, using mathematical induction, show that
x n − y n is divisible by x − y, for all n ∈ N .
Solution: Let P(n) be the statement :

x n − y n is divisible by x − y.
Since x1 − y1 = x − y is divisible by x − y, the statement is true for n = 1.
Assume that the statement P(n) is true for n = k, k > 1.

i.e., x k − y k is divisible by x − y.
Then x k − y k = (x − y) p, where p is the quotient when x k − y k is divided
by x − y. ... (1)
 Mathematical Induction 49

We show that the statement is true for n = k + 1,

i.e., we show that x k + 1 − y k + 1 is divisible by x − y.
From (1), we have x k − y k = (x − y) p

∴ xk = ( x − y) p + y k .

∴ xk +1 = ( x − y) p x + y k . x

∴ xk + 1 − y k +1 = ( x − y) p x + y k x − y k + 1

= ( x − y ) p x + y k ( x − y ).

= ( x − y) ( p x + y k )

∴ xk + 1 − y k + 1 is divisible by x − y.
∴ The statement P(n) is true for n = k + 1.
∴ By the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all n ∈ N

i.e., x n − y n is divisible by x − y for all n ∈ N .

2. Problem: Using mathematical induction, show that x + y is divisible by x + y, if m is an

m m

odd natural number and x, y are natural numbers.

Solution: Since m is an odd natural number, there exists a non negative integer n such that
m = 2n + 1.
Let P(n) be the statement : x 2 n + 1 + y 2 n + 1 is divisible by x + y.
Since x1 + y1 = x + y is divisible by x + y, the statement is true for n = 0 and
x 2.1 + 1 + y 2.1 + 1 = x 3 + y 3 = ( x + y ) ( x 2 − x y + y 2 ) is divisible by x + y, the statement is true for
n = 1.
Assume that the statement P(n) is true for n = k, k > 1.
i.e., x 2 k + 1 + y 2 k + 1 is divisible by x + y.

Then x 2 k + 1 + y 2 k + 1 = (x + y) p, where p is the expression in x, y and is the quotient when

x 2 k + 1 + y 2 k + 1 is divided by x + y. ... (1)

We show that the statement is true for n = k + 1,

i.e., we show that x 2 k + 3 + y 2 k + 3 is divisible by x + y.

From (1), we have x 2 k + 1 + y 2 k + 1 = ( x + y ) p

 50 Mathematics - IA

∴ x2 k + 1 = ( x + y) p − y 2 k + 1

∴ x2 k + 1 . x2 = ( x + y) p x2 − y 2 k + 1 . x2

∴ x2 k + 3 = ( x + y) p x2 − y 2 k + 1 . x2

∴x2 k + 3 + y 2 k + 3 = ( x + y) p x2 − y 2 k + 1 . x2 + y 2 k + 3

= ( x + y) p x2 − y 2 k + 1 ( x2 − y 2 )

= ( x + y) p x2 − y 2 k + 1 ( x + y) ( x − y)

= ( x + y )  p x 2 − y 2 k + 1 ( x − y )  ,

∴ x 2 k + 3 + y 2 k + 3 is divisible by x + y.
∴ The statement P(n) is true for n = k + 1.
∴ By the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all n.

i.e., x 2 n + 1 + y 2 n + 1 is divisible by x + y , for all non-negative integers n.

i.e., x m + y m is divisible by x + y, if m is an odd natural number.

Note : The above problem need not hold when m is an even natural number.
For example, if m = 2, x = 1, y = 2 then x 2 + y 2 = 12 + 22 = 5 is not divisible
by x + y = 1 + 2 = 3.
3. Problem: Show that 49n + 16 n − 1 is divisible by 64 for all positive integers n.

Solution: Let P(n) be the statement :

49n + 16 n − 1 is divisible by 64.
Since 491 + 16.1 − 1 = 64 is divisible by 64, the statement is true for n = 1.
Assume that the statement P(n) is true for n = k, k > 1.
i.e., 49k + 16 k − 1 is divisible by 64.
Then 49k + 16 k − 1 = 64t , for some t ∈ N . ... (1)
We show that the statement P(n) is true for n = k + 1,
i.e., we show that 49k + 1 + 16 ( k + 1) − 1 is divisible by 64.
From (1), we have 49k + 16 k − 1 = 64 t
 Mathematical Induction 51

∴ 49 k = 64 t − 16 k + 1
∴ 49k . 49 = (64 t − 16 k + 1) . 49
∴ 49k + 1 + 16 ( k + 1) − 1 = (64 t − 16 k + 1) . 49 + 16 ( k + 1) − 1
∴ 49k + 1 + 16 ( k + 1) − 1 = 64 (49 t − 12 k + 1) ,
here 49 t − 12 k + 1 is an integer.
∴ 49k + 1 + 16 (k + 1) − 1 is divisible by 64.
∴ The statement is true for n = k + 1.
∴ By the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all n ∈ N ,
i.e., 49n + 16 n − 1 is divisible by 64, ∀ n ∈ N .

4. Problem : Use mathematical induction to prove that 2 . 4 (2 n + 1) + 3 (3 n + 1) is divisible by 11,

∀ n ∈ N.
Solution : Let P(n) be the statement :
2.4 (
2 n + 1)
+ 3(
3 n + 1)
is divisible by 11.
Since 2 . 4 (2 .1 + 1) + 3 (3 .1 + 1) = 2 . 43 + 34 = 209 = 11 × 19 is divisible by 11, the statement
P(n) is true for n = 1.
Assume that the statement P(n) is true for n = k, k > 1.
i.e., 2 . 4 (
2 . k + 1)
+ 3(
3 . k + 1)
is divisible by 11.
Then 2 . 4 (
2 . k + 1)
+ 3(
3 . k + 1)
= 11 t , for some integer t. ... (1)
We show that the statement P(n) is true for n = k + 1.
i.e., we show that 2 . 4 2 k + 3 + 3 3 k + 4 is divisible by 11.
From (1), we have 2 . 4 (
2 k + 1)
+ 3(
3 k + 1)
= 11t
∴ 2.4 (
2 k + 1)
= 11t − 3 (
3 k + 1)

∴2 . 4 (
2 k + 1)
(
. 42 = 11t − 3 (
3 k + 1)
).4 2

2. 4 (
2 k + 3)
+ 3(
3 k + 4)
= (11t − 3 ( 3k + 1 )
) 16 + 3 ( 3 k + 4)
.
= 11t . 16 − 3(
3k + 1)
. 16 + 3(
3k + 4 )

= 11 . t .16 + 3(
3 k + 1)
33 − 16 
 
= 11. t .16 + 3(
3 k + 1)
(11)

= 11. 16 t + 3(
3 k + 1) 
,
 
 52 Mathematics - IA

16 t + 3(
3 k + 1)
here is an integer.
∴ 2.4 (
2 k + 3)
+ 3(
3 k + 4)
is divisible by 11.
∴ The statement P(n) is true for n = k + 1.

∴ By the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all n ∈ N .

i.e., 2. 4 (
2 n + 1)
+ 3(
3 n + 1)
is divisible by 11 for all n ∈ N .
Note: While proving the statements using the principle of mathematical induction, the two steps : Basis of
induction and Inductive hypothesis are important. Careless use of the principle of mathematical induction
can lead to obviously absurd conclusions. There are statements that are true for many natural numbers but
are not true for all of them as can be seen from the following examples.

2.3.2 Examples

(i) The formula P (n) : n 2 − n + 41 gives a prime number for n = 1, 2, 3, ...,40. But P(41) = 412 is
obivously divisible by 41. Therefore, it is not a prime number.
(ii) For n ∈ N , let P(n) be the statement
"1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2 n − 1) = n 2 + ( n − 1) ( n − 2) ... ( n − 10)"

Then P(1), P(2), ... , P(10) are all true.

But P(11) is not true.

Exercise 2(a)

Using mathematical induction, prove each of the following statements, for all n ∈ N .
n (n + 1) (2 n + 1)
1. 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
2 2 2 2
.
6
n (n 2 + 6 n + 11)
2. 2 . 3 + 3 . 4 + 4 . 5 + ... upto n terms = .
3
1 1 1 1 n
3. 1 . 3 + 3 . 5 + 5 . 7 + ... + (2 n − 1) (2 n + 1) = 2 n + 1 .

4. 43 + 83 + 123 + ... upto n terms = 16 n 2 ( n + 1) 2 .

5. a + ( a + d ) + ( a + 2 d ) + ... upto n terms = [2 a + (n − 1) d ] .

n
2
Mathematical Induction 53

a ( r n − 1)
6. a + a r + a r 2 + ... upto n terms = , r ≠ 1.
( r − 1)
n (5n − 1)
7. 2 + 7 + 12 + ... + (5n − 3) = .
2
 3  5   7   2n + 1
8.  1 +   1 +   1 +  .....  1 + 2  = (n + 1) 2 .
 1  4   9   n 
9. (2n + 7) < (n + 3)2.
n3
10. 12 + 22 + ... + n2 > .
3
11. 4 n − 3n − 1 is divisible by 9.
12. 3. 52 n + 1 + 23 n + 1 is divisible by 17.
n (n + 1) (n + 2) (n + 3)
13. 1.2.3 + 2.3.4 + 3.4.5 + ... upto n terms = .
4

14. 1 + 1 + 2 + 1 + 2 + 3 + ... upto n terms =

3 3 3 3 3 3 n
 2n 2 + 9n + 13 .
1 1+ 3 1+ 3+ 5 24  
n (n + 1) 2 (n + 2)
15. 12 + (12 + 22 ) + (12 + 22 + 32 ) + ... upto n terms = .
12

Key Concepts

L Principle of finite mathematical induction:

Let S be a subset of N such that
(i) 1 ∈ S
(ii) For any k ∈ N, k ∈ S ⇒ k + 1 ∈ S.
Then S = N.
L Principle of complete mathematical induction:
Let S be a subset of N such that
(i) 1 ∈ S
(ii) For any k ∈ N, {1, 2, 3, ... k} ⊆ S ⇒ k + 1 ∈ S .
Then S = N.
L Steps to prove a statement using the principle of mathematical induction:


(i) Basis of induction : Show that P(1) is true.

(ii) Inductive hypothesis : For k ≥ 1 , assume that P(k) is true.
(iii) Inductive step : Show that P(k + 1) is true on the basis of the
inductive hypothesis.
54 Mathematics - IA

Historical Note

Unlike other concepts and methods, proof by mathematical induction is not the invention of a
particular individual at a particular moment. It is said that the principle of mathematical induction
was known to the Phythagoreans.
The French mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623 - 1662) is credited with the origin of the
principle of mathematical induction.
The name ‘induction’ was used by the English mathematician John Wallis (1616-1703).
Later the principle was employed to provide a proof of the binomial theorem.
De Morgan (1806 - 1871) had many accomplishments in the field of mathematics on many
different subjects. He was the first person to define ‘mathematical induction’ and developed De
Morgan’s rule in set theory and wrote a treatise on formal logic.
Giuseppe Peano (1858 - 1932) undertook the task of deducing the properties of natural
numbers from a set of explicitly stated assumptions, now known as Peano’s axioms. The principle
of mathematical induction is a restatement of one of Peano’s axioms.
 Matrices 55

"The search for truth is more precious than

its possession"
- Albert Einstein

Introduction

We have learnt about Matrices and their

determinants in high school classes. An arrangement
of numbers in a rectangular array comprising of rows
and columns is known as a matrix. m × n (read as
m by n), where m is the number of rows and n is Arthur Cayley
the number of columns, is known as the order of the (1821 - 1895)
Arthur Cayley was a British
matrix. In high school classes our study was limited to
mathematician. Cayley worked as a
2 × 2 matrices. lawyer for 14 years. While he was a
lawyer he published about 250
In this chapter we deal with higher order research papers in mathematics, and
later, while working as Sadleirian
matrices in general and 3 × 3 matrices in particular.
Professor at Cambridge, published
For the sake of completeness, we shall start with another 650. It was Cayley who first
introduced matrix multiplication. He
defining a matrix etc... and go on to extend our study
was consequently able to prove the
of the algebra of matrices and then use the theory to Cayley-Hamilton theorem - that every
find the solutions of simultaneous linear equations. square matrix is a root of its own
characteristic polynomial.
 56 Mathematics - IA

3.1 Types of matrices

In this section, we define a matrix, its order and various types of matrices.
3.1.1 Definition (Matrix)

An ordered rectangular array of elements is called a matrix.

We confine our discussion to matrices whose elements are real or complex numbers; or real or
complex valued functions. Matrices are generally enclosed by brackets.
We denote matrices by capital letters A,B, C...
The following are some examples of matrices.
1 2 4 1 2
A = B =
3 0 −6  4 −3
 x +1 x 2 −1 3  → 1st row
  nd
C =  −3 2 sin x  → 2 row
  rd
 7 + sin x 4 3 + sin 2 x  → 3 row

↓ ↓ ↓
1st column 2nd column 3rd column
In the above examples, the horizontal lines of elements are said to constitute the rows of the matrix
and the vertical lines of elements are said to constitute the columns of the matrix. Thus A has 2 rows and
3 columns, B has 2 rows and 2 columns, while C has 3 rows and 3 columns.
3.1.2 Definition (Order of Matrix)
A matrix having m rows and n columns is said to be of order m × n, read as m cross n or
m by n.
In the above examples, A is of order 2 × 3, B is of order 2 × 2 and C is of order 3 × 3.

In general, a matrix having m rows and n columns is represented as follows.

 a11 a12 K a1 j K a1n 
a a22 K a2 j K a2n 
 21 
K K K K K K
K K 
 
A = K K K 
 ai1 ai 2 K aij K ain 

 . . . . . . 
 . . . . . . 
a am 2 K amj K amn 
 m1
 Matrices 57

In the above matrix every element is specified by its position in terms of the row and column in
which the element is present. The first and second suffices of an element indicate respectively the row and
column in which the element is present. For example a23 is the element present in the second row and the
third column.
In compact form the above matrix is denoted by
A = [aij ]m × n where 1 ≤ i ≤ m and 1 ≤ j ≤ n.

Throughout this chapter, we generally consider matrices of order m × n, where

m ∈ {1, 2, 3} and n ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}.

3.1.3 Types of matrices

1. Square matrix
A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns, is called a square
matrix.
A = [aij ]m × n is a square matrix if m = n. In this case we say that A is a square matrix of order
m. For example,
[2] is a square matrix of order 1.
1 −1 
0 4 
is a square matrix of order 2 ,

2 0 1
and 4 −1 2  is a square matrix of order 3.

7 6 9 

If A = [aij ] is a square matrix of order n, the elements a11 , a22 , ..., an n are said to constitute its
Principal diagonal or simply the diagonal. Hence aij is an element of the diagonal or non-diagonal
according as i = j or i ≠ j.
The sum of the elements of the diagonal of a square matrix A is called the trace of A and is
denoted by Tr (A).
n
If A = [aij ] is a square matrix of order n, then Tr (A) = ∑ aii .
i =1
2 0 1
For example, if A =  4 −1 2  , then Tr (A) = 2 + (−1) + 9 = 10.

7 6 9 
2. Diagonal matrix
If each non-diagonal element of a square matrix is equal to zero, then the matrix is called a
diagonal matrix.
 58 Mathematics - IA

2 0 0
0 0 0
For example,  −1 0  are diagonal matrices.
2 
, 
0  0 0 1
If A = [aij ]n × n is a diagonal matrix, it is sometimes denoted as diag [ a11 , a22 , ..., ann ].

3. Scalar matrix
If each non-diagonal element of a square matrix is zero and all diagonal elements are equal to
each other, then it is called a scalar matrix.

2 0
For example, 
2 
,
0

 −1 0 0
0 0 
0 −1 0 are all scalar matrices.
0  
, 0
  0 0 −1
4. Unit (Identity) matrix
If each non-diagonal element of a square matrix is equal to zero and each diagonal element is
equal to 1, then that matrix is called a Unit matrix or Identity matrix.
We denote the unit matrix of order n by I n , or simply by I, when there is no ambiguity about the
order.
1 0 0
1 0
For example, I1 = [1] , I2 =  I3 = 0 0  are unit matrices.
1 
, 1
0
0 0 1
[aij ]n × n is a unit matrix
⇔ aij =1 if i = j and aij = 0 if i ≠ j
5. Null matrix or Zero matrix
If each element of a matrix is zero, then it is called a Null matrix or Zero matrix. It is
denoted by Om × n or simply by O.
0 0
0 0  
For example, O 2 =   , O3×2 = 0 0  are null matrices.
 0 0  0 0 
6. Row matrix and Column matrix
A matrix with only one row is called a Row matrix (or row vector) and a matrix with only one
column is called a Column matrix (or column vector).
Matrices 59

For example, [ 1 3 − 2] is a row matrix (order 1 × 3),

2
 1  is a column matrix (order 2 × 1).
 
7. Triangular matrices
A square matrix A = [aij ] is said to be Upper Triangular if aij = 0 for all i > j.

A is said to be Lower Triangular if aij = 0 for all i < j .

2 −4 0
  −3 1
−2  , 
4 
For example,  0 3 are upper triangular matrices while
1 
0
 0 0

1 0 0
0 1 0
0  ,  are lower triangular matrices.
3
 1
1 
2
 2 0

Observe that I3 and O3 are both upper and lower triangular matrices.

A = [aij ]n × n , is
Upper Triangular if aij = 0 for all i > j.
Lower Triangular if aij = 0 for all i < j

3.1.4 Definition (Equality of matrices)

Matrices A and B are said to be equal if A and B are of the same order and the
corresponding elements of A and B are the same.

a a12 a13  b b12 b13 

Thus A =  11  and B =  11
 a21 a22 a23  b21 b22 b23 

are equal if aij = bij for i = 1, 2 and j = 1, 2, 3.

3.1.5 Definition (Sum of two matrices)

Let A and B be matrices of the same order. Then the sum of A and B, denoted by A + B, is
defined as the matrix of the same order in which each element is the sum of the corresponding
elements of A and B.

If A = [aij ]m × n and B = [bij ]m × n ,

then A + B = [cij ]m × n where cij = aij + bij
 60 Mathematics - IA

3 2 −1 1 −2 7
For example, if A =   and B =  then
4 −3 1 3 2 −1

 3 +1 2 + (−2) −1 + 7   4 0 6
A+B=  =
1 + (−1)  7 0 
.
4 + 3 −3 + 2 −1

3.1.6 Properties of Addition of matrices

Let A = [aij ], B = [bij ], C = [cij ] be matrices of the same order. Then the addition of matrices
satisfies the following properties :

(i) Commutative Property

A+B = B+A
Now A + B = [ aij ] + [bij ]
= [ aij + bij ]
= [ bij + aij ]
= [ bij ] + [ aij ] Addition of matrices is commutative.
i.e., A + B = B + A
= B+A

(ii) Associative Property

A + ( B+C ) = ( A + B) + C
Now (A + B) + C = ( [ aij ] + [bij ]) + [cij ]
= [ aij + bij ] + [cij ]
= [ (aij + bij ) + cij ]
= [aij + (bij + cij ) ] (why?)
= [aij ] + [ bij + cij ] Addition of matrices obeys
(
= [aij ] + [ bij ] + [ cij ] ) Associative Property
i.e., A + ( B + C) = (A + B) +C
= A + ( B + C)
(iii) Additive identity
If A is a m × n matrix and O is the (m × n) null matrix,
A + O = O + A = A. We call O the additive indentity in the set of all m × n matrices.
(iv) Additive inverse
If A is an (m × n) matrix then there is a unique m × n matrix B such that
A + B = B + A = O, O being the m × n null matrix.
 Matrices 61

This B is denoted by − A and is called the additive inverse of A. Infact if A = [ aij ], then
B = [−aij ] .

3.2 Scalar multiple of a matrix and multiplication of matrices

This section is devoted to the study of multiplication of a matrix (i) by a scalar and (ii) by a matrix.
We also study the properties of multiplication.
3.2.1 Definition (Scalar multiple of a matrix)
Let A be a matrix of order m × n and k be a scalar (i.e., real or complex number). Then the
m × n matrix obtained by multiplying each element of A by k is called a scalar multiple of A and
is denoted by k A.

If A = [aij ]m × n then k A = [kaij ]m × n

3 2 −1
For example if k = 2 and A = 
1
then
4 −3
2 × 3 2× 2 2 × (−1)  6 4 −2 
kA = 2A =   = 
2 
.
2 × 4 2 × (−3) 2 ×1  8 −6

3.2.2 Note

( − 1) A = − A because A + ( − 1) A = O.
3.2.3 Properties of scalar multiplication of a matrix

Let A and B be matrices of the same order and α , β be scalars. Then

(i) á (âA) = (áâ) A = â (áA) (ii) (á+ â)A = áA + âA
(iii) á (A + B) = α A + α B (iv) áO = O
(v) 0A = O
Consider (ii) Let A = [aij ]m x n
(á+â)A = (á + â) [aij ]
= [(á + â) aij ] ..... by definition 3.2.1
= [áaij + âaij ] ..... by distributive law of numbers
= [áaij ] + [âaij ]
= á[ aij ] + â[ aij ]
= áA + âA
Verification of properties (i), (iii), (iv) and (v) is left to the student as an exercise.
 62 Mathematics - IA

3.2.4 Solved Problems

 2 3 −1 1 0 1
1. Problem: If A =  and B =   then find A + B.
7 8 5  2 −4 −1
Solution : A + B is defined since A and B are of same order.
2 3 −1  1 0 1
A+B =  +
7 8 5 2 −4 −1
 2 +1 3+0 −1 + 1
= 
7 + 2 8−4 5 − 1

3 3 0
= .
9 4 4 

 x −1 2 y − 5   1− x 2 −y 

2. Problem : If  z 0 2  =  2 0 2  then find the values
 1 −1 1 + a   1 −1 1 
of x, y, z and a.

Solution : From the equality of matrices

x − 1 = 1 − x; y − 5 = − y; z = 2; 1 + a = 1 .
5
Hence x = 1; y = ; z = 2; a = 0 .
2
 1
 1 2 − 
2
 
3. Problem : Find the trace of A if A =  0 −1 2 .
 
 1 
− 2 1
 2 
Solution : The elements of the Principal diagnonal of A are 1, − 1, 1. Hence the trace
of A is 1 + ( − 1) + 1 = 1.

 4 −5
4. Problem : If A =   then find − 5A.
 −2 3
Solution: By the definition of scalar multiplication of matrix

 4 −5  (−5)4 (−5)(−5)   −20 25

−5A = ( − 5)   =   =  .
 −2 3 (−5)(−2) (−5)3  10 −15
Matrices 63

5. Problem: Find the additive inverse of A where

 i 0 1
A =  0 −i 2 

.
 −1 1 5
Solution : The additive inverse of A is − A = ( − 1)A.
Hence the additive inverse of the given matrix
 i 1  −i
0 0 −1
   i −2 
.
− A = ( − 1)  0 −i 2  =  0
 −1 1 5  1 −1 −5
2 3 1 1 2 −1
6. Problem : If A =   and B =  then find the matrix X such that
 6 −1 5 0 −1 3
A+B − X = 0. What is the order of the matrix X ?

Solution: A and B are matrices of the same order 2 × 3. If A + B − X is to be defined, the order of
X also must be 2 × 3.
A + B−X = O ⇔ X = A +B
 2 3 1  1 2 −1
∴ X=  +  
 6 −1 5 0 −1 3
 3 5 0 .
= 
6 −2 8

0 1 2  1 −2 0
7. Problem : If A =  2 3 4  and B =  0
 1 −1 then find A−B

 4 5 6   −1 0 3
and 4B − 3A.

 0 −1 1 − (−2) 2 − 0  −1 3 2 
 
Solution: A − B =  2 − 0 3 −1 4 − (−1)  =  2 2 5

 4 − (−1) 5−0 6 − 3  5 5 3

 1 −2 0 0 1 2
4B − 3A = 4  0 1 
−1 −3  2 3 4 
 −1 0 3  4 5 6 

 4 −8 0  0 3 6
=  0 4 −4  −  6 9 12 
 −4 0 12  12 15 18
 64 Mathematics - IA

 4 −11 −6 
=  −6 −5 −16  .
 −16 −15 −6 

1 2  3 8
8. Problem : If A =   , B = 7 2  and 2X + A = B then find X.
3 4   
Solution : 2X + A = B ⇒ 2X = B − A

 3 8  1 2 
= −  
 7 2  3 4 

2 6
=  
 4 −2 

1 2 6  1 3 .
Hence X =   =  
2  4 −2   2 −1
9. Problem : Two factories I and II produce three varieties of pens namely, Gel, Ball and Ink pens.
The sale in rupees of these varieties of pens by both the factories in the month of September and
October in a year are given by the following matrices A and B.
September sales (in Rupees)
Gel Ball Ink
1000 2000 3000  Factory I
A = 
5000 3000 1000  Factory II
October sales (in Rupees)
Gel Ball Ink
 500 1000 600  Factory I
B = 
 2000 1000 1000 Factory II
(i) Find the combined sales in September and October for each factory in each variety.
(ii) Find the decrease in sales from September to October.

Solution : (i) Combined sales in September and October for each factory in each variety is given by
Gel Ball Ink
1500 3000 3600  Factory I
A+B =  
 7000 4000 2000 Factory II
 Matrices 65

(ii) Decrease in sales from September to October is given by

Gel Ball Ink
 500 1000 2400 Factory I
A−B =
3000 2000 0  Factory II

1
10. Problem : Construct a 3 × 2 matrix whose elements are defined by aij = | i − 3 j | .
2

Solution : In general a 3 × 2 matrix is given by

 a11 a12 
A =  a21 a22 
 a31 a32 

1
Now aij = |i −3j | i = 1, 2, 3 and j = 1, 2.
2
1 1 5
a11 = | 1 − (3 × 1) | = 1 a12 = | 1 − (3 × 2) | =
2 2 2
1 1 1
a21 = | 2 − (3 × 1) | = a22 = | 2 − (3 × 2) | = 2
2 2 2
1 1 3
a31 = | 3 − (3 × 1) | = 0 a32 = | 3 − (3 × 2) | =
2 2 2
 5
1 2
 
∴ A =  2 
1
2
 
0 3
 2 

Exercise 3(a)

I. 1. Write the following as a single matrix.

 0   −1 
 1 +  1
(i) [2 1 3] + [0 0 0] (ii)    
 −1   0 

 −1 2   0 1
(iii) 
0 4 2
(iv)  1 −2  +  −1 0 
3 9 0
1 +
 8 −2  7 1 4    
 3 −1  −2 1
 66 Mathematics - IA

 −1 3   2 1 x x2 
,X= 1
x4 
2. If A =   , B=   and A + B = X then find the values of
 4 2  3 −5   x3
x1 , x2 , x3 and x4 .

 −1 −2 3 1 −2 5  −2 1 2
3. If A =  1 2 4  , B = 0
 −2 2  and C =  1
 1 2 
 2 −1 3 1 2 −3   2 0 1

then find A + B + C.

3 2 −1   −3 −1 0
4. If A =  2 −2 0  , B =  2
 1 3  and X = A + B then find X.

1 3 1   4 −1 2 

 x − 3 2 y − 8  5 2
5. If  = then find the values of x, y, z and a.
z + 2 6   −2 a − 4 


 x −1 2 5 − y   1 2 3
II. 1. If  0 z −1 7  =  0 4 7  then find the values of x, y, z and a.

 1 0 a − 5   1 0 0 

 1 3 −5
2. Find the trace of  2 −1 5  .

 2 0 1 

 0 1 2  −1 2 3 
3. If A =  2 3 4  and B =  0 1 0  find B − A and 4A − 5 B.

 4 5 −6   0 0 −1

1 2 3 3 2 1 
4. If A =   and B =   find 3B − 2A.
3 2 1 1 2 3 

3.2.5 Multiplication of matrices

We say that matrices A and B are conformable for multiplication in that order (giving
the product AB) if the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B.
Matrices 67

3.2.6 Definition (Product of two matrices)

Let A = [aik ]m × n and B = [bkj ]n × p , be two matrices. Then the matrix C = [cij ]m × p
n
where cij = ∑ aik bkj is called the product of A and B and is denoted by AB.
k =1

Observe that when the orders of A and B are m × n and n × p, the order of the product matrix
AB is m × p. Every element of AB is in the form of a sum of products of certain elements of A and of B.
For example, in C=AB = [cij ]m × p
n
c23 = ∑ a2k bk 3 = a21b13 + a22b23 + a23b33 + ..... + a2nbn3
k =1

= the sum of the products of the elements of second row of A with the
corresponding elements of the 3rd column of B
A useful method to understand and to remember matrix multiplication is illustrated in the following
example.
 1 3 −4 2 
 2 3 1 
Let A 2 × 3 =   and B3× 4 =  −1 0 3 5
 0 −1 5   0 4 7 −6 
Let the rows of A be R1, R2 and the columns of B be C1, C2, C3, C4. When A2 × 3 is multiplied
with B3 × 4, the order of the product matrix C = AB is 2 × 4.
c11 c12 c13 c14 
∴ Let C = 
c24 
.
c21 c22 c23
 R1C1 R1C 2 R1C3 R1C 4 
Then C = 
R 2C 4 
.
 R 2C1 R 2C 2 R 2 C3
c11 = R1C1 = sum of the products of the 1st row elements of A with the
corresponding elements of the 1st column of B.
−
= 2(1) + 3( 1) + 1(0) = 1. −
c12 = R1C2 = sum of the products of the 1st row elements of A with the
corresponding elements of the 2nd column of B
= 2(3) + 3(0) + 1(4) = 10.
3.2.7 Examples
1. Example
2 3   0 4
Consider the matrices A =   and B =  −1 .
1 2   2 
Clearly A, B as well as B, A are conformable.
 68 Mathematics - IA

2 3   0 4   2(0) + 3(−1) 2(4) + 3(2)   −3 14 

Further AB =   =  = .
1 2   −1 2   1(0) + 2(−1) 1(4) + 2(2)   −2 8
 0 4 2 3   0(2) + 4(1) 0(3) + 4(2)  4 8  .
Now BA =  1 2  =  = 
 −1 2   

 −1(2) + 2(1) −1(3) + 2(2) 

0 1 
Hence the products AB and BA are not necessarily equal.

2. Example

A certain bookshop has 10 dozen chemistry books, 8 dozen physics books, 10 dozen
economics books. Their selling prices are Rs. 80, Rs. 60 and Rs. 40 each respectively. Using
matrix algebra, find the total value of the books in the shop.

Solution: Number of books

Chemistry Physics Economics
10 × 12 8 × 12 10 × 12
A=
 = 120 = 96 = 120 
Selling price (in rupees)
80  Chemistry
B =  60  Physics
 
 40 Economics
Total value of the books in the shop.
AB = [120 96 120] 80 
 60 
 
 40

= [120 × 80 + 96 × 60 + 120 × 40]

= [9600 + 5760 + 4800]
= [20160] (in rupees).

3.2.8 Note
Matrix multiplication is not commutative. If A and B are matrices conformable for multiplication,
AB exists, but BA may not exist; even if BA exists, AB and BA may not have the same order and even if
they have the same order they may not be equal.
1. If the orders of A and B are 2 × 3 and 3 × 4 respectively then the order of AB is 2 × 4, but BA
does not exist. (The number of columns of B is not equal to the number of rows of A, that is B and
A are not conformable for multiplication).
 Matrices 69

2. If the orders A and B are 2 × 3 and 3 × 2 respectively, then the order of AB is 2 × 2 , while the
order of BA is 3 × 3. Hence AB and BA can not be equal.
3. For the matrices A and B of example 1, 3.2.7, AB and BA have the same order but AB ≠ BA.
This does not mean however, that AB ≠ BA for every pair of matrices A, B for which AB and BA
are defined and are of same order.
1 0  3 0  3 0 
For instance, A =   and B = 0 4  then AB = BA = 0 8  .
0 2    
Verify whether every pair of diagonal matrices of same order commute or not!
Also, verify by an example whether a pair of square matrices of same order, whose product is a
scalar matrix, commute or not!

3.2.9 Note
0 −1 3 5 
Let A = 
2  0 0  then AB = BA = O.
and B =
0  
We know that in case of real numbers a,b if ab = 0 then a = 0 or b = 0. But in matrices, the
product of two non-zero matrices could be a zero matrix, as seen from the above example.
3.2.10 Note
If AB = AC and A ≠ O, then it is not necessary that B = C.
1 0  0 0  0 0
For example, if A =   , B=   and C = 5 6 
2 0 3 4   
we have AB = O = AC, but B ≠ C .
3.2.11 Properties of multiplication of matrices
Multiplication of matrices possesses the following properties, which we state without proof.
1. The Associative Law
For any three matrices A, B and C, we have (AB)C = A (BC) in the sense that whenever
one side of the equality is defined, then the otherside is also defined and the equality holds.

2. The Distributive Law

For any three matrices A, B and C, we have
(i) A(B + C) = AB + AC (Left Distributive Law)
(ii) (A+B)C = AC + BC (Right Distributive Law)
in the sense that whenever one side of the equation is defined, then the otherside is also defined
and the equality holds.
 70 Mathematics - IA

3. Existence of multiplicative identity

If I is the identity matrix of order n, then for every square matrix A of order n
IA = AI = A.

3.2.12 Note
(i) For any square matrix A, we denote A . A by A2. In general, for any positive integer n, n >1,
the product A. A. A ... A (taken n times) is denoted by An.

(ii) If A and B are matrices of orders m × n and n × p respectively and α , β are scalars, then
(áA). (âB) = áâ(AB) = ((áâ)A ) B = A. ((áâ)B) .
(iii) If á is a scalar, A is a square matrix and n is a positive integer, then
(áA)n = á n A n and áA = (áI)A.
We now verify all the properties of multiplication, in the following solved problems.

3.2.13 Solved Problems

1. Problem
0 1 2   1 −2
   
If A = 1 2 3  and B =  −1 0 then find AB and BA.
 2 3 4  2 −1

Solution : The number of columns of A = 3 = the number of rows of B. Hence AB is defined and

0 1 2   1 −2 
AB = 1 2 3   −1 0 
 2 3 4   2 −1

 0.1 + 1.( −1) + 2.2 0.( −2) + 1.0 + 2.( −1)  3 −2 

= 1.1 + 2.( −1) + 3.2 1.( −2) + 2.0 + 3.( −1)  = 5 −5 
   
 2.1 + 3.( −1) + 4.2 2.( −2) + 3.0 + 4.( −1)   7 −8
Since the number of columns of B is not equal to the number of rows of A, BA is not defined.

 1 −2 3 1 0 2
2. Problem: If A =  2 3 −1 and B = 0 1 2 then examine whether
   
 −3 1 2 1 2 0 
A and B commute with respect to multiplication of matrices.
 Matrices 71

Solution: Both A and B are square matrices of order 3. Hence both AB and BA are defined and are
matrices of order 3.
 1.1 + (−2).0 + 3.1 1.0 + (−2).1 + 3.2 1.2 + (−2).2 + 3.0 
 
AB =  2.1 + 3.0 + (−1).1 2.0 + 3.1 + (−1).2 2.2 + 3.2 + (−1).0 
 
 (−3).1 + 1.0 + 2.1 −3.0 + 1.1 + 2.2 −3.2 + 1.2 + 2.0 

 4 4 −2 
=  1 1 10 
 −1 5 −4 
1 0 2   1 −2 3  −5 0 7
BA = 0 1 2   2 3 −1 =  −4 5 3
1 2 0   −3 1 2   5 4 1

which shows that AB ≠ BA.

Therefore A and B do not commute with respect to multiplication of matrices.
 i 0
3. Problem : If A =   then show that A2 = − I.
 0 −i 
 i 0   i 0  i 2 0 
Solution : A 2 =    = 
 0 −i   0 −i   0 i 2 

 −1 0  1 0 
=   = (−1)   = −I.
 0 −1 0 1 

 cos è sin è 
4. Problem: If A = 
cos è 
then show that for all the postive integers n,
 −sin è
 cos n è sin n è
An =  .
−sin n è cos n è

Solution : We solve this problem by using the principle of mathematical induction.

 cos nè sin nè 
Consider the statement P(n) : A n = 
 − sin nè cos nè 
 cos è sin è 
Since A = 
cos è 
, P(n) is true for n = 1.
 − sin è
Suppose that the given statement P(n) is true for n = k, k ≥ 1.
 72 Mathematics - IA

 cos kè sin kè 
Then A k = 
 − sin kè cos kè 

 cos kè sin kè   cos è sin è 

Consider A k +1 = A k .A = 
 − sin kè cos kè   − sin è
 cos è 

 cos k è.cos è − sin k è.sin è cos k è.sin è + sin k è.cos è 

= 
 − sin k è.cos è − .cos k è sin è − sin k è.sin è + cos k è.cos è 
 cos (k è + è) sin (k è + è)  (Q cos (A + B) = cos A.cos B − sin A.sin B;
= 
 − sin (k è + è) cos (k è + è)  sin(A + B) = sin A.cos B+ cos A.sin B )

 cos (k + 1) è sin (k + 1) è 
= 
 − sin (k + 1) è cos (k + 1) è 

Therefore P(n) is true for n = k +1.

Hence, by mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all positive integral values of n.

 1 2 2
5. Problem : If A =  2 1 2  then show that A2 − 4A − 5I = O.
 
 2 2 1 

 1 2 2  1 2 2  9 8 8
=  2 1 2   2 1 2  =  8 9 8
2
Solution : A = A.A
 
 2 2 1   2 2 1   8 8 9 

 1 2 2  4 8 8
4A = 4  2 1 2  =  8 4 8 
 
 2 2 1   8 8 4 

 1 0 0  5 0 0
5 I = 5  0 1 0  =  0 5 0 
 0 0 1   0 0 5 
Hence
 9 8 8  4 8 8   5 0 0
A − 4A − 5 I =  8 9 8  −  8 4 8  −  0 5 0  = O.
2

 8 8 9   8 8 4   0 0 5 
Matrices 73

Exercise 3(b)
I. 1. Find the following products wherever possible

5  1 
   2 1 4  
(i) [−1 4 2] 1 (ii)   2
   6 −2 3  
 3 1 
 2 2 1   −2 −3 4
3 −2   4 −1    
(iii)    (iv) 1 0 2   2 2 −3
1 6   2 5     
2 1 2  1 2 −2 
3 4 9   1
   13 −2 0    2 1 4
(v)  0 −1 5    (vi)  −2   
  0 4 1    6 −2 3
 2 6 12   1
0 c −b  a2 ab ac 
   
(vii)  1 −1 1 1 (viii)  −c 0 a  ab b 2 bc 
    
 −1 1 1 1  
b − a 0  ac bc c 2 

 2 3
 1 −2 3  
2. If A =   and B = 4 5  , do AB and BA exist? If they exist,
 −4 2 5  
 2 1
find them. Do A and B commute with respect to multiplication ?
 4 2
3. Find A2, where A =  .
 −1 1 
 i 0
4. If A =  2
 , find A .
0 i 

i 0 0 −1 0 i 
5. If A =  , B =   and C =   and I is the unit matrix of order 2, then show
0 −i  1 0   i 0
that
(i) A2 = B2 = C2 = − I
(ii) AB = −BA = − C.

 2 1 3 2 0
6. If A =   and B =   , find AB. Find BA, if it exists.
 1 3 1 0 4 
 74 Mathematics - IA

2 4
7. If A =  2
 and A = O, then find the value of k.
 −1 k

 3 0 0
 
II. 1. If A =  0 3 0 , then find A4.
 
 0 0 3

 1 1 3
 
2. If A =  5 2 6  , then find A3.
 
 −2 −1 −3

1 −2 1
 
3. If A = 0 1 −1  then find A3 −3A2 −A −3I, where I is unit matrix of order 3.
 
3 −1 1

1 0  0 1 
4. If I =   and E =   then show that (aI + bE) = a I +3a bE, where I is unit matrix
3 3 2

 0 1  0 0
of order 2.

III. 1. If A = diag[a1,a2, a3], then for any integer n ≥ 1 show that A n = diag[a1n , a2n , a3n ] .

π
2. If è − φ = , then show that
2
cos 2è cos è sin è  cos 2φ cos φ sin φ 
    = O.
cos è sin è sin 2 è  cos φ sin φ sin φ 
2

3 − 4  1 + 2n −4n 
3. If A =  n
 then show that A =   for any integer n ≥ 1 , by using
1 − 1 n 1 − 2n 
mathematical induction.
4. Give examples of two square matrices A and B of the same order for which AB = O, but
BA ≠ O.
5. A trust fund has to invest Rs. 30,000 in two different types of bonds. The first bond pays 5%
interest per year, and the second bond pays 7% interest per year. Using matrix multiplication,
determine how to divide Rs. 30,000 among the two types of bonds, if the trust fund must
obtain an annual total interest of (a) Rs. 1800 (b) Rs. 2000.
Matrices 75

3.3 Transpose of a matrix

In this section we define the Transpose of a martrix and study its properties. We also define
symmetric and skew symmetric matrices.
3.3.1 Definition (Transpose of a matrix)

If A = [aij ] is an m × n matrix, then the matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and
columns of A is called the transpose of A. Transpose of the matrix A is denoted by
A' or AT. In other words, if A = [aij ]m × n , then A′ = [a ji ]n × m .

For example if
 3 2 
  3 4 0
A=  4 1  then A' =  .
   2 1 7 
 0 7

3.3.2 Properties of transpose of matrices

We now state the following properties of transpose of matrices without proof. These may be
verified by taking suitable examples.
For any two matrices A, B of suitable orders, we have
(i) (A′)′ = A (ii) (kA)′ = kA′
(iii) (A + B)′ = A′ + B′ (iv) (AB)′ = B′ A′
3.3.3 Example
1 4 7   −3 4 0 
If A =   and B =  
 2 5 8   4 −2 −1
Verify that (i) (A′)′ = A (ii) (A + B)′ = A′ + B′ (iii) (5B)′ = 5 (B)′

Solution
1 4 7 
(i) We have A =  
2 5 8 
 1 2
 
⇒ A′ =  4 5 
 
 7 8
1 4 7 
⇒ (A′)′ =   = A.
2 5 8 
 76 Mathematics - IA

1 4 7   −3 4 0 
(ii) A+B =   +  
2 5 8   4 −2 −1

 −2 8 7
=  
 6 3 7

 −2 6
 
∴ (A + B)′ =  8 3
 
 7 7

 1 2   −3 4   −2 6
     
A′ + B′ =  4 5 +  4 −2  =  8 3 = (A + B)′ .
     
7 8  0 −1  7 7

 −3 4 0 
(iii) We have 5B = 5  
 4 −2 −1

 −15 20 0
=  
 20 −10 −5 

 −15 20 
 
(5B)′ =  20 −10 
 
 0 −5

 −15 20 
 
also 5B′ =  20 −10 
 
 0 −5

Thus (5B)′ = 5B′ .

3.3.4 Example

 1 −2
 2 −1 2  
If A =   and B =  −3 0 then verify that ( AB)′ = B′ A′ .
 1 3 −4   
 5 4
Matrices 77

Solution
 1 −2 
 2 −1 2     15 4
We have AB =    −3 0  =  
 1 3 −4     −28 −18 
 5 4
 15 −28
∴ ( AB ) ′ =  
 4 −18
 2 1
   1 −3 5
Now A′ =  −1 3 and B′ =  
   −2 0 4 
 2 −4 
 2 1
 1 −3 5    15 −28
∴ B′ A′ =    −1 3 =  
 −2 0 4     4 −18 
 2 −4 
Hence ( AB ) ′ = B′ A′ .

3.3.5 Definition (Symmetric matrix)

A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if A′ = A .

3.3.6 Note
(i) The zero matrix O n×n , any diagonal matrix and the unit matrix In×n are symmetric.
th
(ii) If A is a symmetric matrix, then the (i, j)th element of A is the same as the ( j , i )
element of A.
 a11 a12 a13   1 2 0 
   
Let A =  a21 a22 a23  =  2 −3 −1
   
 a31 a32 a33   0 −1 4 
Observe that a12 = a21 = 2, a13 = a31 = 0 and a23 = a32 = − 1. So A is symmetric.
(iii) If A is a square matrix, then A + A′ is a symmetric matrix.

3.3.7 Definition (Skew-symmetric matrix)

A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if A′ = − A .

 0 1 −2 
 0 −1  
For example,   and  −1 0 4  are skew - symmetric matrices.
 1 0  
 2 −4 0 
 78 Mathematics - IA

3.3.8 Note
(i) The zero matrix O n×n is skew-symmetric.
(ii) If A is a skew-symmetric matrix, then the (i, j )th element of A is the same as the negative of
the ( j , i )th element of A.

 a11 a12 a13   0 1 −2 

   
Let A =  a21 a22 a23  =  −1 0 4 
   
 a31 a32 a33   2 −4 0 
Observe that a12 = 1 = − a21 , a13 = − 2 = − a31 and a23 = 4 = − a32 ,

since the diagonal elements a11 , a22 and a33 do not change while transposing the given matrix, if
A =  aij  is a skew symmetric matrix, then aii = − aii so that aii = 0 (i =1, 2,...n).
n×n
(iii) If A is a square matrix, then A − A ′ is a skew-symmetric matrix.
(iv) If A is a symmetric (or skew-symmetric) matrix, then kA is also symmetric (or skew-symmetric) for
any scalar k.
3.3.9 Solved Problems
 1 2
 −2 1 0  
1. Problem : If A=  and B =  4 3  the find A + B′ .
 3 4 −5  
 −1 5 
−2 1 0  1 4 −1 −1 5 −1
Solution : A + B′=   +  =  .
 3 4 −5  2 3 5  5 7 0

 −1 2
2. Problem: If A =   then find A A′. Do A and A′ commute with respect tomultiplication
 0 1
of matrices?
 −1 0
Solution : A′ =  
 2 1
 −1 2   −1 0  (−1).(−1) + 2.2 (−1).0 + 2.1  5 2
AA′ =    = = .
 0 1  2 1  0.(−1) + 1.2 0.0 + 1.1  2 1

 −1 0  −1 2  (−1).(−1) + 0.0 (−1).2 + 0.1  1 −2 

A′A =    = = .
 2 1  0 1  2.(−1) + 1.0 2.2 + 1.1  −2 5

Since AA′ ≠ A′A, A and A′ do not commute.

Matrices 79

 0 4 −2 
 
3. Problem: If A =  −4 0 8 is a skew symmetric matrix, find the value of x.
 
 2 −8 x 
Solution : A is a skew symmetric matrix and x is an element of the diagonal. Hence x = 0.
4. Problem : For any n × n matrix A, prove that A can be uniquely expressed as a sum of a
symmetric matrix and a skew symmetric matrix.
Solution : A + A′ is symmetric and A − A′ is a skew-symmetric matrix and
1 1
A = (A + A′) + (A − A′)
2 2
To prove uniqueness, let B be a symmetric matrix and C be a skew symmetric matrix such
that A = B + C.
Then A′ = (B + C)′ = B′ + C′ = B − C
1
and hence B = (A + A′)
2
1
and C = (A − A′) .
2

Exercise 3(c)

 2 0 1  −1 1 0 ′
I. 1. If A =   and B =   then find (AB′) .
 −1 1 5  0 1 −2 

 −2 1
   −2 3 1
2. If A =  5 0  and B =   then find 2A + B′ and 3B′ − A.
   4 0 2
 −1 4
 2 −4  ′
3. If A =   then find A + A and AA′.
 −5 3 
 −1 2 3
 
4. If A =  2 5 6  is a symmetric matrix, then find x.
 
 3 x 7
 0 2 1
 
5. If A =  −2 0 −2  is a skew symmetric matrix, then find x.
 
 −1 x 0
 80 Mathematics - IA

 0 1 4
 
6. Is  −1 0 7  symmetric or skew symmetric?
 
 −4 −7 0 
 cos α sin α 
II. 1. If A =   , show that AA′ = A′ A = I.
 − sin α cos α 
 1 5 3  2 −1 0
   
2. If A =  2 4 0  and B =  0 −2 5 then find 3A − 4B′.
   
 3 −1 −5  1 2 0

 7 −2  −2 −1 
   
3. If A =  −1 2  and B=  4 2  then find A B′ and BA′ .
   
 5 3  −1 0 

4. For any square matrix A, show that AA′ is symmetric.

3.4 Determinants

Consider the system of two linear equations in two variables,

a1 x + b1 y = c1
a2 x + b2 y = c2

where c1 ≠ 0 or c2 ≠ 0 .

We have learnt in lower classes that this system has a unique solution or not according as
a1 b2 − a2 b1 is not zero or zero. In other words, a1b2 − a2b1 determines whether the system has a
unique solution or not and hence it is called the 'determinant' of the system. Hence we associate the

 a1 b1 
value a1 b2 − a2 b1 to the matrix   and call it the determinant (simply determinant) of the matrix.
 a2 b2 

The determinant of 1 × 1 matrix is defined as its element.

In this section, we define the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix, study its properties and the methods of
evaluation of certain determinants.
Matrices 81

3.4.1 Definition (Minor of an element)

 a1 b1 c1 
 
Consider a square matrix  a2 b2 c2 
 
 a3 b3 c3 
The minor of an element in this matrix is defined as the determinant of the 2 × 2 matrix,
obtained after deleting the row and the column in which the element is present.

 b1 c1 
For example the minor of a2 is the det. of   = b1 c3 − b3 c1
b3 c3 

 a1 c1 
and the minor of b3 is the det. of   = a1 c2 − a2 c1 .
 a2 c2 

3.4.2 Definition (Cofactor of an element)

The cofactor of an element in the ith row and the jth column of a 3 × 3 matrix is defined as
its minor multiplied by ( −1)i + j .

We denote the cofactor of aij by Aij .

For example, consider the matrix in 3.4.1.

Since a2 is in 2nd row and 1st column, we have

A 2 = cofactor of a2 = (−1) 2+1 (b1 c3 − b3 c1 )
= − (b1 c3 − b3 c1 )
= b3 c1 − b1 c3

Since b3 is in 3rd row and 2nd column, we have

B3 = cofactor of b3
= (−1)3+ 2 (a1 c2 − a2 c1 )
= a2 c1 − a1 c2 .

3.4.3 Example
 1 0 −2 
 
In the matrix  3 −1 2  we list out here under, the minors and cofactors of all the elements.
 
 4 5 6
82 Mathematics - IA

element element Minor Cofactor

aij present in of aij of aij
row i, column j
−1 2
1 1 1 = −16 (−1)1+1 (−16) = − 16
5 6
3 2
0 1 2 = 10 (−1)1+ 2 (10) = − 10
4 6
3 −1
−2 1 3 = 19 (−1)1+3 (19) = 19
4 5
0 −2
3 2 1 = 10 (−1)2+1 (10) = − 10
5 6
1 −2
−1 2 2 = 14 (−1)2+ 2 (14) = 14
4 6
1 0
2 2 3 =5 (−1)2+3 (5) = − 5
4 5
0 −2
4 3 1 = −2 (−1)3+1 (−2) = − 2
−1 2
1 −2
5 3 2 =8 (−1)3+ 2 (8) = − 8
3 2
1 0
6 3 3 = −1 (−1)3+3 (−1) = − 1
3 −1

3.4.4 Definition (Determinant)

 a1 b1 c1 
 
Let A =  a2 b2 c2  . The sum of the products of elements of the first
 
 a3 b3 c3 
row with their corresponding cofactors is called the determinant of A.

 a1 b1 c1  a1 b1 c1
 
The determinant of the matrix  a2 b2 c2  is written as a 2 b2 c2 .
 
 a3 b3 c3  a3 b3 c3
We also denote the determinant of the matrix A by det A or |A|.
 Matrices 83

det A = a1A1 + b1B1 + c1C1

So far we have defined the concept of determinant for square matrices of order n for n = 1, 2, 3.
The concept can be extended to the case n ≥ 4 also using the principle of mathematical induction. Let
n ≥ 4 and suppose that we know the definition of determinant for square matrices of order n -- 1. Let
n
A = [aij ]n × n . Then the determinant of A is defined as ∑ a1j A1 j , where A1j is the cofactor of a1j.
j =1
3.4.5 Example
 1 0 −2 
 
Let us find the determinant of A =  3 −1 2 
 
 4 5 6
det A = sum of the products of elements of the first row with their
corresponding cofactors
−
= 1 (cofactor of 1) + 0 (cofactor of 0) + ( 2) cofactor of ( 2) −
− −
= 1( 16) + ( 2) (19)
− −
= 16 38 = 54. −
3.4.6 Note
The definition of the determinant is formulated by using the elements of the first row and the
corresponding cofactors only. However the process can be adopted for the elements of any row or
column and the corresponding cofactors. We thus have
n
det A = ∑ aij Aij for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
j =1
Here the sum on the right hand side is independent of i.
 a1 b1 c1 
 
If A =  a2 b2 c2 
 
 a3 b3 c3 
then observe that det A = a1A1 + b1B1 + c1C1 expansion along first row
similarly det A = a2 A 2 + b2 B2 + c2C2 expansion along second row
= a3 A3 + b3 B3 + c3 C3 expansion along third row
= a1A1 + a2 A 2 + a3 A3 expansion along first column
= b1B1 + b2 B2 + b3B3 expansion along second column
= c1C1 + c2 C2 + c3 C3 expansion along third column
For instance, consider
a1A1 + a2 A 2 + a3 A3
 84 Mathematics - IA

b2 c2 b1 c1 b1 c1
= a1 ( − 1)1+1 + a2 ( − 1) 2+1 + a3 ( − 1)3+1
b3 c3 b3 c3 b2 c2
= a1 (b2c3 − b3c2 ) − a2 (b1c3 − b3c1 ) + a3 (b1c2 − b2c1 )
= a1 (b2c3 − b3c2 ) − b1 (a2c3 − a3c2 ) + c1 (a2b3 − a3b2 )
= a1A1 + b1B1 + c1C1 = det A .

3.4.7 Examples
 1 −1
1. Find the determinant of A =  .
 −3 1
Solution: det A = 1 . 1 −( −3) ( −1) = 1 −3 = −2.
 2 −1 4
 
2. Find the minors of −1 and 3 in the matrix  0 −2 5 .
 
 −3 1 3
0 5
Solution: Minor of −1 = = 0.3 − ( −3).5 = 15 .
−3 3
2 −1
Minor of 3 = = 2.(−2) − 0 ⋅ (−1) = − 4.
0 −2
 −1 0 5
 
−
3. Find the cofactors of the elements 2, 5 in the matrix  1 2 −2  .
 
 − 4 −5 3
Solution : The element 2 is (2, 2)th element of the given matrix.

−1 5
Hence cofactor of 2 = ( −1) 2+ 2
−4 3
= ( −1) ⋅ 3 − ( −4) ⋅ 5
= − 3 + 20 = 17 .
The element −5 is (3, 2)th element of the given matrix.
−1 5
Hence cofactor of −5 = ( −1)3+ 2
1 −2

= − [( −1) ⋅ ( −2) − 1 ⋅ 5]
= − (2 − 5) = 3.
Matrices 85

 1 −1 2 
 
4. Find the determinant of the matrix  3 0 4  .
 
 −4 −2 5
0 4
Solution: Cofactor of 1 = (−1)1+1 =8.
−2 5
3 4
Cofactor of − 1 = (−1)1+ 2 = − 31.
−4 5
3 0
Cofactor of 2 = (−1)1+3 = − 6.
−4 −2
1 −1 2
Now 3 0 4 = 1⋅ 8 + (−1) ⋅ (−31) + 2 ⋅ (−6) = 8 + 31 − 12 = 27 .
−4 −2 5

3.4.8 Properties of determinants

(i) If each element of a row (or column) of a square matrix is zero, then the determinant of that
matrix is zero.
The value of the determinant of such a matrix can be easily found to be zero by expanding it along
a row (column) containing zeros.
(ii) If two rows (or columns) of a square matrix are interchanged, then the sign of the determinant
changes.
 a1 b1 c1   a2 b2 c2 
   
Let A =  a2 b2 c2  and B =  a1 b1 c1 
   
 a3 b3 c3   a3 b3 c3 
( B is obtained by interchanging first and second rows of A )
det B = a1 (−1) 2+1 (b2c3 − b3c2 ) + b1 (−1) 2+ 2 (a2c3 − a3c2 )
+ c1 (−1) 2+3 (a2 b3 − a3b2 )
= − [a1 (b2c3 − b3c2 ) − b1 (a2c3 − a3c2 ) + c1 (a2b3 − a3b2 )]
= − det A.
(iii) If each element of a row (or column) of a square matrix is multiplied by a number k, then the
determinant of the matrix obtained is k times the determinant of the given matrix.
 a1 b1 c1   ka1 b1 c1 
   
Let A =  a2 b2 c2  , B =  ka2 b2 c2 
   
 a3 b3 c3   ka3 b3 c3 
( B is obtained by multiplying the elements of first column of A by k )
86 Mathematics - IA

If the cofactors of a1, a2 , a3 in A are A1 , A 2 , A3 then the cofactors of ka1, ka2 , ka3 in B are
also A1, A2 , A3 respectively. Hence
det B = ka1 A1 + ka2 A 2 + ka3A3
= k (a1 A1 + a2 A 2 + a3A3 )
= k (det A) .
(iv) If A is square matrix of order 3 and k is a scalar, then | kA | = k3|A|. By applying property
(iii), three times, we get the result.
(v) If two rows (or columns) of a square matrix are identical, then the determinant of that matrix is
zero.
 a1 b1 c1 
 
Let A =  a2 b2 c2 
 
 a2 b2 c2 
(second and third rows are identical)
Then det A = a1 A1 + b1B1 + c1C1
= a1 (0) + b1 (0) + c1 (0) = 0 .
(vi) If the corresponding elements of two rows (or columns) of a square matrix are in the same ratio,
then the determinant of that matrix is zero.
 a1 b1 c1 
 
Let A =  ka1 kb1 kc1 
 
 a3 b3 c3 
Then
a1 b1 c1
det A = ka1 kb1 kc1
a3 b3 c3
a1 b1 c1
= k a1 b1 c1 by property (iii)
a3 b3 c3
= k (0) by property (v)
= 0.
(vii) If each element in a row (or column) of a square matrix is the sum of two numbers, then its
determinant can be expressed as the sum of the determinants of two square matrices as shown
below.
 a1 + x1 b1 c1   a1 b1 c1   x1 b1 c1 
     
Let A =  a2 + x2 b2 c2  , B =  a2 b2 c2  , C =  x2 b2 c2 
     
 a3 + x3 b3 c3   a3 b3 c3   x3 b3 c3 
Matrices 87

If in A, the cofactors of a1 + x1 , a2 + x2 , a3 + x3 are A1 , A 2 , A3 then the cofactors of

a1 , a2 , a3 in B and of x1 , x2 , x3 in C are also A1, A 2 , A3 respectively.
Now,

det A = ( a1 + x1 ) A1 + ( a2 + x2 ) A 2 + ( a3 + x3 ) A3
= ( a1A1 + a2 A 2 + a3A3 ) + ( x1A1 + x2 A 2 + x3A3 )
= det B + det C.

a1 + x1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 x1 b1 c1
a2 + x2 b2 c2 = a2 b2 c2 + x2 b2 c2
∴ .
a3 + x3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 x3 b3 c3

(viii) If each element of a row (or column) of a square matrix is multiplied by a number k and added to
the corresponding element of another row (or column) of the matrix, then the determinant of the
resultant matrix is equal to the determinant of the given matrix.
 a1 b1 c1   a1 b1 c1 
   
Let A =  a2 b2 c2  and B =  a2 + ka1 b2 + kb1 c2 + kc1 
   
 a3 b3 c3   a3 b3 c3 

( B is obtained from A by multiplying each element of the 1st row of A by k and then adding
them to the corresponding elements of the 2nd row of A )
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
det B = a2 b2 c2 + ka1 kb1 kc1 by property (vii)
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

a1 b1 c1
= a2 b2 c2 + 0 by property (vi)
a3 b3 c3

a1 b1 c1
= a2 b2 c2 = det A.
a3 b3 c3

(ix) The sum of the products of the elements of a row (or column) with the cofactors of the
corresponding elements of another row (or column) of a square matrix is zero.
88 Mathematics - IA

 a1 b1 c1 
 
Let A =  a2 b2 c2  .
 
 a3 b3 c3 
Consider the sum of the products of the elements of the second row with the cofactors of the
corresponding elements of the first row.,
i.e., a2 A1 + b2 B1 + c2 C1
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
= a2 − b2 + c2
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3

a2 b2 c2
= a2 b2 c2 = 0 by property (v).
a3 b3 c3
(x) If the elements of a square matrix are polynomials in x and its determinant is zero when
x = a, then x − a is a factor of the determinant of the matrix.
 f1 ( x) g1 ( x) h1 ( x) 
 
Let A( x) =  f 2 ( x) g 2 ( x) h2 ( x)  .
 
 f3 ( x) g3 ( x) h3 ( x) 
Now det [A(x)] is a polynomial in x.
If det [A( a )] = 0 then by Remainder theorem, x − a is a factor of det [A(x)].
(xi) For any square matrix A, det A = det (A' ).
 a1 b1 c1   a1 a2 a3 
   
Let A =  a2 b2 c2  , then A′ =  b1 b2 b3  .
   
 a3 b3 c3   c1 c2 c3 
The values of the cofactors of a1 , b1 , c1 , are same in both A and A'.
Hence det A = a1 A1 + b1 B1 + c1 C1 = det A ′ .

(xii) Det (AB) = (det A) (det B) for matirces A, B of order 2.

 a11 a12   b11 b12 
Consider the matrices A =  , B =  ,
 a21 a22  b21 b22 
det A = a11 a22 − a21 a12 ; det B = b11 b22 − b21 b12 .
 a11 a12   b11 b12 
Now AB =    
 a21 a22  b21 b22 
 Matrices 89

 a11 b11 + a12 b21 a11 b12 + a12 b22 

=  
 a21 b11 + a22 b21 a21 b12 + a22 b22 
det (AB) = ( a11 b11 + a12 b21 )( a21 b12 + a22 b22 ) − ( a21 b11 + a22 b21 )( a11 b12 + a12 b22 )

= a11 a21 b11 b12 + a11 a22 b11 b22 + a12 a21 b12 b21 + a12 a22 b21 b22
− a11 a21 b11 b12 − a12 a21 b11 b22 − a11 a22 b12 b21 − a12 a22 b21 b22

= a11 a22 b11 b22 + a12 a21 b12 b21 − a12 a21 b11 b22 − a11 a22 b12 b21

= a11 a22 (b11 b22 − b12 b21 ) − a12 a21 (b11 b22 − b12 b21 )

= ( a11 a22 − a12 a21 )(b11 b22 − b12 b21 )

= (det A) (det B) .
If A and B are matrices of order three then also in a similar manner we can show that
det(AB) = (det A) (det B) .
This is true in general, for all matrices of order n; the proof of this is beyond the scope of this
book.
(xiii) For any positive integer n, det(A n ) = (det A)n .
(xiv) If A is a triangular matrix (upper or lower), then determinant of A is the product of the diagonal
elements.
3.4.9 Notation
While evaluating determinants, we use the following notations.
(i) R1 ↔ R 2 , to mean that the rows R and R are interchanged.
1 2

(ii) R1 → kR1 , to mean that the elements of R are multiplied by k.

1
(iii) R1 → R1 + kR 2 to mean that the elements of R are added with k times the corresponding
1
elements of R2.
Similar notation is used for other rows and columns.
3.4.10 Solved Problems

1 a a2
1. Problem : Show that 1 a b 2 = (a − b)(b − c)(c − a ) .
1 a c2
 90 Mathematics - IA

1 a a2
Solution : L.H.S. = 1 b b2
1 cc2
On applying R 2 → (R 2 − R1 ); R 3 → (R 3 − R1 ) on LHS we get
1 a a2
L.H.S. = 0 b − a b 2 − a 2
0 c − a c2 − a2
On expanding the det. along the first column, we get
b−a b2 − a 2
= 1.
c−a c2 − a2
= ( a − b)(b − c )(c − a ) = R.H.S .
2. Problem : Without expanding the determinant show that

b+c c+a a+b a b c

c+a a+b b+c = 2 b c a .
a+b b+c c+a c a b
Solution :

b+c c+a a+b

L.H.S. = c+a a+b b+c
a+b b+c c+a
2(a + b + c) 2(a + b + c) 2(a + b + c)
= c+a a+b b+c (by applying R1 → R1 + R2 + R3 )
a+b b+c c+a

a+b+c a+b+c a+b+c

= 2 c+a a+b b+c
a+b b+c c+a

a+b+c a+b+c a+b+c

(by applying R 2 → R 2 − R1
= 2 −b −c −a
1 and R3 → R3 − R1 )
−c −a −b
 Matrices 91

a b c
(by applying R1 → R1 + R 2 + R 3 )
= 2 −b −c −a
−c −a −b

a b c a b c
= 2(−1)(−1) b c a = 2 b c a = R.H.S.
c a b c a b

1 a 2 a3
3. Problem : Show that 1 b 2 b3 = (a − b)(b − c)(c − a) (ab + bc + ca) .
1 c 2 c3

Solution :

1 a 2 a3 0 a 2 − c 2 a 3 − c3
L.H.S. = 1 b 2 b3 = 0 b 2 − c 2 b3 − c 3 (by applying R1 → R1 − R 3 ; R 2 → R 2 − R 3 )
2 3
1 c 2 c3 1 c c

0 a+c a 2 + ac + c 2
= (a − c)(b − c) 0 b + c b 2 + bc + c 2
1 c2 c3

0 a+c a 2 + ac + c 2
= (a − c)(b − c) 0 b − a b 2 − a 2 + bc − ac (by applying R 2 → R 2 − R1 )
2 3
1 c c

0 a + c a 2 + ac + c 2
= (a − c)(b − c) (b − a) 0 1 c+a+b
1 c2 c3

a + c a 2 + ac + c 2
= (a − c)(b − c) (b − a)
1 a+b+c

= ( a − b)(b − c ) (c − a ) ( ab + bc + ca ) = R.H.S.
 92 Mathematics - IA

1 ω ω2
4. Problem : If ω is complex (non real) cube root of 1 then show that ω ω2 1 = 0.
ω2 1 ω
Solution : Method 1

1 ω ω2
L.H.S. = ω ω2 1
ω2 1 ω

1 + ω + ω2 1+ ω + ω2 1+ ω + ω2
= ω ω2 1 by applying R1 → R1 + R 2 + R 3
ω2 1 ω
0 0 0
= ω ω 2 1 = 0 = R.H.S. ( Q1 + ω + ω 2 = 0 ).
ω2 1 ω
Method 2
1 ω ω2 ω3 ω ω 2 ω2 1 ω
ω ω2 1 = ω ω2 1 = ω ω ω2 1 = 0 .
ω2 1 ω ω2 1 ω ω2 1 ω

a−b−c 2a 2a
5. Problem: Show that 2b b−c−a 2b = ( a + b + c )3 .
2c 2c c−a−b
a−b−c 2a 2a
Solution: L.H.S. = 2b b−c−a 2b
2c 2c c−a −b

a+b+c a+b+c a+b+c

= 2b b−c−a 2b applying R1 → R1 + R 2 + R 3
2c 2c c−a−b
1 1 1
= (a + b + c) 2b b − c − a 2b
2c 2c c−a −b
Matrices 93

1 0 0
= (a + b + c) 2b −b − c − a 0 applying C2 → C2 − C1 ,
C3 → C3 − C1
2c 0 −c − a − b
−b − c − a 0
= (a + b + c) = (a + b + c)3 = R.H.S.
0 −c − a − b
6. Problem: Show that the determinant of skew- symmetric matrix of order three is always zero.
Solution : Let us consider a skew-symmetrc matrix of order three, say -

0 −c −b  0 − c −b
 
A =  c 0 −a  ⇒ A = c 0 −a
 
b a 0  b a 0
= +c(0 + ab) − b(ca − 0) = abc − abc = 0.
Hence A = 0 .
Observe that the determinant of skew-symmetric matrix of order two need not be zero.
 0 2
For example A =   is skew symmetric matrix of order 2, and det A ≠ 0 .
 −2 0 
x − 2 2 x − 3 3x − 4
7. Problem : Find the value of x if x − 4 2x − 9 3x − 16 = 0 .
x − 8 2 x − 27 3x − 64
x−2 2x − 3 3x − 4
Solution : x − 4 2x − 9 3x − 16
x − 8 2 x − 27 3 x − 64
x − 2 2 x − 3 3x − 4
= −2 −6 −12 applying R 2 → ( R 2 − R1 ) , R 3 → ( R 3 − R1 )
−6 −24 −60
x − 2 2 x − 3 3x − 4
= ( −2) ( −6) 1 3 6
1 4 10

x − 2 2 x − 3 3x − 4
Now given that 1 3 6 = 0.
1 4 10
94 Mathematics - IA

Expanding the determinant along the elements of first row, we have

( x − 2) (30 − 24) − (2 x − 3) (10 − 6) + (3 x − 4) (4 − 3) = 0

i.e., 6( x − 2) − 4(2 x − 3) + (3x − 4) = 0

i.e., x − 4 = 0. Hence x = 4 .

Exercise 3(d)
I. 1. Find the determinants of the following matrices.
 2 1  4 5
(i)   (ii)  
 1 −5  −6 2 

0 1 1 
 i 0  
(iii)   (iv) 1 0 1 
0 −i   
1 1 0 

 1 4 2  2 −1 4 
   
(v)  2 −1 4  (vi)  4 −3 1
   
 −3 7 6   1 2 1

 1 2 −3 a h g
   
(vii)  4 −1 7  (viii)  h b f 
   
 2 4 −6   g f c

a b c   12 22 32 
   
(ix)  b c a  (x)  22 32 42 
   2 2 2
 c a b  3 4 5 

1 0 0 
 
2. If A =  2 3 4  and det A = 45 then find x.
 
 5 −6 x 
 Matrices 95

bc b + c 1
II. 1. Show that ca c + a 1 = (a − b) (b − c) (c − a) .
ab a + b 1

b+c c+a a+b

2. Show that a + b b + c c + a = a + b + c − 3abc .
3 3 3

a b c

y+z x x
3. Show that y z+x y = 4 xyz .
z z x+ y

a a 2 1 + a3 a a2 1
4. If b b 2 1 + b3 = 0 and b b 2 1 ≠ 0 then show that abc = − 1 .
c c 2 1 + c3 c c2 1

a a 2 bc 1 a 2 a3
5. Without expanding the determinant, prove that (i) b b 2 ca = 1 b 2 b3 .
c c 2 ab 1 c 2 c3

ax by cz a b c 1 bc b + c 1 a a2

(ii) x y z =
2 2 2
x y z (iii) 1 ca c + a = 1 b b 2 .
1 1 1 yz zx xy 1 ab a + b 1 c c2

a12 + b1 + c1 a1a2 + b2 + c2 a1a3 + b3 + c3

6. If ∆1 = b1b2 + c1 b22 + c2 b2b3 + c3 and
c3c1 c3c2 c32

a1 b1 c1
∆1
∆ 2 = a2 b2 c2 , then find the value of .
∆2
a3 b3 c3
 96 Mathematics - IA

1 cos α cos β 0 cos α cos β

7. If ∆1 = cos α 1 cos γ , ∆ 2 = cos α 0 cos γ and ∆1 = ∆ 2 , then show that
cos β cos γ 1 cos β cos γ 0
cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ = 1.

a + b + 2c a b
III. 1. Show that c b + c + 2a b = 2 ( a + b + c )3 .
c a c + a + 2b
2. Show that
2
a b c 2bc − a 2 c2 b2
b c a = c2 2ac − b 2 a2 = (a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc)2 .
c a b b2 a2 2ab − c 2

a 2 + 2a 2a + 1 1
3. Show that 2a + 1 a + 2 1 = (a − 1)3 .
3 3 1
a b c
4. Show that a 2 b 2 c 2 = abc (a − b) (b − c) (c − a) .
a 3 b3 c 3
−2a a + b c + a
5. Show that a + b −2b b + c = 4 (a + b) (b + c) (c + a) .
c + a c + b −2c
a−b b−c c−a
6. Show that b−c c−a a−b = 0.
c−a a−b b−c
1 a a 2 − bc
7. Show that 1 b b 2 − ca = 0 .
1 c c 2 − ab
x a a
8. Show that a x a = ( x + 2a) ( x − a ) .
2

a a x
Matrices 97

3.5 Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix

In this section, we define the concepts of invertibility of a matrix and the multiplicative inverse of an
invertible matrix and study certain properties of inverses and provide a method of finding the
multiplicative inverse of a given invertible matrix.

3.5.1 Definition (Singular and Non-singular matrices)

A square matrix is said to be singular if its determinant is zero. Otherwise it is said to be

non-singular.

3 2  3 −2 
For example,   is a singular matrix while   is non-singular.
 6 4   6 4 

3.5.2 Definition (Adjoint of a matrix)

The transpose of the matrix formed by replacing the elements of a square matrix A (of
order greater than one) with the corresponding cofactors is called the Adjoint of A and is
denoted by Adj A.

 a1 b1 c1 
 
Let A =  a2 b2 c2  and Ai , Bi , Ci be the cofactors of ai , bi , ci respectively.
 
 a3 b3 c3 

T
 A1 B1 C1   A1 A 2 A3 
   
Then Adj A =  A 2 B2 C2  =  B1 B2 B3 
.
   
 3
A B3 C 3  1
C C 2 C 3

3.5.3 Definition (Invertible matrix)

Let A be a square matrix. We say that A is invertible if a matrix B exists such that
AB = BA = I, where I is the unit matrix of the same order as A and B.

3.5.4 Note
(i) For the products AB and BA to be both defined and equal, it is necessary that A and B are both
square matrices of the same order. Thus, non-square matrices are not invertible.
 98 Mathematics - IA

(ii) If A is invertible, then A is non-singular, hence det A ≠ 0.

[Let A be invertible. Then there exsists a matrix B such that AB = I.

Hence (det A) (det B) = det (AB) = det I = 1. Hence det A ≠ 0].

(iii) If B exists; such that AB = BA = I, then such a B is unique and is denoted by A-1 and is called
the multiplicative inverse or inverse of A.

[For, if B and C are inverses of A, then by definition AB = BA = I and

AC = CA = I. Then B = BI = B (AC) = (BA)C = IC = C].

3.5.5 Theorem
Let A and B be invertible matrices. Then A−1 , A' and AB are invertible. Further
(i) (A −1 )−1 = A

(ii) (A' )−1 = (A −1 )'

(iii) (AB)−1 = B−1 A −1 .

Proof: (i) Let A −1 = C. Then CA = CA = I .

By 3.5.4 (ii), C is invertible and the multiplicative inverse of C is A

i.e., C−1 = A

i.e., (A −1 ) −1 = A .
(ii) Consider

(A' )(A −1 )' = (A −1A)' = I' = I . ... (1)

Similarly,

(A −1 )'(A') = (AA-1 )' = I' = I . ... (2)

From (1) and (2)

(A')(A −1 )′ = (A −1 )' (A') = I .

' -1
∴ By definition A is invertible and the multiplicative inverse of A' is (A )'.

i.e., (A')−1 = (A-1 )′ .

Matrices 99

(iii) Since A and B are invertible, we have

AA −1 = A −1A = I ... (1)
and BB−1 = B−1B = I. ... (2)
Now
(AB) (B−1A −1 )

= A (BB−1 ) A −1 , by Associative law

= A (I) A −1 , by (2)

= (A I) A −1

= AA −1 = I , by (1).
Similarly

(B−1 A −1 ) (AB) = B−1 (A −1 A) B = B−1 (I) B

= B−1 (IB) = B−1 B = I .

∴ We have (AB) ( B−1 A −1 ) = ( B−1 A −1 ) (AB) = I .

Hence by definition AB is invertible and the multiplicative inverse of AB is B−1 A −1 .

i.e., (AB)−1 = B−1 A −1 .

3.5.6 Theorem

 a1 b1 c1 
  −1 AdjA
If A =  a2 b2 c2  is a non-singular matrix then A is invertible and A = .
det A
 
 a3 b3 c3 
Proof : By definition,
 A1 A 2 A3 
 
Adj A =  B1 B2 B3 
.
 
 C1 C2 C3 

 a1 b1 c1   A1 A 2 A3 
  
Now Ag (Adj A) =  a2 b2 c2   B1 B2 B3 
  
 a3 b3 c3   C1 C2 C3 
 100 Mathematics - IA

 a1A1 + b1B1 + c1C1 a1A 2 + b1B2 + c1C2 a1A3 + b1B3 + c1C3 

 
=  a2 A1 + b2 B1 + c2 C1 a2 A 2 + b2 B2 + c2 C2 a2 A3 + b2 B3 + c2 C3 
 
 a3 A1 + b3 B1 + c3 C1 a3 A 2 + b3 B2 + c3 C2 a3 A3 + b3 B3 + c3 C3 

det A 0 0 
 
=  0 det A 0 
 
 0 0 det A 

1 0 0 
 
= det A 0 1 0
 
0 0 1 
= (det A) I.
AdjA
Now, since det A ≠ 0, we have A . = I.
det A
AdjA
Similarly, we can show that .A = I .
det A
AdjA
Let B = . Then AB = BA = I .
det A
−1 AdjA
Hence A is invertible and A = B = .
det A
3.5.7 Solved Problems
 1 2
1. Problem: Find the adjoint and the inverse of the matrix A =  .
 3 −5 
1 2
Solution det A = = 1.(−5) − 3.2 = − 5 − 6 = − 11 ≠ 0.
3 −5
Hence A is invertible.
 −5 −3
The cofactor matrix of A =  
 −2 1
 −5 −3′  −5 −2 
∴ Adj A =   = .
 −2 1  −3 1
Matrices 101

5 2
AdjA 1  −5 −2  11 11 
∴ A −1 = =   =  
det A −11  −3 1  3 −1  .
11 11 

1 3 3 
 
2. Problem : Find the adjoint and the inverse of the matrix A = 1 4 3  .
 
1 3 4 
4 3 1 3 1 4
Solution: det A = 1 −3 +3
3 4 1 4 1 3

= 1(16 − 9) − 3(4 − 3) + 3(3 − 4) = 7 − 3 − 3 = 1 ≠ 0 .

Therefore A is invertible.
 7 −1 −1
 
 −3 1 0 
The cofactor matrix of A is B =
 
 −3 0 1

 7 −3 −3
 
∴ Adj A = B′ =  −1 1 0 
 
 −1 0 1

 7 −3 −3
AdjA  
∴ A −1 = =  −1 1 0  (Q det A = 1)
det A .
 
 −1 0 1

 1 2 1
 
3. Problem: Show that A = 3 2 3 is non - singular and find A−1 .
 
 1 1 2

2 3 3 3 3 2
Solution : det A =1 −2 +1 = 1 − 6 + 1= − 4 ≠ 0 .
1 2 1 2 1 1
Hence A is a non-singular matrix.
 102 Mathematics - IA

 1 −3 1
 
The cofactor matrix of A is B =  −3 1 1
 
 4 0 −4 
The transpose of B is the adjoint of A.

 1 −3 4 
 
∴ Adj A = B′ =  −3 1 0 
 
 1 1 −4 
 1 3 
− 4 −1 
 1 −3 4   4

AdjA 1    3 1 0
∴ A −1 = =  −3 1 0  =  − 
det A −4    4 4
.
 1 1 −4   1 1 1
− 4 − 4 
 

Exercise 3(e)

I 1. Find the adjoint and the inverse of the following matrices.

 2 −3  cos α − sin α 

(i)   (ii)  
4 6  sin α cos α 

 1 0 2 2 1 2
   
(iii) 2 1 0 (iv)  1 0 1
   
 3 2 1  2 2 1

 a + ib c + id  2
2. If A =   , a + b + c + d = 1 then find the inverse of A.
2 2 2

 −c + id a − ib 

 1 −2 3
 
3. If A =  0 −1 4  , then find (A') − 1.
 
 −2 2 1
 Matrices 103

 −1 −2 −2 
 
4. If A =  2 1 −2  , then show that the adjoint of A is 3A'. Find A − 1.
 
 2 −2 1
a 0 0
 
5. If abc ≠ 0, find the inverse of  0 b 0  .
 
0 0 c

0 1 1 b + c c − a b − a 
  1  
II 1. If A =  1 0 1 and B =  c − b c + a a − b  , then show that
  2  
 1 1 0  b − c a − c a + b 
ABA−1 is a diagonal matrix.

 1 2 2
  −1
2. If 3A =  2 1 −2 , then show that A = A ′ .
 
 −2 2 −1

 3 −3 4 
  −1
3. If A =  2 −3 4 , then show that A = A .
3

 
 0 −1 1

4. If AB = I or BA = I, then prove that A is invertible and B = A − 1.

3.6 Consistency and Inconsistency of system of

Simultaneous Equations - Rank of a Matrix
We devote this section for the study of the rank of a matrix, existence and the nature of solutions of
a system of linear equations - homogeneous and non-homogeneous, in two and three variables.

Consider the following system of simultaneous non-homogeneous linear equations (two equations
in two variables):
a1 x + b1 y = c1 
 ..... I
a2 x + b2 y = c2 
 104 Mathematics - IA

These equations can be represented as a matrix equation as A X = D, where

 a1 b1 
A=   is called the coefficient matrix.
a2 b2 

 x
X =   is called the variable matrix,
 y

 c1 
and D =   is called the constant matrix.
 c2 

AX = D is the matrix representation of the equations given in system I, for

 a1 b1   x  a1 x + b1 y 
AX =     =  
 a2 b2   y  a2 x + b2 y 

 a1 x + b1 y   c1 
AX = D becomes   = 
 a2 x + b2 y   c2 

and corresponding elements of two equal matrices are equal.

The coefficient matrix augmented with the constant column matrix, is called the Augmented matrix,
generally denoted by [A D]. Hence, the augmented matrix of system I is
 a1 b1 c1 
[A D] =  .
 a2 b2 c2 

We listed the various systems of equations, along with the corresponding matrix equations and
matrices involved in the following tabular form.
 Types of systems of simultaneous linear equations Matrices

Corresponding Matrices
Augmented
Nature of the system Equations Matrix Coefficient Variables Constant matrix
equation matrix matrix matrix [AD]
A X D
I. Non-homogeneous pair of a1 x + b1 y = c1
 a1 b1   x  c1   a1 b1 c1 
equations in two unknowns a2 x + b2 y = c2 AX = D        
c1 ≠ 0 or c2 ≠ 0  a2 b2   y  c2   a2 b2 c2 

a1x + b1 y + c1z = d1  a1 b1 c1   x  d1   a1 b1 c1 d1 
II. Non-homogeneous triad of
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2        
equations in three unknowns AX = D  a2 b2 c2  d2   a2 b2 c2 d 2 
 y
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3        
 a3 b3 c3  z  d3   a3 b3 c3 d3 
d1 ≠ 0 or d2 ≠ 0 or d3 ≠ 0
III. Pair of homogeneous a1 x + b1 y = 0  a1 b1   x  0  a1 b1 0 
equations in two unknowns AX = O        
a2 x + b2 y = 0  a2 b2   y  0  a2 b2 0 

a1x + b1 y + c1z = 0
IV. Three homogeneous  a1 b1 c1   x 0  a1 b1 c1 0 
equations in three unknowns a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = 0 AX = O        
 a2 b2 c2   y 0  a2 b2 c2 0 
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = 0        
 a3 b3 c3  z 0  a3 b3 c3 0 
105
 106 Mathematics - IA

Here we confine to the above types of systems of equations in three variables. Before solving the
systems of equations, we first study an important concept namely the rank of a matrix.

3.6.1 Definition (Submatrix)

A matrix obtained by deleting some rows or columns (or both) of a matrix is called a
submatrix of the given matrix.
 1 2 3
For example, If A =  2 3 1 .
 −1 2 0 
Then some submatrices of A are
 1 2
 −1 2  −
obtained by deleting R2 and C3 of A

1 2 3 
 2 3 1  − obtained by deleting R3 of A
 
 2 3
 3 1
  − obtained by deleting C1 of A
 2 0 
[0] − obtained by deleting R1, R2, C1 and C2 of A.
3.6.2 Definition (Rank of a matrix)
Let A be a non-zero matrix. The rank of A is defined as the maximum of the orders of the
non-singular square submatrices of A. The rank of a null matrix is defined as zero. The rank of
a matrix A is denoted by rank (A).
3.6.3 Note
If A is a non-zero matrix of order 3, then the rank of A is
(i) 1 if every 2 × 2 submatrix is singular
(ii) 2 if A is singular and atleast one of its 2 × 2 submatrices is non-singular
(iii) 3 if A is non-singular.
3.6.4 Examples
 1 2 1
1. A =  −1 0 2 
 0 1 −1
−
det A = 5. A is non-singular, and hence rank (A) = 3.
Matrices 107

 −1 −2 −3 
 5 
2. B =  3 4
 4 5 6 
det B = 0, Hence rank (B) ≠ 3.
 −1 −2 
Now   is a submatrix of B, whose determinant is 2.
 3 4
Hence rank (B) = 2.
1 0 0 0 
 
3. C = 0 1 2 4 
 
0 0 1 2 
C is a matrix of order 3 × 4.
1 0 0 
Let C1 = 0 1 2 
 
0 0 1 
Then C1is a square submatrix of C of order 3 and det C1 = 1.
Hence rank of the given matrix is 3.

3.6.5 Definition (Elementary Transformations)

The following tranformations are known as elementary transformations on a matrix.
(i) Interchange of two rows (or columns).
(ii) Multiplication of elements of a row (or column) by a non-zero number
(iii) Addition to the elements of a row (or a column), the corresponding elements of
another row (or column) multiplied by any non-zero number.
Elementary transformations enable us to transform a given matrix into triangular matrix. In a
triangular matrix, the search for the highest order non-singular submatrices is easier. (Why!) We state
here below a theorem without proof, which enables us to determine the rank of a matrix using
elementary transformations.

3.6.6 Theorem
Elementary transformations on a matrix do not change its rank.
A matrix obtained from a given matrix by applying a finite number of elementary transformations
(in succession) is said to be equivalent to it. If A and B are equivalent, we write A : B.
3.6.7 Solved Problems
0 1 2 
 
1. Problem:Find the rank of A = 1 2 3  using elementary transformations.
 
3 2 1 
108 Mathematics - IA

1 2 3
 
Solution: A : 0 1 2 (on interchanging R1 and R 2 )
 
3 2 1
1 2 3
 
: 0 1 2 (on applying R 3 → R 3 − 3R1 )
 
0 −4 −8
 1 0 −1
 
: 0 1 2 (on applying R1 → R1 − 2R 2 , R 3 → R 3 + 4R 2 )
 
0 0 0
1 0 
The last matrix is singular and   is a non-singular submatrix of it. Hence its
0 1 
rank is 2. Rank (A) = 2.

 1 2 0 −1
 
2.Problem:Find the rank of A =  3 4 1 2  using elementary transformations.
 
 −2 3 2 5
 1 2 0 −1
 
Solution : A =  3 4 1 2
 
 −2 3 2 5
 1 2 0 −1
 
R 2 → R 2 − 3R1 :  0 −2 1 5
 
 −2 3 2 5
 1 2 0 − 1
 
R 3 → R 3 + 2R1 :  0 −2 1 5
0 7 2 3

 1 2 0 −1
 
R 3 → 2R 3 + 7R 2 :  0 −2 1 5
 0 0 11 41
 
 1 2 0 
 
det 0 −2 1 = − 22 ≠ 0.
0 0 11
 
∴ R(A) = 3.
 Matrices 109

Exercise 3(f)
Find the rank of each of the following matrices.
1 0  1 0  1 1 
I. 1.   2.   3.  
0 0  0 1  0 0

1 1   1 0 −4  1 2 6 
4.   5.   6.  
1 0   2 −1 3 2 4 3

1 0 0   1 4 −1 1 2 3 
     
II. 1. 0 0 1  2. 2 3 0 3.  2 3 4 
0 1 0  0 1 2 0 1 2
     

1 1 1  1 2 0 −1  0 1 1 −2 
     
4. 1 1 1 5.  3 4 1 2  6.  4 0 2 5
1 1 1  −2 3 2 5   2 1 3 1
     

3.6.8 Definition (Consistent and Inconsistent systems)

We say that a system of linear equations is

(i) consistent if it has a solution.

(ii) inconsistent if it has no solution.
3.6.9 Solutions of nonhomogeneous system of equations
We consider solving the following system of 3 equations in 3 unknowns
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3
This system can be represented by a matrix equation AX = D where

 a1 b1 c1 
 
A =  a2 b2 c2  is the coefficient matrix,
 
 a3 b3 c3  3× 3
 x
 
X =  y
  is the variable matrix,
  3×1
z
 110 Mathematics - IA

 d1 
 
D =  d 2  is the constant matrix,
 
 d3 

 a1 b1 c1 d1 
 
[A D] =  a2 b2 c2 d 2  is the augmented matrix.
 
 a3 b3 c3 d3 
We state here a theorem without proof, which indicates the nature of solutions of the system.
3.6.10 Theorem
The system of three equations in three unknowns AX = D has
(i) a unique solution if rank (A) = rank ([A D]) = 3.
(ii) infinitely many solutions if rank (A) = rank ([A D]) < 3.
(iii) no solution if rank (A) ≠ rank ([A D]).
Note that the system is consistent if and only if rank (A) = rank ([A D]).
The method of solving the equations is illustrated in the following example.
3.6.11 Example
Show that the system of equations given below is not consistent.
2 x + 6 y = − 11
6 x + 20 y − 6 z = − 3
6 y − 18 z = − 1
Solution: The given system of equations can be written in the form
AX = D, where
2 6 0  x  −11
     
A =  6 20 −6  , X =  y  , D =  −3  .
 0 6 −18 z  −1
     
Consider the augmented matrix
2 6 0 −11
[A D ] = 6 20 −6 −3 .

 0 6 −18 −1
 
On applying R 2 → R 2 − 3R1 , we get

2 6 0 −11
[A D ] :  0 2 −6 30 .

 0 6 −18 −1
 
 Matrices 111

On applying R 3 → R 3 − 3R 2 , we get
 2 6 0 −11
[A D ] : 0 2 −6 30 .
 0 0 0 −91
 
Now rank of [A D] = 3, since the 3 × 3 submatrix
 6 0 −11
 
 2 −6 30  ,
 0 0 −91
 
is non - singular (its determinant is − 91 (6) ( − 6) ≠ 0)
But the rank of the coefficient matrix is not 3 because
2 6 0
 
det  0 2 −6  = 0
0 0 0
 
∴ rank of (A) ≠ rank ([A D ]) .
Hence the given system is inconsistent.
3.6.12 Why do we use only elementary row transformations?
Let us apply elementary column transformations to the augmented matrix of example 3.6.11.
2 6 0 −11
[A D ] : 6 20 −6 −3 .

 0 6 −18 −1
 
On applying C2 → C2 − 3C1 , we get
2 0 0 −11
[A D ] : 6 2 −6 −3

.
0 6 −18 −1

On applying C1 → C1 − 3C2 , and C3 → C3 + 3C2 , we get
 2 0 0 −11
[A D ] :  0 2 0 −3 .
 −18 6 0 −1
 
Now we can easily observe that the rank of the coefficient matrix is ≠ 3, as
 2 0 0
 
 0 2 0  is singular.
 −18 6 0 
 
 112 Mathematics - IA

The rank of the augmented matrix is 3, since the sub matrix

 2 0 −11
 
 0 2 −3 is non-singular.
 −18 6 −1
 
(determinant 2 ( −2 + 18) − 11(36) = 32 − 11 × 36 ≠ 0) .
Hence rank (A) ≠ rank ([A D ]) . Hence the system is inconsistent.
Thus, we can use either row transformations or column transformations to find whether a system is
consistent or inconsistent.
But, if we require the solution of the system also, then elementary row transformation only are
useful, as seen by the following discussion.
Each row of the augmented matrix corresponds to an equation of the system.
In the example 3.6.11.
1st row : 2 6 0 − 11 corresponds to the first equation 2 x + 6 y = −11 .
2nd row : 6 20 − 6 − 3 corresponds to the second equation 6 x + 20 y − 6 z = − 3 .
3rd row : 0 6 − 18 − 1 corresponds to the third equation 6 y − 18 z = − 1 .
The following are the effects of elementary row transformations on the equations.
Sl. No. Elementary row operation Effect on the equations

1. Inter change of two rows say R1 and R2. The first equation is numbered
as 2 and the second equation is
numbered as 1.
2. Multiplying the elements of the i-th row i-th equation is multiplied by k.
with a non-zero number k.
3. The elements of the i-th row are added the j-th equation is multiplied
with k times corresponding elements with k and added to the i-th
of the j-th row (i ≠ j). equation.

The effect of the elementary row transformation on the equations is nothing but the steps that we
employ for solving the equations under traditional elimination process. As such, we can, at any stage of
the problem, write an equivalent system of equations from the augmented matrix. But if we use elementary
column transformations we may not obtain an equivalent set of equations.
Hence, if we use Elementary row transformations, we can
(i) decide whether the system is consistent or not and also
(ii) write the solution of the system, if it is consistent.
This is illustrated in the following solved problems.
Matrices 113

3.6.13 Solved Problems

1. Problem: Apply the test of rank to examine whether the following equations are consistent.
2 x − y + 3z = 8
−x + 2y + z = 4
3 x + y − 4 z = 0;
and if consistent, find the complete solution.
Solution : The augmented matrix is

 2 −1 3 8
[A D ] = −1 2 1 4
 3 1 −4 0
 
 −1 2 1 4
 
~  2 −1 3 8 (on interchanging R1 and R 2 )
 3 1 −4 0
we transform the above matrix into an upper triangular matrix.
 −1 2 1 4
 
~  0 3 5 16 (on applying R 2 → R 2 + 2R1 , R 3 → R 3 + 3R1 )
 0 7 −1 12

 −1 2 1 4
 
~ 0 3 5 16 (on applying R 3 → 3R 3 − 7R 2 )
... (F)
 0 0 −38 −76

 −1 2 1
 
Now det  0 3 5 = (−1) (3) (−38) = 114 .
 0 0 −38
 
Hence rank (A) = rank ([AD]) = 3.
∴ By the Theorem of 3.6.10, The system has a unique solution.

We write the equivalent system of equations from (F), i.e.,

−x + 2 y + z = 4
3 y + 5 z = 16
−38 z = − 76
∴ z = 2, y = 2, x = 2 is the solution.
 114 Mathematics - IA

2. Problem: Show that the following system of equations is consistent and solve it completely:
x + y + z =3
2x + 2 y − z = 3
x + y − z =1
Solution : The given equations are equivalent to the equation AX = D, where
 1 1 1 x 3
     
A =  2 2 1 , X =  y  and D = 3
.
 1 1 −1 z  1
     
 1 1 1 3
 
Augmented matrix [A D ] =  2 2 −1 3 .
 1 1 −1 1
 

On applying R 2 → R 2 − 2R1 , R 3 → R 3 − R1 we get

 1 1 1 3
 
~ 0 0 −3 −3 .
0 0 −2 −2

On applying R 3 → 3R 3 − 2R 2 we get

 1 1 1 3
 
~ 0 0 −3 −3 ... (F)
0 0 0 0

Clearly all the submatrices of order 3 of the above matrix are singular.
Hence rank (A) ≠ 3, and rank ([A D ]) ≠ 3.
 1 1
Now the non-singular matrix   is a submatrix
0 −3
of both A and [A D]. Hence rank (A) = rank ([A D ]) = 2.
Hence by Theorem 3.6.10(ii), the system is consistent and has infinitely many solutions.
We now write the equivalent set of equations from (F).
x + y + z =3
−3 z = − 3
Hence z = 1, x + y = 2.
Hence x = k , y = 2 − k , z = 1, k ∈ R is the solution set.
Matrices 115

Exercise 3 (g)
I Examine whether the following systems of equations are consistent or inconsistent and if
consistent find the complete solutions.
1. x+ y+z =4 2. x+ y+z =6
2x + 5 y − 2z = 3 x− y+z =2
x + 7 y − 7z = 5 2 x − y + 3z = 9
3. x + y + z =1 4. x+ y+z =9
2x + y + z = 2 2 x + 5 y + 7 z = 52
x + 2 y + 2z = 1 2x + y − z = 0
5. x+ y+z =6 6. x − 3 y − 8 z = −10
x + 2 y + 3 z = 10 3x + y − 4 z = 0
x + 2 y + 4z = 1 2 x + 5 y + 6 z = 13
7. 2x + 3y + z = 9 8. x + y + 4z = 6
x + 2 y + 3z = 6 3x + 2 y − 2 z = 9
3x + y + 2 z = 8 5 x + y + 2 z = 13

3.7 Solution of Simultaneous Linear Equations

In this section we discuss some methods of solving systems of simultaneous linear equations.
3.7.1. Cramer's Rule
Consider the system of equations
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3

 a1 b1 c1 
 
where A =  a2 b2 c2  is non-singular.
a b c 
 3 3 3
 x  d1 
   
Let X =  y  be the solution of the equation AX = D, where D =  d 2 
z d 
   3
a1 b1 c1
Let ∆ = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
 116 Mathematics - IA

a1 x b1 c1
Then x ∆ = a2 x b2 c2
a3 x b3 c3
On applying C1 → C1 + yC2 + zC3 we get
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z b1 c1 d1 b1 c1
x ∆ = a2 x + b2 y + c2 z b2 c2 = d 2 b2 c2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z b3 c3 d3 b3 c3
d1 b1 c1
∆1
∴x = where ∆1 = d 2 b2 c2
∆ .
d3 b3 c3
Similarly we get
a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
∆2 ∆3
y = , where ∆ 2 = a2 d2 c2 and z = , where ∆3 = a2 b2 d 2
∆ ∆
a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3
x y z 1
∴ = = = . This is known as Cramer's Rule.
∆1 ∆ 2 ∆3 ∆

3.7.2. Matrix inversion method

Consider the matrix equation AX = D, where A is non-singular. Then we can find A −1 .
AX = D ⇔ A −1 (AX) = A −1 D
⇔ (A −1A) X = A −1 D
⇔ IX = A −1 D ( I is the unit matrix).
⇔ X = A −1 D
From this x, y and z are known.
3.7.3 Solved Problems
1. Problem: Solve the following simultaneous linear equations by using Cramer's rule.
3 x + 4 y + 5 z = 18
2 x − y + 8 z = 13
5 x − 2 y + 7 z = 20
Solution:
3 4 5  x 18 
     
Let A =  2 −1 8  ; X =  y  and D = 13 
 5 −2 7  z  20 
     
Matrices 117

Then we can write the given equations in the form of matrix equation as AX = D.
3 4 5
∆ = det A = 2 −1 8
5 −2 7
−1 8 2 8 2 −1
= 3 −4 +5
−2 7 5 7 5 −2
= 3( −7 + 16) − 4 (14 − 40) + 5 ( −4 + 5)
= 27 + 104 + 5 = 136 ≠ 0 .
Hence we can solve the given equation by using Cramer's rule.
18 4 5
∆1 = 13 −1 8 = 408
20 −2 7
3 18 5
∆ 2 = 2 13 8 = 136
5 20 7
3 4 18
∆ 3 = 2 −1 13 = 136 .
5 −2 20
Hence by Cramer's rule,
∆1 408 ∆ 136 ∆ 136
x= = = 3; y = 2 = = 1 and z = 3 = = 1.
∆ 136 ∆ 136 ∆ 136
∴ The solution of the given system of equations is x = 3, y = 1 = z .

2. Problem : Solve 3 x + 4 y + 5 z = 18; 2 x − y + 8 z = 13 and 5 x − 2 y + 7 z = 20 by using 'Matrix

inversion method'.
Solution:
3 4 5   x 18 
     
Let A = 2 −1 8  ; X =  y  and D = 13  .
 5 −2 7  z 20
     
Then we can write the given equations in the form AX = D.
3 4 5 
 
det A = 2 −1 8  = 136 ≠ 0 .
5 −2 7 
 
Hence we can solve the given equations by 'Matrix inversion method'.
 118 Mathematics - IA

 9 −38 37 
 
We have Adj A =  26 −4 −14  .
 1 26 −11 
 
From matrix inversion method,
 9 −38 37  18  3
−1 AdjA 1     
X = A D= . D=  26 −4 −14  13  = 1
det A 136
 1 26 −11   20  1
    
∴ x = 3, y = 1 and z =1 is the solution of the given system of equations.
Note
Observe that Cramer's Rule and Matrix inversion method can be applied only when the coefficient
matrix A is non-singular. The Gauss-Jordan method given in 3.7.4 below can be applied even otherwise,
as in 3.6.13.
3.7.4 Gauss - Jordan method
In this method we try to transform the augmented matrix
 a1 b1 c1 d1 
 
 a2 b2 c2 d 2 
a b c d 
 3 3 3 3
1 0 0 α 
 
to the form 0 1 0 β  ... (F)
0 0 1 γ 
 
by using elementary row transformations, so that the solution is completely visible that is
x = α , y = β , x = γ . We may get infinitely many solutions or no solution also according to the form of the
transformed matrix (F). In fact, this method is an extension of the method already discussed in 3.6.12.
The following solved problems (3.7.6) illustrate the method.
3.7.5 Note
For solving a system of three linear equations in three unknowns by Gauss-Jordan method,
elementary row operations are performed on the augmented matrix as indicated below.
Step 1
(i) Transform the element in (1,1) position to 1, by a suitable elementary row transformation using the
element at (2,1) or (3,1) position or other wise.
(ii) Transform the non-zero elements, if any at (2,1) or (3,1) positions as zeros (other elements of the
first column) by using the element 1 at (1,1) position.
If, at the end of step 1, there is a non-zero element at (2,2) or (3,2) position, go to step 2. Otherwise
skip it.
 Matrices 119

Step 2
(i) Transform the element in (2,2) position to 1, by a suitable elementary row transformation using the
element at (3,2) position or other wise.
(ii) Transform the non-zero elements, if any, of the second column (i.e., the non-zero elements,if any, at
(1,2) or (3, 2) positions) as zeros, by using the element 1 at (2,2) position.
At the end of step 2, or after skipping it for reasons specified above, examine the element at (3,3)
position. If it is non zero, go to step 3. Otherwise, stop.
Step 3
(i) Transform the element in (3, 3) position to 1, by dividing R3 with a suitable number.
(ii) Transform the other non-zero elements if any of the third column (that is, the non-zero
elements, if any, at (1,3) or (2, 3) positions) as zeros, by using the 1 present at (3,3)
position.
3.7.6 Solved Problems
1. Problem : Solve the following equations by Gauss - Jordan method
3 x + 4 y + 5 z = 18
2 x − y + 8 z = 13
5 x − 2 y + 7 z = 20 .
Solution : The augmented matrix is
 3 4 5 18
 
 2 −1 8 13
 5 −2 7 20 
 
On applying R1 → R1 − R 2 we get
 1 5 −3 5
 
:  2 −1 8 13
 5 −2 7 20 
 
On applying R 2 → R 2 − 2R1 , R 3 → R 3 − 5R1 , we get
1 5 −3 5
 
~ 0 −11 14 3
0 −27 22 −5

On applying R 2 → − 5R 2 + 2R 3 , we get
1 5 −3 5

~ 0 1 −26 −25
 
0 −27 22 −5
 120 Mathematics - IA

On applying R1 → R1 − 5R 2 , R 3 → R 3 + 27R 2 , we obtain

 1 0 127 130
~ 0 1 −126 −25
 
0 0 −680 −680
On applying R 3 → R 3 ÷ ( −680 ) , we get
 1 0 127 130
~ 0 1 −26 −25
 
0 0 1 1
On applying R1 → R1 − 127 R 3 , R 2 → R 2 + 26R 3 , we get
 1 0 0 3
~ 0 1 0 1
 
0 0 1 1
Hence the solution is x = 3, y = 1, z = 1.
2. Problem : Solve the following system of equations by Gauss - Jordan method
x + y + z = 3, 2 x + 2 y − z = 3, x + y − z = 1 .
Solution : The matrix equation is AX = D, where
 1 1 1  x  3
A =  2 2 −1 ; X =  y  and D =
   3
 .
 1 1 −1  z  1
The augmented matrix is
 1 1 1 3
[AD] =  2 2 −1 3 .
 1 1 −1 1
On applying R 2 → R 2 − 2R1 , R 3 → R 3 − R1 , we get

 1 1 1 3
~ 0 0 −3 −3 .
 
0 0 −2 −2
2
On applying R 3 → R 3 −   R 2 , we get
3
 1 1 1 3
~ 0 0 −3 −3 .
 
0 0 0 0
Matrices 121

Hence the following is the system of equations equivalent to the given system of equations.
x+ y+z =3
−3z = −3 .
Hence z = 1, x + y = 2.
∴ The solution set is
x = k , y = 2 − k , z = 1, where k ∈ R.
3. Problem : By using Gauss-Jordan method, show that the following system has no solution
2 x + 4 y − z = 0, x + 2 y + 2 z = 5 , 3 x + 6 y − 7 z = 2 .
Solution : The equivalent matrix equation is AX = D, where
 2 4 −1   x  0

A= 1 2 2 , X = y and D =  5  .
  
     
 3 6 −7   z   2
The augmented matrix is
 2 4 −1 0
[ A D] =  1 2 2 5 .
 3 6 −7 2
On interchanging R1 and R 2 we get
 1 2 2 5
~  2 4 −1 0 .
 
 3 6 −7 2
On applying R 2 → R 2 − 2R1 , R 3 → R 3 − 3R1 , we get
1 2 2 5
~ 0 0 −5 −10 .

 
0 0 −13 −13

On applying R 2 → R 2 ÷ (−5), R 3 → R 3 ÷ (−13), we get

 1 2 2 5
~  0 0 1 2 .
 
0 0 1 1
On applying R 3 → R 3 − R 2 , we get
 1 2 2 5
~  0 0 1 2 .
 
0 0 0 −1
122 Mathematics - IA

Hence the given system of equations is equivalent to the following system of equations
x + 2 y + 2 z = 5, z = 2, 0( x ) + 0( y ) + 0( z ) = − 1 .
Clearly no x, y, z satisfy the last equation in the above system.
Hence the given system has no solution.

Exercise 3 (h)
I. Solve the following systems of equations.
(i) by using Cramer's rule and Matrix inversion method, when the coefficient matrix is non-singular.
(ii) by using Gauss-Jordan method. Also determine whether the system has a unique solution or
infinite number of solutions or no solution and find the solutions if exist.

1. 5 x − 6 y + 4 z =15 2. x + y + z =1
7 x + 4 y − 3z =19 2 x + 2 y + 3z = 6
2 x + y + 6 z = 46 x + 4 y + 9z = 3

3. x − y + 3z = 5 4. 2 x + 6 y + 11 = 0
4x + 2 y − z = 0 6 x + 20 y − 6 z + 3 = 0
−x + 3y + z = 5 6 y − 18 z + 1 = 0

5. 2 x − y + 3z = 9 6. 2 x − y + 8 z =13
x + y + z =6 3x + 4 y + 5 z =18
x − y + z=2 5 x − 2 y + 7 z = 20

7. 2 x − y + 3z = 8 8. x+ y + z= 9
−x + 2 y + z = 4 2 x + 5 y + 7 z = 52
3x + y − 4 z = 0 2x + y − z = 0

3.7.7 Solution of a homogeneous system of linear equations

We consider the following homogeneous linear equations

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = 0
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = 0
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = 0 .
The equivalent matrix equation of the above system is AX = O where
 a1 b1 c1   x 0 
 
A =  a2 b2 c2  , X =  y  and O =  0 
 
.
a c3   z   0 
 3 b3
Matrices 123

Clearly the coefficient matrix A and the augmented matrix have the same rank, for they differ by a
column of zeros. Thus a system of homogeneous equations is always consistent. In fact, x = y = z = 0
is always a solution. We call this the trivial solution. We are however, interested in finding whether or not
there are non trivial solutions.
We state below a theorem without proof, which indicates the nature of solutions of the system.
3.7.8 Theorem
The system of equations AX = O has
(i) the trivial solution only, if rank (A) is 3
(ii) an infinite number of solutions if rank (A) is less than 3.
The method of solving a system of homogeneous linear equations is similar to that adopted on the
examples given in 3.6.13. However, some problems are solved here under.
3.7.9 Solved Problems
1. Problem: Find the non-trivial solutions, if any, for the following system of equations.
2x + 5 y + 6z = 0
x − 3 y + 8z = 0
3x + y − 4 z = 0 .
2 5 6
 
Solution : The coefficient matrix A =  1 −3 −8 .
 3 1 −4 
 
On interchanging R1 and R 2 we get
 1 −3 −8 
 
A : 2 5 6
 3 1 −4 
 
On applying R 2 → R 2 − 2R1, R 3 → R 3 − 3R1, we get

 1 −3 −8 
 
A :  0 11 22  .
 0 10 20 
 

On applying R 2 → R 2 − R 3 , we get

 1 −3 −8 
 
A : 0 1 2 .
 0 10 20 
 
 124 Mathematics - IA

On applying R 3 → R 3 ÷ 10, we get

 1 −3 −8
 
A :  0 1 2
... (F)
0 1 2
det A = 0 as R 2 and R 3 are identical.

 1 −3
Clearly rank (A) = 2, as the sub matrix   is non- singular.
0 1
Hence the system has non-trivial solution.
Writing back the equations from (F)
x − 3 y − 8z = 0
y + 2z = 0
On giving an arbitrary value k to z, we obtain the solution set as
x = 2k , y = −2k , z = k , k ∈ R. For k ≠ 0 we get non-trivial solutions.
2. Problem: Find whether the following system of linear homogeneous equations has a non-trivial
solution.
x− y+z =0
x + 2y − z = 0
2 x + y + 3z = 0
 1 −1 1
Solution : The coefficient matrix is  1 2 −1 .
 2 1 3
 
Its determinant is 9. Hence the system has the trivial solution x = y = z = 0 only.

Exercise 3 (i)
Solve the following systems of homogeneous equations.
1. 2x + 3y − z = 0 2. 3x + y − 2 z = 0
x − y − 2z = 0 x + y + z =0
3x + y + 3z = 0 x − 2y + z =0
3. x + y − 2z = 0 4. x + y − z =0
2 x + y − 3z = 0 x − 2y + z =0
5x + 4 y − 9 z = 0 3x + 6 y − 5 z = 0
Matrices 125

Key Concepts
❖ An m × n matrix A is represented as A = [aij ]m × n .
❖ A matrix is called square matrix if its number of rows equals number of columns.
An element aij is in principal diagonal if i = j.
The sum of the elements of the Principal diagonal is called Trace of the matrix.
❖ A square matrix is called a
(i) Diagonal matrix if each non-diagonal element is zero.
(ii) Scalar matrix if each non-diagonal element is zero and every diagonal element is equal to
some scalar k.
(iii) Unit matrix or Identity matrix if each non-diagonal element is zero and each diagonal element
is equal to 1.
❖ If A = [aij ]m × n and B = [bij ]m× n then A + B = [cij ]m × n where cij = aij + bij .
❖ If A = [aij ]m × n and k is a scalar, then k A = [kaij ]m × n .
n
❖ If A = [aik ]m × n and B = [bkj ]n× p then AB = [cij ]m× p where cij = ∑ aik bkj .
k =1
❖ The matrix obtained by interchanging rows and columns is called Transpose of the given matrix.
Transpose of A is denoted by A' or AT.
❖ A matrix is called
(i) Symmetric if A' = A
(ii) Skew-symmetric if A' = − A .
❖ A matrix obtained by deleting some rows or columns (or both) of a matrix is called a submatrix of
the given matrix.
❖ Let A be a 3 × 3 matrix. Then
(i) The minor of an element is the determinant of the 2 × 2 sub matrix obtained by deleting the
row and column in which the element is present
(ii) the cofactor of an element aij is the product of its minor and (-1)i+j
(iii) the determinant of A is the sum of the products of the elements of any row (or column)
with the corresponding cofactors.
❖ A square matrix is said to be
(i) singular if its determinant is zero
(ii) non-singular otherwise.
❖ Adjoint of a square matrix A (order >1) is the transpose of the matrix formed by replacing the
elements by cofactors.
❖ Let A be a square matrix. A matrix B, if exists, such that AB = BA = I is called the inverse of
A and is denoted by A−1.
126 Mathematics - IA

❖ The rank of a non-zero matrix A is defined as the maximum of the order of the non-singular
square submatrices of A. The rank of a null matrix is defined as zero. The rank of a matrix A is
denoted as rank (A). In particular, If A is a 3 × 3 matrix, then its rank is

(i) 3 if A is non-singular
(ii) 2 if A is singular and atleast one of its 2 × 2 sub matrices is non-singular
(iii) 1 if every 2 × 2 sub matrix is singular.
❖ The following transformations are known as elementary transformations on a matrix.
(i) Interchange of two rows (or columns)
(ii) Multiplication of the elements of a row (or column) by a non-zero number
(iii) Addition to the elements of a row (or a column), the corresponding elements of another row
(or column) multiplied by any number.
❖ Elementary transformations on a matrix do not change its rank.
❖ A system of linear equations is
(i) consistent if it has a solution
(ii) inconsistent if it has no solution.

❖ Non-homogeneous system
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3
The above system of equations has
(i) a unique solution if rank (A) = rank ([A D]) = 3
(ii) infinitely many solutions if rank (A) = rank ([A D]) < 3.
(iii) no solution if rank (A) ≠ rank ([A D]).
❖ Homogeneous system of equations
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = 0
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = 0
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = 0 .
The above system has
(i) Trivial solution x = y = z = 0 only if rank (A) = 3
(ii) infinitely many non-trivial solutions if rank (A) < 3.
Matrices 127

Historical Note
The history of matrices and determinants goes back to the second century B.C. although traces
can be seen as early as the fourth century B.C. However it was not until near the end of the 17th
century that the ideas reappeared and development really got underway.
It is not surprising that the beginnings of matrices and determinants should arise through the study
of systems of linear equations. The Babylonians studied the problems which led to simultaneous
linear equations and some of these are preserved in clay tablets which still survive. The Chinese,
between 200 B.C. and 100 B.C. came much closer to matrices than the Babylonians. The text
Nine Chapters of the Mathematical Art (Chiu Chang Suan Shu) written during the Han
dynasty gives the first known example of matrix methods to solve simultaneous equations.
The rectangular arrangements of certain numbers in some rows and columns was named as
"Matrix" by J.J. Sylvester in 1850. Arthur Cayley (1821-1895), an English mathematician, is also
known for his matrix representation of simultaneous equations.
Since their first appearance in ancient China, Matrices have remained as important mathematical
tools. Matrix theory is used as an indispensible tool in the study of Physical Sciences, Engineering,
Statistics, Economics, Sociology etc. Today they are used, not simply for solving systems of
simultaneous linear equations, but also for describing Quantum mechanics of atomic structure,
designing computer game graphics, analysing relationships and even plotting complicated
dance steps!
The elevation of the knowledge of matrix from a mere tool to an important mathematical theory
owes a lot to the work of a lady mathematician, Olga Taussky Todd (1906-1995), who began by
using matrices to analyse vibrations on airplanes during World War II and became the torch bearer
for matix theory.
Matrices are indispensable in some applications and models in other branches of mathematics.
Some of the various types of matrices are Symmetric, Hermitian, Triangular, Diagonal, Tridiagonal,
Band-centro symmetric, Toeplitz, Positive definite Hessian, Circulant and so on.....

Answers
Exercise 3(a)

 −1  −1 3 
   
(iii) 
7 9 2
I. 1. (i) [2 1 3] (ii)  2  (iv)  0 −2 
 −1 8 9 2   1 0
   
 −2 −3 10 
 
2. x1 = 1, x2 = 4, x3 = 7, x4 = − 3 3.  2 1 8
 5 1 1
 
 128 Mathematics - IA

 0 1 −1
 
4. X =  4 −1 3 5. x = 8, y = 5, z = − 4, a = 10
 5 2 3
 
II. 1. x = 2, y = 2, z = 5, a = 5 2. 1
 −1 1 1  5 −6 −7 
     7 2 −3
3.  −2 −2 −4  ,  8 7 16  4.  
 −4 −5 5 16 20 −19   −3 2 7 
   

Exercise 3(b)
8
I. 1. (i) [5] (ii)  
5 
8 −13
(iii)  (iv) I 3x 3
 
16 29 
(v) Not possible (vi) Not possible (vii) O2x 2 (viii) O3 x 3

 −10 2 21
 0 −4   
2. AB and BA exist; AB =   , BA =  −16 2 37  A and B are not commutative.
10 3  −2 −2 11
 
 14 10   −1 0 
3.   4.  
 −5 −1  0 −1
7 4 4
6. AB =   ; BA does not exist. 7. − 2
 6 2 12 
4 4
II. 1. A = (3I) = 81 I 2. O3 x 3 3. O3 x 3
1 0  0 0
III. 4. A =  , B =  
1 0 1 1 
(This is just one example satisfying the given conditions)
5. (a) 15,000 and 15,000 (b) 5,000 and 25,000.

Exercise 3(c)
 −6 6   −4 11
 −2 2       4 −9   20 −22 
I. 1.   2.  13 0  ,  4 0 3.  ,  
 −2 −9   −9 6   −22 34 
 −1 10   4 2
   
4. 6 5. 2 6. Skew-symmetric
 Matrices 129

 −5 15 5 −12 24 −7  −12 0 −13

     
II. 2.  10 20 −8 3.  0 0 1 ,  24 0 26
 9 −23 −15  −13 26 −5  −7 1 −5
     

Exercise 3(d)
I. 1. (i) − 11 (ii) 38 (iii) 1 (iv) 2 (v) − 108 (vi) 37 (vii) 0
(viii) abc + 2 fgh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch 2
(ix) 3abc − a3 − b3 − c3 (x) − 8 2. 7
II. 6. a1 b2 c3.

Exercise 3(e)
 1 1
 6 3  4 8  cos α sin α   cos α sin α 
1. (i)  ,   (ii)  ,  
 −4 2   −1 1   − sin α cos α   − sin α cos α 
 6 12 

 1 4 −2   1 4 −2   −2 3 1  −2 3 1
  1     
(iii)  −2 −5 4  ,  −2 −5 4  (iv)  1 −2 0  ,  1 −2 0 
3
 1 −2 1  1 −2 1  2 −2 −1  2 −2 −1
       
 −9 −8 −2 
 a − ib −c − id   
2.   3.  8 7 2 
c − id a + ib   −5 −4 −1
 
 
1 
 0 0
 −1 2 2  a 
1   1 
−2 1 −2 
5. 
0 0
4.  b
9
 −2 −2 1  
   1
 0 0
c 

Exercise 3(f)
I. 1. 1 2. 2 3. 1 4. 2 5. 2 6. 2
II. 1. 3 2. 3 3. 2 4. 1 5. 3 6. 3
 130 Mathematics - IA

Exercise 3(g)
I. 1. Inconsistent, no solution.
2. Consistent; Unique solution ; x = 1, y = 2, z = 3.
3. Consistent; Infinitely many solutions ;
solutions set = { (x, y, z) : x = 1, y + z = 0}.
4. Consistent; Unique solution ; x = 1, y = 3, z = 5.
5. Consistent; Unique solution ; x = −7, y = 22, z = −9.
6. Consistent; Infinitely many solutions ; x = −1 + 2k, y = 3 − 2k, z = k; k is a scalar.
35 29 5
7. Consistent; Unique solution ; x = , y = , z =
18 18 18
1
8. Consistent; Unique solution ; x = 2, y = 2, z = .
2

Exercise 3(h)
I. 1. x = 3, y = 4, z = 6; Unique solution
2. x = 7, y = −10, z = 4; Unique solution
3. x = 0, y = 1, z = 2; Unique solution
4. No solution
5. x = 1, y = 2, z = 3; Unique solution
6. x = 3, y = 1, z = 1; Unique solution
7. x = y = z = 2; Unique solution
8. x = 1, y = 3, z = 5; Unique solution

Exercise 3(i)
I. 1. x = y = z = 0
2. x = y = z = 0
3. x = y = z = k for any real number k
4. x = k, y = 2k, z = 3k for any real number k
Vect or Al gebr a
 Addition of Vectors 131

“Vectors are not merely a pretty toy suitable only for

elegant proof of general theorems, but are a powerful
weapon of work away on mathematical investigation,
both in research and in solving problems”
− Chapman

Introduction
In our day to day life we come across many queries
such as - What is your height? How should a foot ball player
hit the ball, to give a pass to one another player of his team?
Observe that one possible answer to the first query is 1.7
meters, a quantity that specifies a value (magnitude) which is
a real number. Such quantities are called scalars. However,
Josiah Willard Gibbs
the answer to the second query is a quantity (called force)
(1839 - 1903)
which involves muscular strength (magnitude) and also direction
Gibbs was a prominent
(in which another player is positioned). Such quantities are American engineer and
called vectors. In Physics, Engineering and Mathematics, we promoter of vector analysis,
frequently come across with both types of quantities, namely which established itself as a
scalar quantities such as length, mass, volume, temperature, more easily applied subject
density, area, work, resistance etc. and vector quantities like compared to Hamilton’s
quaternions or Grassmann’s
displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, weight, momentum
Calculus of extensions.
etc.
 132 Mathematics - IA

Vector methods have revolutionised Mechanics, Engineering, Physics and Mathematics. Rene Descarte
(1596-1660), after whom the Cartesian coordinate system is named, G.W. Leibnitz (1646-1716), a famous
mathematician of 17th century and R.Hamilton (1805-1865), a well known theoretical physicist are the trio
who laid the seeds to this branch of Mathematics. J.W. Gibb’s (1839-1903) work on vector analysis was of
major importance in Mathematics.
In this chapter, we will study some of the basic concepts about vectors, various operations on vectors
and their algebraic and geometric properties. Angle between two non-zero vectors, linear combination of
vectors, vector equations of line and plane are discussed to give a full realisation of the applicability of vectors
in various areas as mentioned above.

4.1 Vectors as a triad of real numbers, some basic concepts

Let l be any straight line in a plane or three dimensional space. This line can be given two directions by
means of arrow heads. A line with one of these directions prescribed, is called a directed line (Fig. 4.1).

l l

Fig. 4.1

4.1.1 Definition : (Directed line segment)

If A and B are two distinct points in the space, the ordered pair (A, B), denoted by AB is called
a directed line segment with initial point A and terminal point B.
The magnitude of AB, denoted by |AB| = a (say), is the length of AB or the distance between A and B
(Fig. 4.2).

Fig. 4.2
 Addition of Vectors 133

4.1.2 Definition
A line segment with a specified magnitude and direction is called a vector.

Notice that the directed line segment in Fig. 4.2 is a vector denoted by AB or AB or simply as a and
read as vector AB or vector a. The arrow indicates the direction of the vector. When A ≠ B, we say that the
line AB is the support of AB .
The zero vector, denoted by 0, is the collection of PP, where P is any point in the space. The zero
vector, also known as the null vector, has neither support nor any specific direction. Observe that, for the
zero vector, the initial and terminal points coincide and its magnitude is the scalar 0.
Let a, b and c be real numbers (not necessarily distinct). A set formed with a, b, c in which the order
of occurance is also preassigned is called an ordered triad or a triple. If a, b, c are distinct reals, then we
get six ordered triads, namely (a, b, c), (b, c, a), (c, a, b) etc. For the ordered traid (a, b, c), a, b, c are called
the first, the second and the third components respectively.
The set of all ordered triads (a, b, c) of real numbers is denoted by ¡ 3. This representation will be
used in rectangular coordinate system in section 4.7.2.

4.1.3 Position Vector

Consider a three - dimensional rectangular coordinate system OX, OY, OZ and a point P in the space
having coordinates (x, y, z) with respect to the origin O(0, 0, 0) as shown in Fig. 4.3(a). Then the vector OP
having O and P as its initial and terminal points respectively, is called the position vector of the point P with
respect to O. This is denoted by r. Then the magnitude of OP, using the distance formula, is given by

| OP | = | r | = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
It is customary that the position vector of a point A, with respect to the origin O is denoted by a
(Fig. 4.3(b)).
Z
Z

A
P(x, y, z) B
a
X′ Y′ b X′
Y′

O O

X X Y
Y
Z′
Z′
Fig. 4.3(a) Fig. 4.3(b)
 134 Mathematics - IA

4.1.4 Direction cosines and Direction ratios

Consider the position vector OP = r of a point P(x, y, z). Let α, β, γ be the angles made by the vector
r with the positive direction (counter clockwise direction) of X, Y, Z axes respectively. Then cos α, cos β
and cos γ are called the direction cosines of the vector r. These direction cosines are usually denoted by
l, m, n respectively.
Z

z P(x, y, z)
r
y
O Y
x B
A P
|r | = r
O α
X 900
x
A

X
Fig. 4.4

Draw perpendiculars from P to the X, Y and Z axes and let A, B, C be the feet of the perpendiculars
respectively (See Fig. 4.4).

x
From Fig. 4.4, we observe that ∆OAP is right angled and hence cos α = . Similarly from the
| r |= r
y z
right angled triangles OBP and OCP, we may write cos β = and cos γ = . Thus the coordinates x, y, z
r r
of the point P may also be expressed as (lr, mr, nr). The numbers lr, mr, nr which are proportional to the
direction cosines l, m, n are called the direction ratios of the vector r. These are usually denoted by a, b, c
respectively.

We observe here that

r2 = x2 + y2 + z2

= l2r2 + m2r2 + n2r2

= r2(l2 + m2 + n2)

so that l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 but a2 + b2 + c2 ≠ 1 in general.

 Addition of Vectors 135

4.2 Classification (Types) of vectors

4.2.1Definition (Unit vector)

A vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1 unit) is called a unit vector. It is represented by e.
The unit vector in the direction of a given vector a is usually denoted by â .

4.2.2Definition (Equal vectors)

Two vectors a and b are said to be equal and written as a = b, if they have the same magnitude
and direction, regardless of the positions of their initial points.

4.2.3Definition (Collinear vectors, like and unlike vectors)

Two or more vectors are said to be collinear if they are parallel to the same line, irrespective
of their magnitudes and direction. Such vectors have the same support or parallel support.
Two vectors are called like or unlike vectors according as they have the same direction or opposite
direction. In the following figure (Fig. 4.5) a and b are like vectors, where as a and c are unlike vectors.
a b

Fig. 4.5

4.2.4 Negative of a vector

Let a be a vector. The vector having the same magnitude as a but having the opposite direction is called
the negative vector of a and is denoted by − a. Note that if a = AB then −a = BA.
a

−a

Fig. 4.6

Note : Co-initial vectors : Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called co-initial vectors.

4.2.5Definition (Coplanar vectors)

Vectors whose supports are in the same plane or parallel to the same plane are called coplanar
vectors. Vectors which are not coplanar are called non-coplanar vectors .
 136 Mathematics - IA

Note that the vectors a = PA, b = PB and c = PC are coplanar vectors if and only if the four points P,
A, B, C lie in the same plane. Coplanarity or non coplanarity of vectors arises only when there are three or
more non-zero vectors, since any two vectors are always coplanar.

4.3 Sum (Addition) of vectors

We shall now introduce the concept of addition (sum) of vectors, derive the commutative law, associative
law and a few other properties. C

4.3.1 Triangle law of vector addition

A vector AB simply means the displacement from a point
A to the point B along the line AB. Now consider a situation
that a person moves from A to B and then from B to C
(Fig. 4.7). The net displacement made by the person from
point A to the point C, is given by the vector AC and expressed
as
AC = AB + BC
A B
This is known as the triangle law of vector addition. Fig. 4.7

In general, if we have two vectors a and b (Fig. 4.8(i)), then to add them, they are positioned, so that
the initial point of one coincides with the terminal point of the other (Fig. 4.8(ii)).
C
C

A B

A B

(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 4.8

C′

For example, in Fig. 4.8(ii), we have shifted vector b without changing its magnitude and direction, so
that it’s initial point coincides with the terminal point of a. Then, the vector a + b, represented by the third
 Addition of Vectors 137

side AC of the triangle ABC, gives us the sum (or resultant) of the vectors a and b i.e., in triangle ABC
(Fig. 4.8(ii)), we have
AB + BC = AC
Now, again since AC = −CA, from the above equation, we have
AB + BC + CA = AA = 0.
This means that when the sides of a triangle are taken in order, it leads to zero resultant as the initial and
terminal points get coincided (Fig. 4.8(iii)).
Now, construct the vector B C′ so that its magnitude is the same as the vector BC, in the direction
opposite to that of it (Fig. 4.8(iii)), i.e., B C′ = −BC.
Then, on applying triangle law, from Fig. 4.8(iii), we have
AC′ = AB + BC′ = AB + (−BC) = a − b.
The vector AC′ is said to represent the difference of a and b.

4.3.2 Parallelogram law of vector addition

Now, consider a boat in a river going from one bank of

B C
the river to the other in a direction perpendicular to the flow
of the river. Then, it is acted upon by two velocity vectors -
one is the velocity imparted to the boat by its engine and the
other is the velocity of the flow of river water. Under the
simultaneous influence of these two velocities, the boat actually
starts travelling with a different velocity. To have a precise
idea about the effective speed and direction (i.e., the resultant
O A
velocity) of the boat, we have the following law of vector
Fig. 4.9
addition.
If we have two vectors a and b represented by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram in magnitude
and direction (Fig. 4.9), then their sum a + b is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram through their common point. This is known as the parallelogram law of vector addition.

Note : From Fig. 4.9, using the triangle law, one may note that
OA + AC = OC
or OA + OB = OC (since AC = OB)
which is parallelogram law. Thus, we may say that the two laws of vector addition are equivalent to
each other.
 138 Mathematics - IA

4.3.3 Properties of vector addition

1. Property : For any two vectors a and b,
D C
a + b = b + a (commutative property).
Proof : Consider the parallelogram ABCD (Fig. 4.10). Let
AB = a and BC = b, then using the triangle law, for triangle
ABC, we have
AC = a + b.
Now, since the opposite sides of a parallelogram are
equal and parallel, from Fig. 4.10, we have AD = BC = b
and DC = AB = a. Again using triangle law, for triangle A B
ADC, we have Fig. 4.10
AC = AD + DC = b + a.
Hence a + b = b + a.
2. Property : For any three vectors a, b and c
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (Associative property)
Proof: Let the vectors a, b and c be represented by PQ, QR and RS respectively, as shown in Fig. 4.11(i)
and (ii). Q Q

R R

P S P S

(i) (ii)
Fig. 4.11
Then a + b = PQ + QR = PR
and b + c = QR + RS = QS
so (a + b) + c = PR + RS = PS
and a + (b + c) = PQ + QS = PS
Hence (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
Remark : The associative property of vector addition enables us to write the sum of three vectors a, b, c as
a + b + c without using brackets.
3. Property : For any vector a, a + 0 = 0 + a = a
We have a + 0 = PQ + QQ = PQ = a
∴ a + 0 = 0 + a = a, by property (1).
Here, the zero vector 0 is called the additive identity for the vector addition.
 Addition of Vectors 139

We know that for any two real numbers x and y, |x + y| < |x| + |y| and |x − y | > || x| − | y ||. We shall
now establish similar properties for the magnitudes of the vectors.
4.3.4 Theorem: Let a, b be two vectors. Then
C
(i) |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| (equality holds if and only if a and b are like vectors).
(ii) |a − b| ≥ ||a| − |b|| (equality holds if and only if a and b are like vectors.
Proof
b
(i) Choose points A, B and C such that AB = a and BC = b

(see Fig. 4.12). Then

|a + b| = AC ≤ AB + BC = |a| + |b|. A B
a
The equality holds if and only if B belongs to the line segment AC, that is Fig. 4.12
a and b are like vectors.

(ii) |a| = |(a − b) + b| ≤ |a − b| + |b|

∴ |a| − |b| ≤ |a − b| ... (1)
Equality |a| − |b| = |a − b| takes place if and only if the vectors b and (a − b) are like
vectors and hence b and (a − b) + b = a are like vectors.
Thus |a| − |b| ≤ |a − b| (equality if and only if a, b are like vectors). ... (2)
Similarly,
|b| − |a| ≤ |b − a| = |a − b| (with equality if and only if a and b are like vectors). ... (3)

Combining (2) and (3) we get that | a | − | b | ≤ a − b with equality if and only if
a and b are like vectors.

4.4 Scalar Multiplication of a vector

We shall now introduce the operation of scalar multiplication of a vector, initially through a geometric
visualisation and later state some laws of scalar multiplication.
4.4.1 Scalar multiplication : Let a be a given non zero vector and λ a scalar. Then the product of
the vector a by the scalar λ, denoted as λa, is defined as a vector λa collinear with a. The vector λa is called
the multiplication of vector a by the scalar λ and λa has the direction same (or opposite) to that of vector a
according as the value of λ is positive (or negative). Also, the magnitude of vector λa is |λ| times the
magnitude of the vector a, i.e.,
|λa| = |λ| |a| (see definition 4.4.2)
 140 Mathematics - IA

A geometric visualisation of multiplication of a vector by a scalar is given in Fig. 4.13

a
2a

−2a
2 a
a

2 a

− 1
1

a
Fig. 4.13
When λ = −1, then λa = −a, which is a vector having magnitude equal to the magnitude of a and
direction opposite to that of the direction of a. The vector −a is called the negative (or additive inverse) of
vector a, we always have
a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0.
1
Also, if λ = , provided a ≠ 0 (i.e., a is not a null vector), then
|a|
1
| λa | = | λ || a | = | a | = 1.
|a|
1
So, λa represents the unit vector â in the direction of a. Hence aˆ = a.
|a|
4.4.2 Definition
Let a be a vector and λ be a scalar. Then we define vector λa to be the vector 0 if either a
is the zero vector or λ is the zero scalar; otherwise λa is the vector in the direction of a with
magnitude λ|a| if λ > 0, and λa = (−λ)(−a), if λ < 0.

Note : If λ < 0, then λa is the vector in the opposite direction of a with magnitude (−λ) |a|.

4.4.3 Some laws of scalar multiplication of vector

We now state some laws of scalar multiplication of a vector which are useful for further discussion.
1. If a is a vector and λ is a scalar, then (−λ)a = λ(−a) = −(λa).
2. If a is a vector and m, n are scalars, then m(na) = (mn)a = (nm)a = n(ma).
In particular, if n = −1, then m(−a) = (−m)a = −(ma).
3. If a is a vector and m, n are scalars, then (m + n)a = ma + na.
4.4.4 Theorem: If m is a scalar and a, b are any two vectors, then
m(a + b) = ma + mb.
Proof: If m = 0 or one of a, b is 0, then equality holds clearly.
 Addition of Vectors 141

Assume that m ≠ 0, a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0
Case 1: m > 0.
Let OA = a, AB = b, OA1 = m a. Through A1, draw parallel to b meeting the line OB in B1.
Then A1B1 = m b. B1
Then OB = OA + AB = a + b. ... (1)
Since m > 0, m (a + b) and a + b have the same direction.
B
Since ∆ OAB and ∆ OA1B1 are similar (Fig. 4.14) mb
OB1 A1B1
= =m b
OB AB

∴ A1B1 = mAB = mb and O a A A1

OB1 = m OB ma
A1
OB1 = OA1 + A1B1 = m a + m b ... (2) Fig. 4.14
By (1) and (2), ma + mb = m(a + b). B

Case 2: m < 0 then − m > 0

b
∴ m (a + b) = (−m) (−(a + b)) (by definition)
= (−m) (−a − b) A1 ma
= (−m) (−a) + (−m)(−b) (by case 1) a A
= m a + m b (by definition). mb
Fig. 4.15
4.4.5 Note B1

(i) Two vectors are collinear (parallel) if and only if one is a scalar multiple of the other.
(ii) Three points A, B and C are collinear if and only if AB, BC are collinear vectors.

4.5 Angle between two non-zero vectors

We have learnt about angles between two lines in plane geometry. We now introduce the concept of
the angle between two non-zero vectors, which is slightly different from the angle between two lines. The
concept of angle between two vectors is largely useful in Chapter 5, which deals with dot and cross products
of two vectors.

4.5.1 Definition
Let a and b be two non-zero vectors. Let O, A and B be points such that OA = a and
OB = b. Then the measure of ∠AOB which lies between 00 and 1800 is called the angle
between a and b and is denoted by (a, b) (see Fig. 4.16(a), (b), (c), (d)).
 142 Mathematics - IA

B
B

b 0
80
b b) <1
0 0< (a,
0
<9
b)
90
0 < (a,
0
a a A
O A
Fig. 4.16(a) Fig. 4.16(b)
(a, b) = 00 (a, b) = 1800

a b b a

O A B B O A

Fig. 4.16(c) Fig. 4.16(d)

4.5.2 Note: Let a, b be non-zero vectors. Then
(i) (a, b) = 00 ⇔ a and b are like vectors.
(ii) (a, b) = 1800 ⇔ a and b are unlike vectors.
(iii) (a, b) = 00 or 1800 ⇔ a and b are collinear vectors.
(iv) If (a, b) = 900, then a, b are called perpendicular vectors.
4.5.3 Note: Let a, b be non-zero vectors and m, n be positive scalars. Then
(i) (a, b) = (b, a)
(ii) (a, b) = (− a, − b)
(iii) (a, − b) = (− a, b) = 1800 − (a, b)
(iv) (a, b) = (m a, n b)
(v) (− m a, n b) = (m a, − n b) = 1800 − (a, b)
Check these, by drawing the necessary diagrams.
4.5.4 Definition
Let A and B be two points and P, a point on the straight line AB. We say that P divides the line
segment AB in the ratio m : n (m + n ≠ 0), if n AP = m PB.

4.5.5 Theorem: Let a and b be position vectors of the points A and B with respect to the origin O.
If a point P divides the line segment AB in the ratio m : n (m + n ≠ 0), then the position vector
m b +n a a 1
of P is . (if k ≠ 0, then a / k or means a)
m+n k k
Proof: Let P be the point on AB lying between A and B, in which case, P is said to divide AB internally. Let
OP = r. By definition n AP = m PB.
 Addition of Vectors 143

⇒ n (AO + OP) = m (PO + OB) P n B

m
⇒ n (OP − OA) = m (OB − OP) A
r
⇒ n (r − a) = m (b − r) b
a
∴ (m + n) r = m b + n a.

mb + na
∴ r =
m+n O
Fig. 4.17

Conversely if P is such that r = OP = (mb + na) / (m + n), then by retracing the above steps
backwards, we can see that P lies on the line AB and nAP = mPB. Hence P divides AB in the ratio
m : n.
4.5.6 Note: The above formula is called (division) section formula and it holds whether P divides
AB internally or externally. The position vector of the point P which divides the line segment AB
externally (i.e., P lies on AB outside the segment AB) in the ratio m : n is given by
r = (mb − na) / (m − n).

4.5.7 Corollary: If P is the mid point of AB then m = n and hence the position vector of
P = r = OP = (a + b) / 2.
Proof: In Theorem 4.5.5, take m = n = 1.
4.5.8 Theorem: Let a, b be any two non-collinear vectors. If r is any vector in the plane Π
determined by a pair of supports of a and b, then there exist unique scalars x and y such that

r=xa +yb

Proof: Choose a point ‘O’ in the plane Π as the origin and

points A and B in Π. a = OA and b = OB so that O, A and B B
are not collinear.
b
Let P be a point in the plane Π such that OP = r. If P lies either
on the support of a (i.e., on the line OA) or on the support
of b (i.e. the line OB), then take y = 0 or x = 0 respectively.
Suppose P does not lie on the supports of a and b. M P
Through P draw lines parallel to b meeting the support of a in r
L and parallel to a meeting the support of b in M. Thus OL
is collinear with a and OM is collinear with b (see Fig. 4.18). O L A
a
Hence there exist scalars x and y such that OL = x a Fig. 4.18
and OM = y b.
 144 Mathematics - IA

Then r = OP = OL + LP
= OL + OM = x a + y b.
If r is also equal to x′ a + y′ b, then (x − x′) a = (y′ − y) b so that x = x′, y = y′, otherwise a and b
will be collinear vectors. Thus x and y are unique.
4.5.9 Corollary: If a and b are non-collinear vectors and x, y are scalars, then
x a + y b = 0 if and only if x = y = 0.
Proof: If x = y = 0, then x a + y b = 0. Suppose that x a + y b = 0.
Since 0 = 0 a + 0 b, by Theorem 4.5.8 , x = 0 = y.
It is known that non−coplanar vectors do exist in the space and in particular three non−coplanar
vectors with the same initial point exist. Now, we have the following theorem which we call as space
representation theorem.
4.5.10 Theorem: Let a, b, c be three non-coplanar vectors and r be any vector in the space.
Then, there exists unique triad of scalars x, y, z such that

r=xa+yb+zc

Proof: Let ‘O’ be the origin, OA = a, OB = b and OC = c. Let P be a point in the space and r = OP.
If P lies on the support of a that is, r is collinear with a, then we choose y = 0 = z.
Similarly, if P lies on the support of b or
B
c, then choose z = 0 = x or x = 0 = y respectively.
Suppose P lies in the plane of OA and
b
OB. Then by Theorem 4.5.8, r = xa + yb
so that z = 0. Similarly if P lies in the plane M
R
of OB and OC, then r = y b + z c, x = 0
and, if P lies in the plane of OC and OA, then S
P
r = x a + z c, y = 0. r
Now suppose P does not belong to any
of the planes BOC, COA and AOB. Through the O L

point P draw planes parallel to the planes BOC, N a A

COA and AOB meeting the supports of a, b and
c in L, M and N respectively (see Fig. 4.19). c Q

Thus we form the space figure P Q L R Fig. 4.19

C
M S N O which is called a parallelopiped.
Now, r = OP = OQ + QP = (OL + LQ) + OM = (OL + ON) + OM
= OL + OM + ON.
 Addition of Vectors 145

Since OL, OM and ON are collinear with a, b and c respectively, there exist scalars
x, y and z such that OL = x a, OM = y b and ON = z c.
∴ r = x a + y b + z c.
If r is also equal to x′ a + y′ b + z′ c , then (y − y′) b + (z − z′) c = (x′ − x) a.
If x ≠ x′, then a is coplanar with b and c (Theorem 4.5.8) which is not true.
∴ x = x′. Similarly y = y′ and z = z′.
4.5.11 Corollary : If a, b, c are non−coplanar vectors, then x a + y b + z c = 0 if and only if
x = y = z = 0.
Proof: If x = y = z = 0, then clearly x a + y b + z c = 0.
Suppose x a + y b + z c = 0. Since 0 = 0 a + 0 b + 0 c by Theorem 4.5.10,
x = 0, y = 0, z = 0.

4.6 Linear Combination of Vectors

This section is devoted to discuss the linear combinations of vectors.

4.6.1 Definition
Let a1 , a2 , a3 , ... , an be vectors and x1 , x2 , x3 , .... , xn be scalars. Then the vector
x1 a1 + x2a2 + x3 a3 + ... + xn an is called a linear combination of the vectors a1 , a2 , a3 , ... , an.

4.6.2 Note

(i) 2a − b + 3c is a linear combination of a , b , c.

(ii) If a, b are non-collinear vectors, then by Theorem 4.5.8, every vector in the plane determined by a
pair of supports of a and b can be expressed as linear combination of a and b in one and only one
way.
(iii) If a, b, c be three non-coplanar vectors, then Theorem 4.5.10 shows that every vector in the space
can be expressed as a linear combination of a, b, c in one and only one way.
(iv) Three vectors are coplanar if and only if one of them is a linear combination of the other two.

4.7 Components of a vector in Three Dimensions

In Theorem 4.5.10 we have proved that every vector can be expressed as a linear combination of
three non-coplanar vectors. Here we introduce the concept of components of a vector with respect to given
non coplanar vectors a, b, c.
 146 Mathematics - IA

4.7.1 Definition (Components)

Consider the ordered triad (a, b, c) of non-coplanar vectors a, b, c. If r is any vector then
it is proved in Theorem 4.5.10 that there exists unique triad (x, y, z) of scalars such that
r = xa + yb + zc. These scalars x, y, z are called the components of r with respect to the ordered
triad (a, b, c).
Any ordered triad of non-coplanar vectors is called a base for the space.
The components of a vector depend on the choice of the base. Z

4.7.2 Representing a vector in component form

We shall now express a given vector in component form. k C(0, 0, 1)

Let O be a point in space. Call it the origin. Take three mutually
perpendicular X, Y and Z axes. Let us take the points
A(1, 0, 0), B(0, 1, 0) and C(0, 0, 1) on the X-axis, Y-axis O B(0, 1, 0)
i
and Z-axis, respectively. Then clearly j
A(1, 0, 0)
Y
|OA| = 1, |OB| = 1 and |OC| = 1. X Fig. 4.20
The vectors OA, OB and OC, each having magnitude 1, are called unit vectors along the axes OX, OY
and OZ, respectively, and denoted by i, j and k, respectively (Fig. 4.20).

Now, consider the position vector OP of a point P(x, y, z) as in Fig. 4.21. Let P1 be the foot of the
perpendicular from P on the plane XOY. We thus see that P1P is parallel to Z-axis.

P(x, y, z)
zk r
yj
S Y
xi O

Q
P1

X
Fig. 4.21

As i, j and k are the unit vectors along the X, Y and Z-axes, respectively, and by the definition of
the coordinates of P, we have P1P = OR = zk.
 Addition of Vectors 147

Similarly QP1 = OS = yj and OQ = xi.

Therefore, it follows that OP1 = OQ + QP1 = xi + yj

and OP = OP1 + P1P = xi + yj + zk.

Hence, the position vector of P with reference to O is given by

OP (or r) = xi + yj + zk.

This form of any vector is called its component form. Here, x, y and z are called the scalar components
of r, and xi, yj and zk are called the vector components of r along the respective axes. Sometimes x, y and
z are also termed as rectangular components.
4.7.3 Length of a vector in terms of its components
The length of any vector r = xi + yj + zk, is readily determined by applying the Pythagoras theorem
twice. We note that in the right angle triangle OQP1 (Fig. 4.21)

|OP1| = | OQ |2 + | QP1 |2 = x2 + y 2 ,

and in the right angle triangle OP1P, we have

|OP1| = | OP1 |2 + | P1P |2 = ( x 2 + y 2 ) + z 2 .

Hence, the length of any vector r = xi + yj + zk is given by

|r| = |xi + yj + zk| = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .

4.7.4 Note : If a and b are any two vectors given in the component form a1i + a2 j + a3k and
b1i + b2 j + b3k respectively, then the following results of addition, subtraction and scalar multiplication of
vectors hold in component form :

(i) the sum (or resultant) of the vectors a and b is given by

a + b = (a1 + b1)i + (a2 + b2)j + (a3 + b3)k

(ii) the difference of the vectors a and b is given by

a − b = (a1 − b1)i + (a2 − b2)j + (a3 − b3)k

(iii) the vectors a and b are equal if and only if a1 = b1, a2 = b2 and a3 = b3.

(iv) the multiplication of vector a by any scalar λ is given by

λa = (λa1)i + (λa2)j + (λa3)k.

 148 Mathematics - IA

4.7.5 Vector joining two points Z P2(x2, y2, z2)

If P1(x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2) are any two points,
then the vector joining P1 and P2 is the vector P1P2 (Fig. 4.22).
k
Joining the points P1 and P2 with the origin O, and applying
triangle law, to the triangle OP1P2, we have OP1 + P1P2 = OP2. P1(x1, y1, z1)
O
Using the properties of vector addition, the above equation j
i Y
becomes
P1P2 = OP2 − OP1 Fig. 4.22
X
i.e., P1P2 = (x2i + y2 j + z2k) − (x1i + y1 j + z1k)
= (x2− x1)i + (y2 − y1) j + (z2 − z1)k
The magnitude of vector P1P2 is given by

| P1P2 | = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z2 − z1 ) 2 .

4.7.6 Definition (Right handed and left handed triads)

Let OA = a, OB = b, OC = c be three non-coplanar vectors.

Viewing from the point C, if the rotation of OA to OB does not exceed angle 1800 in anti-clock
sense, then a, b, c are said to form a right handed system of vectors and we say simply that (a, b, c) is
a right handed system. If (a, b, c) is not a right handed system, then it is called a left handed system (see
Fig. 4.23(a) and 4.23(b)).

B A
b a

O O
a A b B

c c

C Right handed system Left handed system

C
Fig. 4.23(a) Fig. 4.23(b)
 Addition of Vectors 149

4.7.7 Solved Problems

1. Problem: Find unit vector in the direction of vector a = 2i + 3j + k.
1
Solution: The unit vector in the direction of a vector a is given by aˆ = a.
|a|
Now |a| = 22 + 32 + 12 = 14 .
1 2 3 1
Therefore aˆ = (2i + 3 j + k ) = i+ j+ k.
14 14 14 14
2. Problem: Find a vector in the direction of vector a = i − 2j that has magnitude 7 units.
Solution: The unit vector in the direction of the given vector a is
1 1 1 2
aˆ = a= (i − 2 j ) = i− j.
|a| 5 5 5
Therefore, the vector having magnitude equal to 7 and in the direction of a is
 1 2  7 14
7a = 7  i− j = i− j.
 5 5  5 5
3. Problem: Find the unit vector in the direction of the sum of the vectors,
a = 2i + 2j − 5k and b = 2i + j + 3k.
Solution: The sum of the given vectors is a + b ( = c , say) = 4i + 3 j − 2k
a+b 4i + 3 j − 2k
and | c | = 42 + 32 + ( −2)2 = 29. ∴ cˆ = = .
|a+b| 29

4. Problem: Write direction ratios of the vector a = i + j − 2k and hence calculate its direction cosines.
Solution: Note that direction ratios a, b, c of a vector r = xi + yj + zk are just the respective components
x, y and z of the vector. So, for the given vector, we have a = 1, b = 1, c = −2. Further, if l, m and n the
direction cosines of the given vector, then
a 1 b 1 c 2
l= = ,m= = ,n= =− as | r | = 6 .
|r| 6 |r| 6 |r| 6
 1 1 2 
Thus, the direction cosines are  , ,− .
 6 6 6
5. Problem: Consider two points P and Q with position vectors OP = 3a − 2b and OQ = a + b. Find
the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining P and Q in the ratio 2 : 1, (i) internally
and (ii) externally.
Solution:
(i) The position vector of the point R dividing the join of P and Q internally in the ratio 2 : 1 is
 150 Mathematics - IA

2(a + b) + (3a − 2b) 5a

OR = = .
2 +1 3
(ii) The position vector of the point R dividing the join of P and Q externally in the ratio 2 :1 is
2(a + b) − (3a − 2b)
OR = = 4b − a .
2 −1
6. Problem: Show that the points A(2i − j + k), B(i − 3j − 5k), C(3i − 4j − 4k) are the vertices of a right
angled triangle.
Solution:We have
AB = (1 − 2)i + (−3 + 1) j + (−5 − 1)k = −i − 2j − 6k.
BC = (3 − 1)i + (−4 + 3) j + (−4 + 5)k = 2i − j + k.
and CA = (2 − 3)i + (−1 + 4) j + (1 + 4)k = −i + 3j + 5k.
we have |AB|2 = |BC|2 + |CA|2.
7. Problem: Let A, B, C and D be four points with position vectors a + 2b, 2a − b, a and
3a + b respectively. Express the vectors AC, DA, BA and BC interms of a and b.
Solution: Let ‘O’ be the origin of reference so that OA = a + 2b, OB = 2a − b, OC = a and
OD = 3a + b. Then AC = OC − OA
= a − (a + 2b) = − 2 b
DA = (a + 2b) − (3a + b) = − 2a + b
BA = (a + 2b) − (2a − b) = 3b − a
BC = a − (2a − b) = b − a.
D C
8. Problem: Let A B C D E F be a regular hexagon
with centre ‘O’. Show that
AB + AC + AD + AE + AF = 3 AD = 6 AO.

Solution: From Fig. 4.23

AB + AC + AD + AE + AF E
O
B
= (AB + AE) + AD + (AC + AF)
= (AE + ED) + AD + (AC + CD) (Fig. 4.24)
(Q AB = ED, AF = CD)
= AD + AD + AD = 3AD
F
= 6AO (Q ‘O’ is the centre and OD = AO). Fig. 4.24
A

9. Problem: In ∆ ABC, if a, b, c are position vectors of the vertices A, B and C respectively, then
1
prove that the position vector of the centroid G is (a + b + c).
3
 Addition of Vectors 151

A
Solution: Let G be the centroid of ∆ ABC and A D the
median through the vertex A. (see Fig. 4.25)
Then AG : GD = 2 : 1. 2
1 G
Since the position vector of D is (b + c),
2
1
by the Theorem 4.5.5 , the position vector of G is
2 (b + c )
B D C
+ 1a Fig. 4.25
2 a+b+c.
=
2 +1 3
10. Problem: In ∆ ABC, if ‘O’ is the circumcentre and H is the orthocentre, then show that
(i) OA + OB + OC = OH (ii) HA + HB + HC = 2 HO
Solution: Let D be the mid point of BC. A

(i) Take ‘O’ as the origin, let OA = a; OB = b and

OC = c (See Fig.4.26) H

b+c
OD = 2
∴ OA+OB+OC = OA+2OD = OA+AH = OH O
B
(Observe that AH = 2R cos A, OD = R cos A, D
C
R is the circum radius of ∆ ABC and hence A H = 2 OD) Fig. 4.26
(ii) HA + HB + HC = HA + 2HD = HA + 2(HO + OD)
= HA + 2HO + 2OD = HA + 2HO + AH = 2HO.
Note : Taking circumcentre as the origin, we have proved that the position vector of the orthocentre
of a triangle is the sum of the position vectors of the vertices which will be very useful in
proving geometrical problems concerning triangles.
11. Problem: Let a, b, c and d be the position vectors of A, B, C and D respectively which are the
vertices of a tetrahedron. Then prove that the lines joining the vertices to the centroids of the opposite
faces are concurrent (this point is called the centroid or the centre of the tetrahedron).
Solution : Let O be the origin of reference. Let G1, G2, G3 and G4 be the centroids of ∆ BCD, ∆ CAD,
∆ ABD and ∆ ABC respectively (see Fig.4.27).
b+c+d
Then OG 1 = .
3
 152 Mathematics - IA

A
Consider the point P that divides AG1 in the ratio 3 : 1.

3 (b + c + d ) 3
+ 1a
3 P H
OP = D
4
1 G
1
∴ OP = (a + b + c + d ) .
1

4 B Fig. C
F ig.4.27
3.27
Similarly we can show that the position vectors of the points dividing BG2 , CG3 and DG4 in the ratio
1
3 : 1 are equal to (a + b + c + d). Therefore P lies on each of AG1 , BG2 , CG3 and DG4.
4

12. Problem: Let OABC be a parallelogram and D the midpoint of OA. Prove that the segment CD
trisects the diagonal OB and is trisected by the diagonal OB.
a
Solution: Let OA = a, OC = b so that OB = a + b; OD = .
2
Let M be the point of intersection of OB and CD (see Fig. 4.28).
Let OM : MB = k : 1 and CM : MD = l : 1.
k (a + b )
∴ OM = and also
k +1 C B

a
l   + 1b
l a + 2b
OM =  2  =
l +1 2 (l + 1)
l k 1 M
∴ = =
2 (l + 1) k +1 l +1
O D A
1
∴ l = 2 and k = . Fig. 4.28
2
∴ CD trisects OB and OB trisects CD.

13. Problem: Let a, b be non-collinear vectors. If á = (x + 4y) a + (2x + y + 1) b and

β = (y − 2x + 2) a + (2x − 3y − 1) b are such that 3 á = 2 β , then find x and y.

β ⇒ 3(x + 4y) a + 3 (2x + y + 1) b = 2(y − 2x + 2) a + 2 (2x − 3y − 1)b

Solution: 3 á = 2β

On comparing the coefficients of a and b, we have

3x + 12y = 2y − 4x + 4 ⇒ 7x + 10y = 4 ... (1)
 Addition of Vectors 153

and 6x + 3y + 3 = 4x − 6y − 2 ⇒ 2x + 9y = − 5 ...(2)
Solving (1) and (2), x = 2, y = − 1.
14. Problem: Show that the points whose position vectors are − 2a + 3b + 5c, a + 2b + 3c, 7a − c are
collinear when a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors.
Solution: Let P, Q, R be the given points.
Then PQ = 3a − b − 2c, QR = 6a − 2b − 4c
∴ QR = 2 PQ. Hence P, Q and R are collinear.
15. Problem: If the points whose position vectors are 3 i − 2 j − k , 2 i + 3 j − 4 k,
146
− i + j + 2k and 4 i + 5 j + λ k are coplanar, then show that λ = − .
17
Solution: Let the given points be A, B, C and D respectively.
Then AB = − i + 5 j − 3 k, AC = − 4 i + 3j + 3k and
AD = i + 7j + ( λ + 1) k.
A, B, C and D are coplanar if and only if
AD = x AB + y AC, for some scalars x, y; that is
i + 7j + ( λ + 1) k = x (− i + 5j − 3k ) + y (− 4i + 3j + 3k)
Equating the corresponding coefficients
− x − 4y = 1, 5x + 3y = 7, − 3x + 3y = λ + 1
31 12
Solving the first two equations we get x = , y= −
17 17
146
and hence λ = − 3x + 3y − 1 = − .
17

Exercise 4(a)

I. 1. ABCD is a parallelogram. If L and M are the middle points of BC and CD respectively, then find
(i) AL and AM interms of AB and AD.
(ii) λ, if AM = λ AD − LM
2. In ∆ ABC, P, Q and R are the midpoints of the sides AB, BC and CA respectively. If D is any point
(i) then express DA + DB + DC interms of DP, DQ and DR
(ii) if PA + QB + RC = á , then find á .
3. Let a = i + 2 j + 3 k and b = 3i + j . Find the unit vector in the direction of a + b.
4. If the vectors −3i + 4 j + λ k and µ i + 8 j + 6 k are collinear vectors, then find λ and µ.
 154 Mathematics - IA

5. ABCDE is a pentagon. If the sum of the vectors AB, AE, BC, DC, ED and AC is λAC, then find the
value of λ.
6. If the position vectors of the points A, B and C are − 2i + j − k, − 4i + 2j + 2k and
6i − 3j − 13k respectively and AB = λAC, then find the value of λ.
7 . If OA = i + j + k, AB = 3i − 2j + k, BC = i + 2j − 2k and CD = 2i + j + 3k, then find the vector
OD.
8. a = 2i + 5j + k and b = 4i + m j + n k are collinear vectors, then find m and n.

9. Let a = 2 i + 4 j − 5 k , b = i + j + k and c = j + 2 k . Find the unit vector in the opposite

direction of a + b + c .
10. Is the triangle formed by the vectors 3i + 5j + 2k, 2i − 3j − 5k and − 5i − 2j + 3k equilateral?
11. If α, β and γ are the angles made by the vector 3i − 6j + 2k with the positive directions of the
coordinate axes then find cos α, cos β and cos γ.
12. Find the angles made by the straight line passing through the points (1, −3, 2) and (3, −5, 1) with the
coordinate axes.

II. 1. If a + b + c = α d , b + c + d = β a and a , b, c are non-coplanar vectors, then show that

a + b + c + d = 0.
2. a , b, c are non-coplanar vectors. Prove that the following four points are coplanar.
(i) −a + 4b − 3c , 3a + 2b − 5c , − 3a + 8b − 5c , −3a + 2b + c .
(ii) 6a + 2b − c, 2a − b + 3c, − a + 2b − 4c , −12a − b − 3c .
3. If i, j, k are unit vectors along the positive directions of the coordinate axes, then show that the four
points 4i + 5j + k, − j − k, 3i + 9j + 4k and − 4i + 4j + 4k are coplanar.
4. If a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors, then test for the collinearity of the following points whose position
vectors are given by
(i) a − 2b + 3c , 2a + 3b − 4c , − 7 b + 10 c
(ii) 3a − 4b + 3c , − 4a + 5b − 6c , 4a − 7 b + 6 c
(iii) 2a + 5b − 4c , a + 4b − 3c , 4a + 7b − 6 c
III.1. In the Cartesian plane, O is the origin of the coordinate axes. A person starts at O and walks a
distance of 3 units in the NORTH - EAST direction and reaches the point P. From P he walks 4 units
of distance parallel to NORTH - WEST direction and reaches the point Q. Express the vector OQ
in terms of i and j (observe that |XOP = 450).
2. The points O, A, B, X and Y are such that OA = a, OB = b, OX = 3a and
OY = 3b. Find BX and AY interms of a and b. Futher, if the point P divides AY in the ratio 1 : 3,
then express BP interms of a and b.
 Addition of Vectors 155

3. In ∆OAB , E is the mid point of AB and F is a point on OA such that OF = 2FA. If C is the point of
intersection of OE and BF, then find the ratios OC : CE and BC : CF.
4. The point E divides the segment PQ internally in the ratio 1 : 2 and R is any point not on the line PQ.
If F is a point on QR such that QF : FR = 2 : 1, then show that EF is parallel to PR.

4.8 Vector Equations of Line and Plane

In this section we discuss the parametric vector equations of a straight line and plane which are useful in
solving certain geometric problems. Hereafter P(r) means, P is a point with position vector r.
4.8.1 Theorem: The vector equation of the straight line passing through the point A(a) and parallel
to the vector b is r = a + t b, t ∈ ¡ .

Proof: Let P(r) be any point on the line (see Fig. 4.29).

Then AP and b are collinear vectors A P

∴ r − a = t b for some t ∈ ¡ .
∴ r = a+tb
Conversely suppose r = a + t b. Then r − a = t b

∴ AP = t b
O
∴ AP and b are collinear vectors. Fig. 4.29

∴ P(r) lies on the line.

4.8.2 Corollary: The equation of the line passing through origin O and parallel to the vector
b is r = t b, t ∈ ¡ .

4.8.3 Cartesian form: Cartesian equation for the line passing through A(x1 , y1 , z1) and parallel to the
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
vector b = l i + m j + n k is = = .
l m n

Fix the origin at O so that OA = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k .

If P(r) = (x, y, z) so that r = OP = x i + y j + z k then P lies on the above line ⇔ r = a + t b

for some t ∈ ¡ (Here a means OA).

Now r = a + t b ⇔ x i + y j + z k = ( x1 i + y1 j + z1 k ) + t (l i + m j + n k )

⇔ x = x1 + t l, y = y1 + t m and z = z1 + t n
 156 Mathematics - IA

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
⇔ = = =t
l m n .
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
We represent these equations by = = .
l m n
If one of l, m, n is zero, say l = 0, the equation becomes
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = = t (≠ 0) .
0 m n
This means that x − x1 = 0 t = 0 so that x = x1 . (One need not become panic on seeing 0 in the
consequent as it is a ratio and not a fraction).
4.8.4 Theorem: The vector equation of the line through the points A (a) and B(b) is
r = (1 − t) a + t b, t ∈ ¡ .
Proof : Let ‘O’ be the origin so that OA = a and OB = b
A P B
P(r) is a point on the line ⇔ AP and AB are collinear vectors
⇔ AP = t AB, t ∈ ¡ . a r b
⇔ r − a = t (b − a)
⇔ r = (1 − t) a + t b.
4.8.5 Cartesian form: Let A = (x1, y1, z1) and B = (x2, y2, z2), O
P (r) be a point and let Fig. 4.30

r = xi + yj + zk. Then P lies on the line AB

⇔ x i + y j + z k = (1 − t) a + t b for some t ∈ ¡ .
⇔ ( x − x1 ) i + ( y − y1 ) j + ( z − z1 ) k
= t ( x2 − x1 ) i + ( y2 − y1 ) j + ( z2 − z1 ) k 
⇔ x − x1 = t ( x2 − x1 ) , y − y1 = t ( y2 − y1 ) and z − z1 = t ( z2 − z1 )
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
⇔ = = .
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1

4.8.6 Theorem: The vector equation of the plane passing through the point A(a) and parallel to the
vectors b and c is
r = a + tb + sc ; t , s ∈ ¡ .
Proof : Let σ be the plane passing through the point A(a) and parallel to the vectors b and c and P(r) be any
point in σ.
 Addition of Vectors 157

In the plane σ, through the point A, draw lines parallel

b
to the vectors b and c. With the line segment AP as diagonal,
complete the parallelogram ALPM in σ with the point L on c

the line parallel to c and M on the line parallel to b (see

Fig. 4.31). σ
∴ AL = sc, for some s ∈ ¡ and AM = t b for some, M
b
t ∈ ¡.
Now r − a = AP = AL + AM = s c + t b A P

∴r = a + t b + s c .
L
Conversely, if P is any point such that c
r = a + t b + s c, then r − a = t b + s c so that
a r
AP = t b + s c and hence P lies in the plane σ.
4.8.7 Corollary : The equation of the plane passing O
through the points A (a) , B (b) and parallel to the vector Fig. 4.31
c is r = (1 − t) a + t b + s c, t, s ∈ ¡ .
Proof : In Theorem 4.8.6, replace the vector b with AB.
Then the equation of the plane is
r = a + t AB + s c
i.e., r = a + t (b − a) + s c
i.e., r = (1 − t) a + t b + s c.
4.8.8 Corollary: The equation of the plane passing through three noncollinear points A (a), B (b)
and C (c) is
r = (1 − t − s) a + t b + s c where t, s ∈ ¡.
Proof : In Theorem 4.8.6, replace b with AB and c with AC.
4.8.9 Theorem: Three points A (a), B (b) and C (c) are collinear if and only if there exist scalars
x, y, z (not all zero) such that x a + y b + z c = 0 and x + y + z = 0.

Proof : Suppose A, B and C are collinear. Then AB = λ BC for some λ ∈ ¡ .

⇒ b − a = λ (c − b)
⇒ a + (− 1 − λ ) b + λ c = 0
Take x = 1, y = − 1 − λ and z = λ so that x + y + z = 0 and x ≠ 0.
Conversely, let x, y, z be scalars such that atleast one of them is not zero, x a + y b + z c = 0,
x + y + z = 0.
 158 Mathematics - IA

Suppose z ≠ 0. Since z = − (x + y) and x a + y b + z c = 0

⇒ x a + y b − (x + y) c = 0
∴ x (a − c) + y (b − c) = 0
∴ x (CA) + y (CB) = 0 and x + y ≠ 0.
∴ CA and CB are collinear vectors and hence the points A, B and C are collinear points.

4.8.10 Theorem: Four points A, B, C and D with position vectors a, b, c and d respectively are
coplanar if and only if there exist scalars x, y, z and u not all zero such that
x a + y b + z c + u d = 0 and x + y + z + u = 0.
Proof : Suppose the points A, B, C and D are coplanar.
∴ The vectors AB, AC and AD are coplanar.
∴ There exist scalars λ and µ such that AD = λ AB + µ AC.
i.e. d − a = λ (b − a) + µ (c − a).
∴ (1 − λ − µ ) a + λ b + µ c + (− d) = 0.
Take x = 1 − λ − µ , y = λ , z = µ and u = − 1.
Then x a + y b + z c + u d = 0 and x + y + z + u = 0.
Conversely suppose that x, y, z and u are scalars such that atleast one of them is not zero,
x a + y b + z c + u d = 0 and x + y + z + u = 0.
Suppose u ≠ 0 so that x + y + z = − u ≠ 0.
Now, x a + y b + z c + u d = 0 ⇒ x a + y b + z c − (x + y+ z) d = 0.
∴ x (a − d) + y (b − d) + z (c − d) = 0.
∴ x DA + y DB + z DC = 0 and one of x, y, z is not zero. (Q x + y + z ≠ 0 )
∴ DA, DB, DC are coplanar vectors.
∴ The points A, B, C and D are coplanar.

4.8.11 Solved Problems

1. Problem: In the two dimensional plane, prove by using vector methods, the equation of the line
x y
whose intercepts on the axes are ‘a’ and ‘b’ is + =1 .
a b
Solution: Let A = (a, 0) and B = (0, b).
∴ A = a i, B = b j
By Theorem 4.8.4, the equation of the line AB is r = (1 − t) a i + t (b j).
If r = x i + y j, then x = (1 − t) a and y = t b.
x y
∴ + = 1 − t + t = 1.
a b
 Addition of Vectors 159

2. Problem: Using the vector equation of the straight line passing through two points, prove that the
points whose position vectors are a, b and (3a − 2 b) are collinear.

Solution: The vector equation of the line passing through two points a and b is r = (1 − t) a + tb. The
line also passes through the point 3a − 2b, if 3a − 2b = (1 − t) a + t b for some scalar t. Equating the
corresponding coefficients, 1 − t = 3 and t = − 2.
∴ The three given points are collinear.
3. Problem: Find the equation of the line parallel to the vector 2i − j + 2k and which passes through
the point A whose position vector is 3i + j − k. If P is a point on this line such that AP = 15, find the
position vector of P.
Solution: The vector equation of the given line is
r = (3i + j − k) + t (2 i − j + 2k), ‘t’ being a scalar parameter.
Since AP = t (2 i − j + 2 k), we have

15 = AP = 4t 2 + t 2 + 4t 2 = ± 3 t ⇒ t = ± 5
∴ OP = (3i + j − k) ± 5 (2 i − j + 2 k)
= 13 i − 4 j + 9 k or − 7 i + 6 j − 11 k.
4. Problem: Show that the line joining the pair of points 6a − 4b + 4c, − 4c and the line joining the
pair of points − a − 2 b − 3c, a + 2b − 5c intersect at the point − 4 c when a, b, c are non-coplanar
vectors.
Solution: Equation of the line joining the first pair of points is
r = (1 − t) (− 4 c) + t (6a − 4 b + 4 c), t ∈ ¡
i.e., r = (6 t) a − (4 t) b + (8 t − 4) c ... (1)
Equation of the line joining the second pair of points is
r = (1 − s) (− a − 2b − 3c) + s (a + 2b − 5c), s ∈ ¡ .
i.e., r = (2s − 1)a + (4s − 2)b + (−2s − 3) c. ... (2)
Equating the corresponding coefficients of a, b and c in (1) and (2) we have 6 t − 2s = − 1,
4 t + 4 s = 2, 8 t + 2 s = 1. Solving the first and second of these equations we get t = 0 and s = 1/2. These
values satisfy the last equation. Substituting the value of t = 0 in (1) or s = 1/2 in (2), the point of intersection
of the lines is −4 c.
5. Problem: Find the point of intersection of the line r = 2a + b + t(b − c) and the plane
r = a + x(b + c) + y (a + 2 b − c) where a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors.
Solution: At the point of intersection of the line and the plane, we have
2 a + b + t (b − c) = a + x (b + c) + y (a + 2 b − c).
 160 Mathematics - IA

∴ On comparing the corresponding coefficients,

2 = 1+y ⇒ y=1
1 + t = x + 2y ⇒ t−x=1
−t = x−y ⇒ t + x = y = 1.
On solving, we get t = 1 , x = 0.
∴ The point of intersection = 2 a + 2 b − c.

Exercise 4(b)

I. 1. Find the vector equation of the line passing through the point 2 i + 3 j + k and parallel to the vector
4 i − 2 j + 3 k.

2. OABC is a parallelogram. If OA = a and OC = c, find the vector equation of the side BC.

3. If a, b, c are the position vectors of the vertices A, B and C respectively of ∆ ABC, then find the
vector equation of the median through the vertex A.

4. Find the vector equation of the line joining the points 2i + j + 3 k and −4i +3j −k.

5. Find the vector equation of the plane passing through the points

i − 2 j + 5 k, − 5 j − k, and − 3 i + 5 j.

6. Find the vector equation of the plane passing through the points (0,0,0), (0,5,0), and (2,0,1).

II. 1. If a, b, c are noncoplanar find the point of intersection of the line passing through
the points 2 a + 3 b − c, 3 a + 4 b − 2 c with the line joining the points a − 2b + 3c, a − 6b + 6c.

2. ABCD is a trapezium in which AB and CD are parallel. Prove by vector methods that the mid points
of the sides AB, CD and the intersection of the diagonals are collinear.

3. In a quadrilateral ABCD, if the mid points of one pair of opposite sides and the point of intersection
of the diagonals are collinear, using vector methods, prove that the quadrilateral ABCD is a trapezium.

III. 1. Find the vector equation of the plane which passes through the points 2i + 4 j + 2k ,
2i + 3 j + 5k and parallel to the vector 3i − 2 j + k . Also find the point where this plane meets the
line joining the points 2i + j + 3k and 4i − 2 j + 3k .

2. Find the vector equation of the plane passing through points 4i − 3 j − k , 3i + 7 j − 10k and
2i + 5 j − 7 k and show that the point i + 2 j − 3k lies in the plane.
Addition of Vectors 161

Key Concepts
L Vectors are a class of directed line segments which have both direction and magnitude.
L Vector is represented by an ordered triple (a, b, c) of real numbers. Negative of a vector AB is
defined to be BA.
L The line AB is called support of the vector AB.
L Vectors with same support or parallel supports are called collinear vectors (parallel vectors)
L Collinear vectors are called like vectors or unlike vectors according as they have the same direction
or opposite direction.
L Addition of vectors a and b using triangle law : That is, if AB = a and BC = b, then a + b = AC
and a − b is defined as a + ( − b).
L ma is the vector in the direction of a when m> 0 and (− m) (− a) when m < 0, with magnitudes m
|a|, ( − m) |a| respectively.

L m ( n a ) = ( m n ) a = n ( m a ) = ( n m ) a and m ( −a ) = − m (a ) = − ( m a ) .

L Position vector of a point P with reference to origin ‘O’ is OP and AB = OB − OA.

L Point P divides the segment AB in the ratio m : n ( m + n ≠ 0 ) if n AP = m PB.

L If the supports are parallel to the same plane, they are called coplanar vectors.
L “Non coplanar vectors” means not coplanar vectors.
L Representation of a vector r in the plane determined by two non-collinear vectors a and b is
r = x a + y b , where x, y are unique scalars.

L Representation of any vector r in the space is r = x a + y b + z c where x, y, z are unique

scalars.
L If P divides the segment joining the points A(a) and B(b) in the ratio m : n, then the position vector
mb + na
of P is .
m+n
L Vector equaton of the straight line passing through the point A(a) and parallel to the vector b is
r = a + t b, t ∈ ¡ .

L Vector equation of the straight line passing through two points A(a) and B(b) is
r = (1 − t ) a + t b, t ∈ ¡ .
162 Mathematics - IA

L Vector equation of the plane passing through a point A(a) and parallel to the
vectors b and c is r = a + t b + s c, t , s ∈ ¡ .

L Vector equation of the plane passing through three points A(a), B(b) and C(c) is
r = (1 − t − s ) a + t b + s c .

L Condition for collinearity of three points: Three points with position vectors
a, b and c are collinear if and only if there exist scalars x, y and z (not all zero) such that
x + y + z = 0 and x a + y b + z c = 0.
L Condition for coplanarity of four points: Four points with position vectors
a, b, c and d are coplanar if and only if there exist scalars x, y, z and u (not all zero) such that
x + y + z + u = 0 and x a + y b + z c + u d = 0.

Historical Note
Hermann Grassmann (1809 - 1877), the originator of calculus of extension, did a unique job
in creating a new subject. In his work, which is considered as a master piece of originality, he developed
the idea of an algebra in which symbols representing geometric entities such as points, lines and planes,
are manipulated using certain rules.
Beginning with a collection of fundamental units e1 , e2 , e3 ... of his algebra, he effectively defines
free linear space which they generate; that is to say, he considers formal linear combinations for a hyper
complex number
a1 e1 + a2 e2 + a3 e3 + ...
where a1 , a2 , a3 ... are real numbers and defines addition and multiplication by real numbers. He then
develop the theory of linear independence in a way which is astonishingly similar to the presentation one
finds in modern linear algebra texts. He goes on to prove
e1 × e1 = 0
e1 × e2 = − e2 × e1
e1 . e1 = 1.
Generalisations of these operations led to newer algebras like Clifford algebra and Exterior algebra.
It is pertinent to say that in 1840 Grassmann took an examination and wrote a highly original long
essay of 200 pages and introduced for the first time an analysis based on vectors, including vector
addition and subtraction, vector differentiation and vector function theory.
 Addition of Vectors 163

Answers

Exercise 4(a)

1 1 3
I. 1. (i) AL = AB + AD , AM = AB + AD (ii) λ = .
2 2 2

2. (i) DA + DB + DC = DP + DQ + DR (ii) α = 0

1
3. (4 i + 3 j + 3 k) 4. λ = 3, µ = − 6
34

5. λ = 3 6. λ = −1/4

7. OD = 7i + 2j + 3k 8. m = 10, n = 2

−1
9. (3i + 6j − 2k) 10. Equilateral triangle
7

3 6 2
11. cos α = , cos β = − , cos γ =
7 7 7

2  2  1
12. Cos −1 , Cos −1  −  , Cos −1  − 
3  3  3

II. 4. (i) Collinear (ii) non-collinear (iii) collinear

1
III. 1. O Q = (− i + 7 j)
2

1
2. BX = 3 a − b, AY = 3 b − a , BP = (3a − b)
4

3. OC : CE = 4:1 and BC : CF = 3:2

Exercise 4(b)

I. 1. r = (2 + 4t) i + (3 − 2t) j + (1 + 3t) k, t ∈ ¡

2. r = c + t a, t ∈ ¡
 164 Mathematics - IA

t
3. r = (1 − t) a + (b + c), t ∈ ¡
2

4. r = 2 (1 − 3 t) i + (1 + 2 t ) j + (3 − 4 t) k, t ∈ ¡

5. r = (1 − t − s) (i − 2 j + 5 k) − t (5 j + k) + s ( − 3 i + 5 j) ; t, s ∈ ¡

6. r = (5 t) j + s (2 i + k) ; t, s ∈ ¡
II. 1. a + 2b

 − 14 89 
III. 1. r = (2 + 3s )i + (4 − t − 2 s ) j + (2 + 3t + s )k ; t , s ∈ ¡,  , ,3 
 17 17 

2. r = (1 − s − t) (4i − 3 j − k) + s (3i + 7j − 10k) + t (2i + 5 j − 7 k) ; t , s ∈ ¡

 Product of Vectors 165

“One need not carryout operations with vectors

geometrically, but can work with them algebrically”
− Morris Kline

Introduction
In Chapter 4, we studied about the addition and
subtraction of vectors. We also introduced the concept
of multiplication of a vector with a scalar and derived
the parametric vectorial equations of straight line and
plane. In this unit, we intend to introduce another
algebraic operation, called the product of vectors.
Recall that product of two real numbers is a real Morris Kline
number and product of two matrices that are compatible (1908 - 1992)
for multiplication, is again a matrix. But in case of Morris Kline was a Professor of
functions, we may operate them in many ways, Two Mathematics, a writer on its
such operations are multiplication of functions pointwise history, philosophy and was a
and composition of two functions. Similarly we define great teacher of mathematics,
two different types of products, namely, scalar (or dot) and also a popular writer of
product where the resultant is a scalar and vector (or mathematical themes. His books:
Mathematics : A cultural
cross) product where the resultant is a vector. In the
approach , and Mathematical
case of vectors, both the types of products have several Thought from Ancient to Modern
applications in Geometry, Mechanics, Physics and times, are well known.
Engineering.
 166 Mathematics - IA

We shall conclude this chapter by introducing the concept of scalar triple product of three vectors,
explain its geometrical interpretation, indicate its use in obtaining the shortest distance between two skew
lines and also discuss the vector triple product of three vectors.

5.1 Scalar or Dot product of two vectors - Geometrical Interpretation -

Orthogonal Projections
5.1.1 Definition
Let a and b be two vectors. The scalar (or dot) product of a and b written as a .b, is
defined by
0 if one of a , b is 0
a.b = 
| a | | b | cos è, if a ≠ 0 ≠ b and θ is the angle between a and b

5.1.2 Note
(i) a . b is a scalar.
(ii) If a, b are non-zero vectors, then a . b is positive or zero or negative according as the angle
θ between a and b is acute or right or obtuse angle.
(iii) If θ = 0, then a . b = |a| |b| . In particular a .a = a a cos 0 = a
2
and a . a is generally denoted
by a2.
(iv) If θ = π, then a . b = − |a| |b| . In particular a.(−a) = −|a|2. b
D

5.1.3 Orthogonal Projection

C
We introduce the concept of orthogonal projection of a
vector b on a vector a and derive formulae for orthogonal
projection of b on a and its magnitude, we notice that the A B
orthogonal projection of b on a is same as the orthogonal P Q a
projection of b on any vector collinear with a. Fig. 5.1

5.1.4 Definition
Let a = AB and b = CD be two non-zero vectors. Let P and Q be the feet of the
perpendiculars drawn from C and D respectively onto the line AB (see Fig. 5.1). Then PQ is
called the orthogonal projection vector of b on a and the magnitude |PQ| is called the
magnitude of the projection of b on a. If a ≠ 0 and b = 0, then the projection vector of
b on a is defined as the zero vector.
 Product of Vectors 167

5.1.5 Note

(i) Some people use the word ‘projection’ for the projection of a vector as well as the magnitude of the
projected vector. It should be understood according to the context.
(ii) The projection remains unchanged even if the supports of the vectors are replaced by parallel lines.
Hence we may choose a and b as coinitial vectors.

 a .b  a .b
5.1.6 Theorem: The projection vector of b on a is  2  a and its magnitude is .
 a  a
 
Proof: Let a = OA and b = OB; P be the foot of the perpendicular from B on OA and è = ∠AOB .
B
Case 1: θ is acute (Fig. 5.2(a)). Then
by definition, the projection of b on a = OP b

a 
= OP  
a 
θ
a 
= (OB) cos è   O P a A
 
a  Fig. 5.2(a)

( b cos è )
a B
=
a b

(a b cos è )
a
= 2
a
θ
π−θ
(a . b ) a .
= 2 P O a A
a Fig. 5.2(b)

Case 2: θ is obtuse (Fig. 5.2(b)). In this case, OP is in the opposite direction of a and hence the angle
(b, OP) is π − θ.

∴ Projection of b on a = OP

 −a 
= OP  
 a 
 −a 
= (OB ) cos (π − è )  
 a 
 168 Mathematics - IA

 −a 
= − (OB ) cos è  

 a 
a
= ((OB) cos è )
a

a
= (|a| |b| cos θ)
| a |2
(a .b)
= a.
| a |2
Case 3: When θ is a right angle, P coincides with O so that OP = 0 and also
a . b = 0.
a .b
Hence OP = 2
a.
a

Thus the projection vector of b on a =

(a . b ) a and its magnitude is
a .b
.
2
a a
5.1.7 Definition
Let a and b be non-zero vectors and a = OA, b = OB. Let P be the foot of the perpendicular from
B on the line OA. Then OP is called the component of b parallel to a and PB is called
component of b perpendicular to a (see Fig. 5.2(a) and 5.2(b)).

Note: PB = b −
(a . b ) a .
2
a
If è = (a , b) , then OP or − OP is called the scalar component of b on a according as è ≤ 900
or è > 900 .

5.1.8 Geometrical interpretation of the scalar product

Let a and b be two non-zero vectors and θ be the angle between a and b. Let OA = a and
OB = b. P is the foot of the perpendicular from B on OA.
Then a . b = |a| |b| cos θ

∴ a . b = a b cosè

= a OP (See Fig.5.2 (a))

= Area of the rectangle whose sides are |a| and |OP|.
 Product of Vectors 169

Q
5.1.9 Theorem: Let a, b and c be non-zero vectors.
Then the projection of b + c on a is equal to the sum of
projections of b and c on a and hence
P R

a . (b + c ) (a . b ) a (a . c ) a .
2
a = 2
+ 2
a a a

O L M N A
Proof : Let a = OA, PQ = b, QR = c, so that
Fig. 5.3(a)
PR = b + c. We may assume that b + c ≠ 0.
Q
Let L, M and N be the feet of the perpendiculars drawn from
R
P, Q and R respectively on the line OA (Fig. 5.3(a), (b)).

a . (b + c ) P
2
a = Projection of (b + c) on a
a
M O L N A
= LN = LM + MN
Fig. 5.3(b)
= (Projection of b on a) + (Projection of c on a)

a.b a.c
= 2
a + 2
a.
a a

5.1.10 Corollary

If a, b, c are three vectors then a . (b + c) = a . b + a . c.

Proof : We may assume that a, b, c and b + c are all non-zero vectors.

From 5.1.9, the projection of (b + c) on a = (projection of b on a) + (projection of c on a).

a . (b + c ) a .b a .c
∴ a = a+ a
2 2 2
a a a

=
(a . b + a . c ) a
2
a

∴ a . (b + c ) = a . b + a . c
 170 Mathematics - IA

5.2 Properties of dot product

In this section we discuss some of the basic laws of dot product of two vectors.
5.2.1 Theorem: Let a, b be two vectors. Then
(i) a . b = b . a (commutative law)
(ii) (l a) . b = a . (l b) = l (a . b), l ∈ R.
(iii) (l a) . (m b) = l m (a . b), l and m ∈ R.
(iv) (− a) . (b) = a . (− b) = − (a . b)
(v) (− a) . (− b) = a . b.
Proof: If one of a, b is a zero vector, then by the definition of dot product (i) to (v) hold.
Suppose a ≠ 0 and b ≠ 0. Let (a, b) = θ. Then
(i) (a, b) = θ = (b, a).
∴ b . a = |b| |a| cos θ = |a| |b| cos θ = a . b.
B A
(ii) Case 1 : l > 0.
Then (l a, b) = (a, l b) = ( a, b) = θ
∴ (l a) . b = |l a| |b| cos θ = l |a| |b| cos θ (Q l > 0) O
= | a | (l | b | cos θ ) = a . (l b) and
(l a) . b = l | a | | b | cos θ = l (a . b).
Case 2 : l < 0.
∴ (l a, b) = (a, l b) = π − θ (Fig. 5.4)

Now (l a) . b = | l a| | b | cos ( π − θ )
= (− l) | a | | b | (− cos θ) = l (a . b) Fig. 5.4
a . (l b) = | a | |l b| cos (π − θ)
= | a | (− l) | b | (− cos θ) = l (a . b)
∴ (l a) . b = a . (l b) = l (a . b) for all scalars ‘ l ’.

(iii) In (ii) if we replace b with m b (m ∈ R ), then

(l a) . (m b) = l (a . (m b)) = l (m b)) = l (m b . a) = l m (b . a)
(iv) In (ii) if we replace l with − 1,
we have (−a) . b = ((−1) a) . b = − 1 (a . b) = − (a . b).
(v) In (iii) replace l with − 1 and m with −1 to get the result.
5.2.2 Note: From the fact that a. b = b . a and from corollary 5.1.10.
(b + c) . a = b . a + c . a
and (a + b)2 = a 2 + b 2 + 2a . b.
 Product of Vectors 171

5.3 Expression for scalar (dot) product, Angle between two Vectors

In this section, we derive formula for the dot product a . b when a and b are expressed in terms of a
right handed system (i, j, k). We observe that, if i, j, k are mutually perpendicular unit vectors, then
i . i = j . j = k . k = 1 and i . j = 0, j . k = 0 and k . i = 0.
5.3.1 Theorem: Let (i, j, k) be the orthogonal unit triad. Let a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and
b = b 1 i + b 2 j + b 3 k be vectors where a j , b j are scalars for j = 1, 2, 3. Then
a . b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3.
Proof: By Corollary 5.1.10, and Theorem 5.2.1 we have a1 i . (b1i + b2 j + b3 k)
= a1 b1 (i . i) + a1 b2 (i . j) + a1 b3 (i . k)
= a1 b1 + 0 + 0 = a1 b1
i.e., a1 i . (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k) = a1 b1.
Similarly a2 j . (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k) = a2 b2 and a3 k . (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k) = a3 b3.
∴ Again by Corollary 5.1.10, we have a . b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3.

5.3.2 Note

(i) In Trigonometry, for | x | ≤ 1, Cos−1 x is defined to be that angle θ lying between 0 and π
(i.e., 0 ≤ θ ≤ π) such that cos θ = x. Hence, if θ is the angle between two non-zero vectors
 a .b 
a and b, then, from the definition of a . b, we have è = Cos-1   and in particular if
a b
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k then

 a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 
θ = Cos −1  .
 a 2 + a 2 + a 2 b2 + b2 + b2 
 1 2 3 1 2 3 

(ii) a, b are perpendicular to each other if and only if a1b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = 0.

5.4 Geometrical Vector methods

In this section we study the application of dot product in proving certain geometrical results.

5.4.1 Theorem: Angle in a semicircle is a right angle.

Proof: Let AB be a diameter of a circle with centre O.
Let OA = a so that OB = − a.
 172 Mathematics - IA

Let P be a point on the circle and OP = r (Fig. 5.5). P

Then PA . PB = ( a − r ) . ( − a − r )

(
= − a2 − r 2 )
= 0 (Q a = r = radius ) A O B
Fig. 5.5
∴ ∠ APB = 900 . A
5.4.2 Theorem: In any triangle, the altitudes are concurrent.
E
Proof: In ∆ ABC , let the altitudes AD and BE meet in H.
Taking H as origin (Fig. 5.6),
F H
let HA = a, HB = b and HC = c
AH is perpendicular to BC
⇒ AH . BC = 0 B D C
⇒ − a . (c − b) = 0 Fig. 5.6
⇒ a.b = c .a ... (1)
BH is perpendicular to AC
⇒ BH . AC = 0
⇒ − b . (c − a) = 0
⇒ b.c = a . b ... (2)
From (1) and (2), c . a = a . b = b . c ... (3)
Now CH . AB = − c . (b − a)
= − (c . b) + c . a = 0 (from (3))
∴ CH is perpendicular to AB.
∴ The line CF is also an altitude. A
Thus the altitudes of ∆ ABC are concurrent.
5.4.3 Theorem: In any triangle, the perpendicular
bisectors of the sides are concurrent. F E

Proof: In ∆ ABC , let D, E and F be the mid points of the

sides BC, CA and AB respectively. Let the perpendicular lines O
to BC and AC at D and E respectively meet in the point ‘O’
B D C
(see Fig. 5.7). We show that OF is perpendicular to AB. ‘O’
lies on the perpendicular bisectors of the sides BC and AC. Fig. 5.7
Product of Vectors 173

∴ OB = OC = OA = R (say) ... (1)

1
Now OF. AB = (OB + OA ). (OB − OA )
2

=
1
2
(
OB 2 − OA 2 )
=
1 2
2
(
R − R2 ) =0 (from (1))

∴ OF is perpendicular to AB.

5.4.4 Theorem (Parallelogram law)

In a parallelogram, the sum of the squares C B

of the lengths of the diagonals is equal to sum of

the squares of the lengths of its sides.
Proof: Let OABC be a parallelogram in which OB and
CA are diagonals. Let OA = a and OC = c
(see Fig. 5.8(a)).
O A
Then O B = a + c and CA = a − c Fig. 5.8(a)
2 2
∴ OB 2 + CA 2 = a + c + a − c

( ) (
= a 2 + 2a . c + c 2 + a 2 − 2a . c + c 2 )
2 2
= 2a +2c

= OA 2 + AB2 + CB2 + OC 2 . (Q OA = BC and OC = AB)

1
( )
1/ 2
5.4.5 Theorem: In ∆ ABC , the length of the median through the vertex A is 2b 2 + 2c 2 − a 2 .
2
Proof: Let D be the mid point of the side BC. Take ‘A’ as the origin. Let AB = α and AC = β so
that (α, β) = ∠A . C

á+ â
Since AD = , we have
2
D
4 AD2 = á 2 + â 2 + 2 á.â
= AB2 + AC2 + 2AB . AC
= c 2 + b 2 + 2bc cos A A B
= c +b + b +c −a
2 2
( 2 2 2
) [see Theorem 10.2.3] Fig. 5.8(b)
 174 Mathematics - IA

= 2b 2 + 2c 2 − a 2
1
∴ AD = 2b 2 + 2c 2 − a 2 .
2
1
Note: Similarly, if BE and CF are the other medians, then BE = 2c 2 + 2a 2 − b 2 and
2
1
CF = 2a 2 + 2b 2 − c 2 .
2
5.5 Vector equation of a plane - Normal form
In Chapter 4 (section 4.8), we have derived the parametric vector equations of planes. In this
section, we derive vector equations of a plane, by using the scalar product of two vectors. The equation of
the plane derived in this section is called the normal form.
5.5.1 Theorem: The vector equation of the plane whose perpendicular distance from the origin is p
and whose unit normal drawn from the origin towards the plane is n , is r . n = p.
Proof : Let σ be the plane whose perpendicular distance ON from the origin ‘O’ is p. Let n be the unit
vector in the direction of ON so that ON = p n. Let P be any point in the plane σ and OP = r. (see
Fig. 5.9)
Since PN is perpendicular to ON, ON . NP = 0

∴ (p n) . (r − p n) = 0 N P

∴ r . n = p (n . n) = p.
Conversely, let P be any point and r . n = p
Then NP . n = (r − p n) . n

= r .n − p ( n .n )
= r .n − p
= 0. O
Fig. 5.9
∴ P belongs to the plane σ.
5.5.2 Note
(i) If the plane σ passes through the origin ‘O’ then p = 0 and hence the vector equation of σ
is r . n = 0.
(ii) If (l, m, n) are the direction cosines (see 4.1.4) of the normal to the plane σ and P(x, y, z) is any
point then, P ∈ σ ⇔ r .n = p.
⇔ ( x i + y j + z k ) . (l i + m j + n k ) = 0
 Product of Vectors 175

⇔ l x + my + nz= p.
Thus the equation of the plane σ is l x + m y + n z = p .
This equation of the plane is called normal form in Cartesian coordinates.
5.5.3 Theorem: Vector equation of the plane passing through the point A(a) and perpendicular to a
vector n is (r − a) . n = 0.
Proof: Let P(r) be a point in the given plane.
Then AP is perpendicular to n and so, (r − a) . n = 0
Conversely, if P(r) is any point such that ( r - a ). n = 0 , then AP is perpendicular to n.
∴ P belongs to the given plane.

5.6 Angle between two planes

We now introduce the concept of angle between two planes.

5.6.1 Definition
Let σ1, σ2 be two planes, n1, n2 be the unit normals of σ1 and σ2 respectively. Then the
angle between σ1 and σ2 is defined to be the angle between their normals n1 and n2
(Fig 5.10(a)). If θ is the angle between σ1 and σ2 then so is (1800 − θ ) (Fig. 5.10(b)). We
shall take the acute angle as the angle between two planes.

Plane σ1

900 − θ
Plane σ2
0
0
−θ
18
Angle between
the planes

Fig. 5.10(a) Fig. 5.10(b)

If n1 and n2 are normals to the planes r . n1 = d1 and r . n2 = d2, and θ is the angle between the normals
to the planes
n1.n2
then, cos θ = = | n1. n2 | .
| n1 || n2 |
5.6.2 Note : The planes are perpendicular to each other if n1 . n2 = 0 and parallel if n1 is parallel to n2.
 176 Mathematics - IA

5.6.3 Solved Problems

1. Problem: If a = 6 i + 2 j + 3 k and b = 2 i − 9 j + 6 k, then find a . b and the angle between
a and b.
Solution: By Theorem 5.3.1, a . b = 6(2) + 2(−9) + 3(6) = 12.
Let θ be the angle between a and b.

62 + 22 + 32 = 7 and b = 2 + ( −9 ) + 6 = 11
2
∴ |a| =
2 2

, or è = Cos −1   .
a .b 12 12 12
∴ cos è = = =
a b 7 × 11 77  77 
2. Problem: If a = i + 2 j − 3 k and b = 3 i − j + 2 k , then show that a + b and a − b are
perpendicular to each other.
Solution: a + b = 4i + j − k and a − b = − 2i + 3j − 5k
∴ (a + b ) . (a − b ) = 4 ( −2 ) + 1(3) + ( −1) ( −5 )
= −8 + 8 =0 .
∴ a + b and a − b are at right angles.
3. Problem: Let a and b be non-zero, non collinear vectors.
If |a + b| = |a − b|, then find the angle between a and b.
2 2
Solution: a + b = a − b ⇒ a + b = a − b
⇒ (a + b ). (a + b ) = ( a − b ) . (a − b )
⇒ a 2 + 2a . b + b 2 = a 2 − 2a . b + b 2
⇒ 4 a .b = 0
⇒ a .b = 0
∴ Angle between a and b is 900.
4. Problem: If | a | = 11, | b | = 23 and | a − b | = 30, then find the angle between the vectors
a , b and also find | a + b |.
Solution: By hypothesis | a − b | = 30.
Let θ be the angle between a and b .
2
∴ 900 = a − b = a 2 − 2a .b + b 2
= 121 − (2 × 11 × 23 × cos è) + 529
= 650 − (506 ) cos è
125
∴ cos è = −
253
 125 
∴ è = π − Cos −1  .
 253 
 Product of Vectors 177

 −125 
| a + b |2 = a 2 + 2 a.b + b 2 = 121 + 2 × 11 × 23   + 529 = 400 .
 253 
∴ | a + b | = 20 .
5. Problem : If a = i − j − k and b = 2i − 3j + k, then find the projection vector of b on a
and its magnitude.
b .a 4
Solution: a . b = 4, | a | = 3 . Projection vector of b on a= 2
a= (i − j − k ) .
a 3
b .a
4
Magnitude of the projection vector = . =
a 3
6. Problem: If P, Q, R and S are points whose position vectors are i − k, − i + 2j,
2i − 3k and 3i − 2j − k respectively, then find the component of RS on PQ.
Solution: PQ = − 2i + 2j + k and RS = i − 2 j + 2k
| PQ | = 3.
Let e be the unit vector in the direction of PQ.
1
∴ e= ( −2 i + 2 j + k ) .
3
4
So the component of RS on PQ = RS . e = − . (See note under 5.1.7).
3
7. Problem: If the vectors λ i − 3 j + 5k and 2λ i − λ j − k are perpendicular to each other,
find λ .
Solution: By hypothesis (λ i − 3 j + 5k ). ( 2λ i − λ j − k ) = 0
∴ 2λ 2 + 3λ − 5 = 0
∴ ( 2λ + 5)(λ − 1) = 0
−5
∴λ = or 1.
2
8. Problem: Let a = 2i + 3 j + k , b = 4i + j and c = i − 3 j − 7 k . Find the vector r such that
r . a = 9, r . b = 7 and r . c = 6.
Solution: Let r = x i + y j + z k
∴ By hypothesis 2x + 3y + z = 9, 4x + y = 7 and x − 3y − 7z = 6. Solving these equations
for x, y and z, we have x = 1, y = 3, z = −2
∴ r = i + 3 j − 2 k.
9. Problem: Show that the points 2i − j + k , i − 3 j − 5 k and 3i − 4 j − 4k are the vertices of a
right angled triangle. Also, find the other angles.
Solution: Let the given points be A, B and C respectively (see Fig. 5.11)
Then AB = − i − 2 j − 6k ,
 178 Mathematics - IA

BC = 2i − j + k , B

CA = − i + 3 j + 5k
⇒ BC . CA = − 2 − 3 + 5 = 0 .

⇒ ∠C = 900 .
BC . BA 6
cos B = = . C A
BC BA 41 Fig. 5.11
AB . AC 35
cos A = =
AB AC 41 .

1
10. Problem: Prove that the angle è between any two diagonals of a cube is given by cos è = .
3
Solution: Without loss of generality we may assume that the cube is a unit cube. G
D
Let OA = i , OC = j and OG = k
(see Fig. 5.12) be coterminus edges of the cube. F
E
∴ Diagonal OE = i + j + k and diagonal
BG = − i − j + k .
Let θ be the smaller angle between the diagonals O
C
OE and BG.
OE . BG −1 − 1 + 1 1
Then cos è = = = . A
OE BG 3 3 3 Fig. 5.12
B
11. Problem: Let a, b, c be non-zero mutually orthogonal vectors. If x a + y b + z c = 0, then show
that x = y = z = 0.
Solution: x a + y b + z c = 0 ⇒ a . ( x a + y b + z c ) = 0
⇒ x (a . a ) = 0
⇒ x = 0 (Q a . a ≠ 0 ) .
Similarly y = 0, z = 0.
12. Problem: Let a, b and c be mutually orthogonal vectors of equal magnitudes. Prove that the
1
vector a + b + c is equally inclined to each of a, b and c , the angle of inclination being Cos −1 .
3
Solution: Let a = b = c = λ .
2
Now, a + b + c = a 2 + b2 + c 2 + 2 ∑ a . b
= 3λ 2 (Q a . b = b . c = c . a = 0 )
 Product of Vectors 179

Let θ be the angle between a and a + b + c

a . (a + b + c ) a .a 1
Then cos è = = = .
a a+b+c (
λ λ 3 ) 3
1
Similarly, it can be proved that a + b + c inclines at an angle of Cos−1
with b and c.
3
13.Problem: The vectors AB = 3i − 2j + 2k and AD = i − 2k represent the adjacent sides of a
parallelogram ABCD. Find the angle between the diagonals.
Solution : From Fig. 5.13,
D C
Diagonal AC = AB + BC
= (3i − 2j + 2k) + (i − 2k)
= 4i − 2j
Diagonal BD = −2i + 2j − 4k.
Let θ be the angle between AC and BD.
A B
AC.BD −8 − 4 3
∴ cos θ = = = − .
| AC | | BD | 20 24 10
Fig. 5.13
14. Problem : For any two vectors a and b, show that
(i) | a . b | < |a| |b| (Cauchy - Schwartz inequality)
(ii) | a + b| < |a| + |b| (triangle inequality)
Solution :
(i) If a = 0 or b = 0, the inequalities hold trivially.

| a .b |
So, assume that |a| ≠ 0 ≠ |b|. Then = | cos θ | ≤ 1.
| a || b|
Hence |a . b| < |a| |b|.
(ii) Consider |a + b|2 = (a + b)2 = (a + b) . (a + b)
= a.a+a.b+b.a+b.b
= |a|2 + 2(a . b) + |b|2, (scalar product is commutative)
< |a|2 + 2|a . b| + |b|2 (Q x < |x| ∀x ∈ R )
< |a|2 + 2|a| |b| + |b|2 (from (i))
= (|a | + |b|)2
Hence |a + b| < |a| + |b|.
 180 Mathematics - IA

15. Problem: Find the cartesian equation of the plane passing through the point (−2, 1, 3) and
perpendicular to the vector 3 i + j + 5 k.
Solution: Let A = −2i + j + 3k and r = x i + y j + z k be any point P in the plane.
∴ AP = ( x + 2 ) i + ( y −1) j + ( z − 3) k .
AP is perpendicular to 3i + j + 5k ⇒ AP . (3i + j + 5k ) = 0
⇒ 3 ( x + 2 ) + 1 ( y − 1) + 5 ( z − 3) = 0
⇒ 3 x + y + 5 z − 10 = 0 .
16. Problem: Find the cartesian equation of the plane through the point A (2, −1, −4) and parallel to
the plane 4 x − 12 y − 3 z − 7 = 0 .
Solution: The normal to the plane 4 x − 12 y − 3 z − 7 = 0 is 4i − 12 j − 3k .
Hence 4i − 12 j − 3k is also normal to the required plane.
Let P = x i + y j + z k be any point in the required plane.
Then AP . ( 4i − 12 j − 3k ) = 0

i.e., ( x − 2 ) i + ( y + 1) j + ( z + 4 ) k  . ( 4i − 12 j − 3k ) = 0

i.e., 4 ( x − 2 ) − 12 ( y + 1) − 3 ( z + 4 ) = 0
i.e., 4 x − 12 y − 3 z = 32 .
17. Problem: Find the angle between the planes 2 x − 3 y − 6 z = 5 and 6 x + 2 y − 9 z = 4 .
Solution: n1 = 2i − 3 j − 6k and n2 = 6i + 2 j − 9k are normals to the given planes. Let θ be the angle
between the planes. Hence θ is the angle between the normals n1 and n2 (Definition 5.6.1).
n1 . n2 12 − 6 + 54 60 60
∴ cos è = = = = .
n1 n2 49 121 7 × 11 77
18. Problem: Find unit vector orthogonal to the vector 3i + 2 j + 6k and coplanar with the vectors
2i + j + k and i − j + k .

Solution: Let a = 2i + j + k , b = i − j + k and c = 3i + 2 j + 6k

Let r be a vector coplanar with a, b and orthogonal to c. Then
r = x a + y b where x, y are scalars, r . c = 0 and r = 1 .

Now, r = x a + y b = ( 2 x + y ) i + ( x − y ) j + ( x + y ) k
r . c = 0 ⇒ 3(2x + y ) + 2 ( x − y ) + 6 ( x + y ) = 0
⇒ 14 x + 7 y = 0
⇒ y = − 2x . ... (1)
 Product of Vectors 181

Also |r| = 1 ⇒ ( 2 x + y ) + ( x − y ) + ( x + y ) = 1
2 2 2

⇒ 9 x 2 + x 2 = 1 from (1)
1
⇒ x= ±
10
1
∴r = ± (3 j − k ) .
10

Exercise 5(a)

I. 1. Find the angle between the vectors i + 2 j + 3k and 3i − j + 2k .

2. If the vectors 2i + λ j − k and 4i − 2 j + 2k are perpendicular to each other, find λ.

3. For what values of λ, the vectors i − λ j + 2k and 8i + 6 j − k are at right angles?

4. a = 2i − j + k , b = i − 3 j − 5k . Find the vector c such that a, b and c form the sides of a

triangle.
5. Find the angle between the planes r . ( 2i − j + 2k ) = 3 and r . (3i + 6 j + k ) = 4 .

1
6. Let e1 and e2 be unit vectors making angle θ. If e1 − e2 = sin λ è , then find λ .
2
7. Let a = i + j + k and b = 2i + 3 j + k . Find

(i) The projection vector of b on a and its magnitude.

(ii) The vector components of b in the direction of a and perpendicular to a.

8. Find the equation of the plane through the point (3, −2, 1) and perpendicular to the vector (4, 7, −4).

9. If a = 2i + 2 j − 3k , b = 3i − j + 2k , then find the angle between 2a + b and a + 2b .

II. 1. Find unit vector parallel to the XOY- plane and perpendicular to the vector 4i − 3 j + k .

2. If a + b + c = 0, a = 3, b = 5 and c = 7 , then find the angle between a and b.

3. If a = 2, b = 3 and c = 4 and each of a, b, c is perpendicular to the sum of the other two

vectors, then find the magnitude of a + b + c .

4. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point a = 2i + 3 j − k and perpendicular to the
vector 3i − 2 j − 2k and the distance of this plane from the origin.
 182 Mathematics - IA

5. a, b, c and d are the position vectors of four coplanar points such that
(a − d) . (b − c) = (b − d) . (c − a) = 0. Show that the point d represents the orthocentre of the
triangle with a, b and c as its vertices.
III.1. Show that the points (5, −1, 1), (7, −4, 7), (1, −6, 10) and (−1, −3, 4) are the vertices of a rhombus.

2. Let a = 4i + 5 j − k , b = i − 4 j + 5k and c = 3i + j − k . Find the vector which is

perpendicular to both a and b whose magnitude is twenty one times the magnitude of c.
3. G is the centroid of ∆ ABC and a, b, c are the lengths of the sides BC, CA and AB respectively.

( )
Prove that a 2 + b 2 + c 2 = 3 OA 2 + OB2 + OC2 − 9 (OG )2 where ‘O’ is any point.

4. A line makes angles è1 , è 2 , è3 and è 4 with the diagonals of a cube.

4
Show that cos è1 + cos è 2 + cos è3 + cos è 4 =
2 2 2 2
.
3

5.7 Vector product (cross product) of two vectors and properties

In this section, we recall ‘Right and Left handed system’ of a vector triad introduced in Chapter 4.
We shall define the vector (cross) product of two vectors and study some of the properties of cross product
of vectors.
5.7.1 Right handed and Left handed Systems.
Consider the three dimensional rectangular coordinate system (Fig. 5.14). In this system when the
positive X-axis is rotated counter clock wise into the positive Y-axis, a right handed (standard) screw would
advance in the direction of the positive Z-axis. (Fig. 5.14(i)).
In a right handed coordinate system, the thumb of the right hand points in the direction of the positive
Z-axis when the fingers are curled in the direction away from the positive X-axis towards the positive Y-axis.
(Fig. 5.14(ii)) Z Z

Y O
O Y

X X
Fig. 5.14(i) Fig. 5.14(ii)
 Product of Vectors 183

Let O, A, B and C be points in the space such that no three of them are collinear. Let OA = a,
OB = b and OC = c (Fig. 5.15(i), (ii), (iii)). Observing from the point C, if the angle of rotation (in the counter
clock wise sense) of OA to OB does not exceed 1800, then the vector triad (a, b, c) is said to be a Right
handed triad or Right handed system (Fig. 5.15(i)).
If (a, b, c) is not a right handed triad, then it is said to be a left handed triad (Fig. 5.15(ii)).
B C Z

O
O O
A
A Y

C
Fig. 5.15 (i) B Fig. 5.15 (ii) X Fig. 5.15 (iii)

5.7.2 Note : (i) If (a, b, c) is a right handed (left handed) system, then the triads (b, c, a) and (c, a, b) also
form right handed (left handed) systems.
(ii) If (a, b, c) is a right handed triad and a, b, c are mutually perpendicular to each other, then (a, b, c)
is called an orthogonal triad. Thus the vector triad (i, j, k) is an orthogonal triad (Fig. 5.15(iii)).
(iii) If any two vectors in a triad are interchanged, then the system will change. For example, (a, b, c) and
(b, a, c) form opposite systems.
(iv) If any vector of a system is replaced by its additive inverse, then the system changes. Thus (a, b, c) and
(a, b, −c) form opposite systems.

5.7.3 Definition

Let a and b be non zero non collinear vectors. The cross (or vector) product of a and b,
written as a × b (read as a cross b) is defined to be the vector ( a b sin è ) n where θ is the angle
between a and b and n is the unit vector perpendicular to both a and b such that (a, b, n) is a right
handed system.
If one of the vectors a, b is the null vector or a, b are collinear vectors then the cross product
a × b is defined as the null vector 0.

5.7.4 Note: If a, b are non-zero and non-collinear vectors, then a × b is a vector, perpendicular
to the plane determined by a and b , whose magnitude is a b sin è (observe that sin θ is positive).
 184 Mathematics - IA

In the following theorem we prove that, the cross product of two non-zero
non-collinear vectors does not obey the commutative law.

5.7.5 Theorem: If a and b are two vectors, then a × b = − (b × a ) .

n

Proof : If one of a, b is the null vector or a, b are collinear

vectors, then a × b = 0 and b × a = 0 and hence
θ
a × b = − (b × a ) . Suppose a, b are non−zero and non-collinear
a
vectors. Let θ be the angle between a and b and n be the unit b
Fig. 5.16
vector perpendicular to both a and b such that (a, b, n ) is a right
handed triad. Hence by definition a × b = ( a b sin è ) n . In this θ
a b
case θ is traversed from a to b (Fig. 5.16). As noted earlier (note
5.7.2 (iii) and (iv)) (b, a, − n ) is a right handed triad, i.e., θ is −nˆ
traversed from b to a (Fig. 5.17). Fig. 5.17

If we assume a and b to lie in the plane of the paper, then n and −n both will be perpendicular to the
plane of the paper. Observe that n is directed above the paper while −n is directed below the paper.

∴ b × a = ( a b sin è ) ( − n ) = − ( a b sin è ) n = − (a × b ) .

Thus (b × a ) = − (a × b )

Note: a × b = b × a = a b sin è .

5.7.6 Theorem: Let a, b be vectors and l, m be scalars. Then

(i) ( −a ) × b = a × ( −b ) = − ( a × b ) = b × a

(ii) (−a ) × (− b) = a × b

(iii) (l a ) × b = l ( a × b ) = a × (l b )

(iv) (l a ) × ( m b ) = l m ( a × b )
Proof : In the case, when one of a, b is the null vector or they are collinear vectors or one of the scalars l,
m is the zero scalar, then all the above equalities hold good. Hence we assume that a, b are non-zero and
non-collinear vectors and l, m are non-zero scalars. Let θ be the angle between a and b and n be the
unit vector perpendicular to both a and b such that (a, b, n) is a right handed triad.
 Product of Vectors 185

(i) Then angle between − a and b is π − θ (see Fig. 5.18).

From note 5.7.2(iv), the triad ( −a, b, n ) is a left handed triad and ( −a, b, − n ) is a right handed
triad.
∴ ( −a ) × b = ( −a b sin ( ð − è )) ( − n )
= − ( a b sin è ) n b a
= − (a × b ) = b × a .
Also a × ( −b ) = − ((−b ) × a ) (Theorem 5.7.5)
= − ( − (b × a )) (Q ( − a ) × b = − (a × b ))
= b × a = − (a × b )
Thus (− a ) × b = − (a × b ) = a × ( − b ) = b × a .
(ii) ( −a ) × ( − b ) = −  a × ( − b ) (by (i)) −b
−a
= −  − (a × b ) (by (i))

= a × b.
Fig. 5.18
(iii) Let l > 0. Then angle between la and b is θ and l a = l a .
Further, the vector triad (l a, b, n ) is a right handed triad.
∴(l a ) × b = ( l a b sin è ) n

= (l a b sin è ) n

= l ( a b sin è ) n 
= l (a × b) .
The case when l < 0 follows from (i) by replacing a with l a and the fact that −l > 0.
(iv) (l a ) × ( m b ) = l m (a × b ) follows from (i), (ii) and (iii).
The proof of the following Theorem 5.7.7 is beyond the scope of this book and hence we assume its
validity without proof.
5.7.7 Theorem (Distributive law)
If a, b and c are vectors, then (i) a × (b + c ) = a × b + a × c
(ii) (a + b ) × c = a × c + b × c.
Note: By assuming (i) and recalling the result that b × a = − (a × b ) we get (ii).
If ( i , j , k ) is an orthogonal triad, then from the definition of the cross product of two vectors, it is
easy to see that (i) i × i = j × j = k × k = 0 and
(ii) i × j = k , j × k = i and k × i = j .
 186 Mathematics - IA

5.8 Vector product in (i, j, k) system

In this section, we derive formula for a × b when a and b are given in ( i , j , k ) system and deduce
the formula for a × b .

5.8.1 Theorem
Let a = a1i + a2 j + a3k and b = b1i + b2 j + b3k . Then
a × b = ( a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) i − ( a1 b3 − a3b1 ) j + ( a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) k
Proof : For proving the above formula, we use Theorem 5.7.7 and the property of cross product among
i, j and k, as mentioned at the end of Theorem 5.7.7.
a × b = ( a1 i + a2 j + a3k ) × (b1i + b2 j + b3k )
=  a1 b1 ( i × i ) + a1 b2 ( i × j ) + a1 b3 ( i × k )

+  ( a2 b1 ( j × i ) + a2 b2 ( j × j ) + a2 b3 ( j × k ))
+ ( a3 b1 ( k × i ) + a3 b2 ( k × j ) + a3 b3 ( k × k ))
=  a1 b1 (0 ) + a1 b2 k − a1 b3 j  +  -a2 b1 k + a2 b2 (0 ) + a2 b3 i 
+  a3 b1 j − a3 b2 i + a3 b3 (0 ) 
∴ a × b = ( a2b3 − a3b2 ) i − ( a1b3 − a3b1 ) j + ( a1b2 − a2b1 ) k

5.8.2 Notation: Adopting the expansion of a 3 × 3 determinant of real matrix

a1 a2 a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3 = a1 − a2 + a3 ,
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3
the above formula for a × b can now be expressed as
i j k
a × b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
5.8.3 Corollary
If a = a1i + a2 j + a3k , b = b1i + b2 j + b3k and θ is the angle between a and b, then

∑ ( a2 b3 − a3 b2 )
2

sin è = .
∑ a12 ∑ b 12
Proof: By Theorem 5.8.1, we have
a × b = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) i − (a1 b3 − a3 b1 ) j + (a1 b2 − a2b1 ) k .
 Product of Vectors 187

∴ a × b = ∑ ( a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) and a = a12 + a22 + a32 and b = b12 + b 22 + b32 .

2

Now, a × b = a b sin è , so that

∑ ( a2 b3 − a3b2 )
2
a×b
sin è = = .
a b ∑ a12 ∑ b12
5.8.4 Note: To determine the angle between two vectors, we use the dot product of vectors rather than the
cross product, as the cross product gives value of sin θ which is positive for è ∈ (0, π ) .

5.8.5 Theorem: For any two vectors a and b,

a × b = (a . a )(b . b ) − (a . b ) = a 2 b2 − (a . b ) .
2 2 2

Proof : a × b = a b sin 2 è where θ is the angle between a and b.

2 2 2

= a
2
b
2
(1 − cos è ) =
2
a
2 2
b − a
2
b cos 2 è = (a . a )(b . b ) − (a . b ) .
2 2

5.8.6 Note: If a and b are non-collinear vectors, then, unit vectors perpendicular to both a and b are
(a × b ) .
±
a×b

5.9 Vector Areas

In the following, we introduce the concept of vector area of a plane region bounded by a closed plane
curve (a curve in which initial point and terminal point are the same) and find vector area of a triangle and
parallelogram.
5.9.1 Definition (Vector area)
n
Let D be a plane region bounded by P1
P2 P3 P2
closed curve C. Let P1, P2, P3 be three points
on C (taken in this order). Let n be the
P1
unit vector perpendicular to the region D
such that, from the side of n, the points P1, P3 C
P2 and P3 are in anticlock sense. If A is the
area of the region D, then An is called the −n
Fig. 5.19(a) Fig. 5.19(b)
vector area of D. [See Fig. 5.19(a), (b)]
 188 Mathematics - IA

5.9.2 Note: If the points P1, P2 and P3 are in clock sense from the side of n, then the vector area is
A (− n). In any case the vector area of a plane region D, is either An or A(−n), so that the area is the
magnitude of the vector area.
In the following theorems, we derive the vector area of a triangle and parallelogram as applications of
cross product of vectors.
5.9.3 Theorem: The vector area of ∆ ABC is
1 1 1
( AB × AC ) = (BC × BA ) = (CA × CB ) .
2 2 2
Proof : Let the vertices A, B and C of the triangle be described in anticlockwise sense so that the closed
boundary of the plane region ∆ ABC is BC ∪ CA ∪ AB . n
Let ∆ be the area of ∆ ABC . C
Let n be the unit vector in the direction of AB × AC .
1
∆ = ( AB ) ( AC ) sin A
2
1
∴ ∆n = ( AB ) ( AC ) (sinA ) n
2
1
= AB AC (sin A ) n A
2 B
A
1
= ( AB × AC ) . Fig. 5.20
2
5.9.4 Corollary: If a, b, c are the position vectors of the vertices A, B and C (described in counter
1
clockwise sense) of ∆ ABC , then the vector area of ∆ ABC is (b × c + c × a + a × b) and its area is
2
1
b ×c + c × a + a × b .
2
Proof : From Theorem 5.9.3, the vector area of
1
∆ ABC = ( AB × AC )
2
1
= (b − a ) × (c − a )
2
1
=  b × c + b × ( − a ) + ( − a ) × c + ( − a ) × ( − a )
2 
1
= b × c − (b × a ) − (a × c ) + 0 
2
1
= [b × c + c × a + a × b ]
2
1
Area of ∆ ABC = ∆ = ∆ n = b × c + c × a + a × b .
2
 Product of Vectors 189

5.9.5 Note: Since vector area of a plane region D is a vector quantity perpendicular to the plane of D, it
follows that, the vector (b × c ) + (c × a ) + (a × b) is perpendicular to the plane of the ∆ ABC where
a, b, c are the position vectors of A, B and C respectively.
5.9.6 Theorem (Vector area of a parallelogram): Let ABCD be a parallelogram with vertices A, B, C
and D described in counter clockwise sense. Then, the vector area of ABCD in terms of the diagonals
1
AC and BD is ( AC × BD ) .
2
1
Proof : ( AC × BD )
2
1
= ( AB + BC ) × (BA + AD )
2
1 C
[AB × BA + AB × AD + BC × BA + BC × AD]
D
=
2
1
=  AB × AD + ( − CB ) × BA 
2 
O
1
=  AB × AD + ( − CB ) × CD  (Q BA = CD )
2
1 1 A B
= ( AB × AD ) + (CD × CB )
2 2 Fig. 5.21
= Vector area of Ä ABD + vector area of ∆CDB
= Vector area of ABCD.
5.9.7 Note
(i) In fact, the vector area of any plane quadrilateral ABCD in terms of the diagonals AC and BD
1
is ( AC × BD ) .
2
1
(ii) The area of the quadrilateral ABCD is | AC × BD | .
2
(iii) The vector area of a parallelogram with a and b as adjacent sides is a × b and the area is | a × b | .
5.9.8 Theorem: Let (a, b, c ) be a non-coplanar vector triad,
α = l1a + l2 b + l3c and β = m1a + m2b + m3c . Then
b×c c×a a×b
α × β = l1 l2 l3 .
m1 m2 m3
Proof: Using the distributive law of cross product over vector addition (Theorem 5.7.7) we have

α × β = l1 m2 (a × b ) + l1 m3 (a × c ) + l2 m1 (b × a ) + l2 m3 (b × c ) + l3 m1 (c × a ) + l3 m2 (c × b )
 190 Mathematics - IA

= (l2 m3 − l3 m2 ) (b × c ) − (l1 m3 − l3 m1 ) (c × a ) + (l1 m2 − l2 m1 )(a × b )

(Q b × a = − (a × b ) , c × b = − (b × c ) and a × c = − (c × a ))
b×c c ×a a ×b
= l1 l2 l3
.
m1 m2 m3
Note : In the above theorem, if we take a = i , b = j and c = k such that ( i , j , k ) is a right handed
system, then we obtain the formula for α × β as in 5.8.2.

5.9.9 Solved Problems

1. Problem: If a = 2i − 3 j + 5k , b = − i + 4 j + 2k then find a × b and unit vector perpendicular
to both a and b.

i j k
Solution: a × b = 2 −3 5 = −26i − 9 j + 5k
−1 4 2
The unit vector perpendicular to both a and b
a×b 1
=± =± ( −26i − 9 j + 5k ) .
a ×b 782
2. Problem: If a = 2i − 3 j + 5k , b = − i + 4 j + 2k , then find (a + b ) × (a − b ) and unit vector
perpendicular to both a + b and a − b .
Solution: (a + b ) × (a − b ) = − (a × b ) + (b × a )
= − 2 (a × b ) = − 2 ( −26i − 9 j + 5k ) (see problem 1)
= 52i + 18 j − 10k
Unit vector perpendicular to both a + b and a − b
1
= ± ( 26 i + 9 j − 5k ) .
782
Remark: In problems 1 and 2, you find that the unit vectors perpendicular to both a and b are same as the
unit vectors perpendicular to both a + b and a − b . Give justification.
3. Problem: Find the area of the parallelogram for which the vectors a = 2i − 3 j and b = 3i − k
are adjacent sides.
Solution: The vector area of the given parallelogram is
i j k
a × b = 2 −3 0 = 3i + 2 j + 9k .
3 0 −1
∴ Area = a × b = 94 .
 Product of Vectors 191

4. Problem: If a , b, c and d are vectors such that a × b = c × d and a × c = b × d , then show

that the vectors a − d and b − c are parallel.
Solution: a × b = c × d , a × c = b × d . On subtraction, a × (b − c ) = (c − b ) × d
= d × (b − c )
∴ (a − d ) × (b − c ) = 0
∴ a − d and b − c are parallel vectors.
5. Problem: If a = i + 2 j + 3k and b = 3i + 5 j − k are two sides of a triangle, then find its area.
Solution: Area of the triangle is equal to half of the area of the parallelogram for which
a and b are adjacent sides
1
= a×b
2
i j k
But a × b = 1 2 3 = − 17i + 10 j − k .
3 5 −1
1 390
∴ Area of the triangle = a×b = .
2 2
6. Problem: In ∆ ABC , if BC = a , CA = b and AB = c then show that
a×b =b×c =c×a.
Solution: a + b + c = BC + CA + AB = BB = 0
∴ a + b = −c
∴ a × (a + b ) = a × ( − c )
∴ a × b = − (a × c ) = c × a .
Also (a + b ) × b = ( −c ) × b
∴ a × b = − (c × b ) = b × c
∴b × c = a × b = c × a.
7. Problem: Let a = 2i − j + k and b = 3i + 4 j − k . If θ is the angle between
a and b, then find sin θ .
i j k
Solution: a × b = 2 −1 1 = − 3i + 5 j + 11k and a = 6, b = 26 and
3 4 −1
a × b = 155 .

a×b 155 155

Now sin è = = = .
a b 6 26 156
 192 Mathematics - IA

8. Problem: Let a, b and c be such that c ≠ 0 , a × b = c , b × c = a . Show that a , b, c are pair

wise orthogonal vectors and b = 1, c = a .
Solution: a × b = c ⇒ c is perpendicular to both a and b.
b × c = a ⇒ a is perpendicular to both b and c.
∴ a , b, c are mutually orthogonal vectors
∴ c = a × b = a b sin 900 = a b ... (1)

a = b × c = b c sin 900 = b c ... (2)

2
From (1) and (2), c a = c a b
∴ b = 1 and from (1), c = a .
9. Problem: Let a = 2i + j − 2k , b = i + j . If c is a vector such that a . c = |c|, |c − a| = 2 2 and
the angle between a × b and c is 300, then find the value of (a × b ) × c .

Solution: a = 3, b = 2 and a . c = c .

2 2 = c − a ⇒ 8 = c − a = c + a − 2 (a . c )
2 2 2

2
∴8 = c + 9 − 2 c

∴ ( c − 1) = 0
2

∴ c = 1.

i j k
Now a × b = 2 1 −2 = 2i − 2 j + k .
1 1 0
1 3
∴ (a × b ) × c = a × b c sin 300 = 3 (1)
= .
2 2
10. Problem: Let a, b be two non-collinear unit vectors. If α = a − (a . b) b and
β = a × b, then show that | β | = | α |.

= a × b = a b − (a . b ) (see Theorem 5.8.5)

2 2 2 2 2
Solution: β

= 1 − cos 2 è = sin 2 è , where è is the angle between a and b.

= a + (a . b ) b − 2 (a . b )
2 2 2 2 2
á

= 1 + cos 2 è − 2 cos 2 è = sin 2 è

∴â = á.
 Product of Vectors 193

11. Problem: A non-zero vector a is parallel to the line of intersection of the plane determined by the
vectors i, i + j and the plane determined by the vectors i − j, i + k. Find the angle between a and
the vector i − 2j + 2k.
Solution: Let l be the line of intersection of the planes determined by the pairs i, i + j and i − j, i + k.
Let n1 = i × ( i + j ) = i × j = k and
n2 = ( i − j ) × ( i + k )
= − j + k − i = −i − j +k .
∴ n1 is perpendicular to l and n2 is also perpendicular to l.
∴ Since a is parallel to the line l, follows that a is perpendicular to both n1 and n2 .
∴ a is parallel to n1 × n2 = k × ( −i − j + k ) = − j + i = i − j .
∴ a = λ ( n1 × n2 ) = λ ( i − j ) , for some real λ. Let b = i − 2 j + 2k .
Let θ be the angle between a and b.
a .b λ (1 + 2 ) 1
∴ cosè = = =± .
a b λ 2 (3 ) 2
∴ è = 450 or 1350 .
12. Problem: Let a = 4i + 5 j − k , b = i − 4 j + 5k and c = 3i + j − k . Find vector α which is
perpendicular to both a and b and α . c = 21.
Solution: Since α is perpendicular to both a and b , there exists scalar λ such that

i j k
α = λ (a × b ) = λ 4 5 −1
1 −4 5
= λ ( 21i − 21 j − 21k )
= 21λ ( i − j − k ) .
α . c = 21 ⇒ 21λ (3 − 1 + 1) = 21
1
∴λ = and α = 7 i − 7 j − 7 k .
3
2 2 2 2
13. Problem: For any vector a, show that a × i + a × j + a × k = 2 a .
Solution: Let a = xi + y j + z k .
Then a × i = − y k + z j .
2
∴ a × i = y2 + z2
2 2
Similarly a × j = z 2 + x 2 and a × k = x2 + y 2
∴a×i
2
+ a× j
2
+ a×k
2
(
= 2 x2 + y2 + z 2 ) =2a 2
.
 194 Mathematics - IA

14. Problem: If a is a non-zero vector and b, c are two vectors such that a × b = a × c and
a . b = a . c , then prove that b = c .
Solution: a × b = a × c ⇒ a × (b − c ) = 0
⇒ either b = c or b − c is collinear with a
Again a . b = a . c ⇒ a . (b − c ) = 0
⇒ either b = c or b − c is perpendicular to a .
∴ If b ≠ c , then b − c is parallel to a and is perpendicular to a which is impossible.
∴ b =c.

Exercise 5(b)

π
I. 1. If p = 2, q = 3 and ( p, q ) = 2
, then find p × q .
6
2. If a = 2i − j + k and b = i − 3 j − 5k , then find | a × b |.

3. If a = 2i − 3 j + k and b = i + 4 j − 2k , then find (a + b ) × (a − b ) .

2p
4. If 4i + j + p k is parallel to the vector i + 2 j + 3k , find p.
3

5. Compute a × (b + c ) + b × (c + a ) + c × (a + b ) .

2
6. If p = x i + y j + z k , then find p × k .

7. Compute 2 j × (3i − 4k ) + ( i + 2 j ) × k .

8. Find unit vector perpendicular to both i + j + k and 2i + j + 3k.

9. If θ is the angle between the vectors i + j and j + k, then find sin θ .

10. Find the area of the parallelogram having a = 2 j − k and b = − i + k as adjacent sides.

11. Find the area of the parallelogram whose diagonals are 3i + j − 2k and i − 3 j + 4k .

12. Find the area of the triangle having 3i + 4 j and −5i + 7 j as two of its sides.

13. Find unit vector perpendicular to the plane determined by the vectors a = 4i + 3 j − k and
b = 2i − 6 j − 3k .

14. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are A(1, 2, 3), B(2, 3, 1) and C(3, 1, 2).
Product of Vectors 195

II. 1. If a + b + c = 0, then prove that a × b = b × c = c × a .

2. If a = 2i + j − k , b = − i + 2 j − 4k and c = i + j + k , then find (a × b ) . (b × c ) .

3. Find the vector area and the area of the parallelogram having a = i + 2 j − k and
b = 2i − j + 2k as adjacent sides.

4. If a × b = b × c ≠ 0 , then show that a + c = p b , where p is some scalar.

5. Let a and b be vectors, satisfying a = b = 5 and (a, b) = 450. Find the area of the triangle having
a − 2b and 3a + 2b as two of its sides.

6. Find the vector having magnitude 6 units and perpendicular to both 2i − k and 3 j − i − k .

7. Find a unit vector perpendiclar to the plane determined by the points P(1, −1, 2),
Q(2, 0, −1) and R(0, 2, 1).
8. If a . b = a . c and a × b = a × c , a ≠ 0 , then show that b = c.
9. Find a vector of magnitude 3 and perpendicular to both the vectors b = 2i − 2 j + k and
c = 2i + 2 j + 3k .

10. If a = 13, b = 5 and a . b = 60 , then find a × b .

11. Find unit vector perpendicular to the plane passing through the points (1, 2, 3),
(2, −1, 1) and (1, 2, −4).
III.1. If a, b and c represent the vertices A, B and C respectively of ∆ ABC , then prove that
(a × b ) + (b × c ) + (c × a ) is twice the area of ∆ ABC .

2. If a = 2i + 3 j + 4k , b = i + j − k and c = i − j + k , then compute a × (b × c ) and verify

that it is perpendicualr to a.
3. If a = 7 i − 2 j + 3k , b = 2i + 8 k and c = i + j + k , then compute a × b, a × c and
a × (b + c ) . Verify whether the cross product is distributive over vector addition.

4. If a = i + j + k , c = j − k , then find vector b such that a × b = c and a . b = 3 .

5. a , b, c are three vectors of equal magnitudes and each of them is inclined at an angle of 600 to the
others. If a + b + c = 6 , then find a .

6. For any two vectors a and b, show that

(1 + a )(1 + b ) = 1 − a.b
2 2 2 2
+a+b+a×b .
 196 Mathematics - IA

7. If a , b, c are unit vectors such that a is perpendicular to the plane of b, c and the angle between b and
π
c is , then find a + b + c .
3
8. a = 3i − j + 2k , b = − i + 3 j + 2k , c = 4i + 5 j − 2k and d = i + 3 j + 5k , then compute
the following.
(i) (a × b ) × (c × d ) and (ii) (a × b ) . c − (a × d ) . b .

5.10 Scalar triple product

In this section we introduce the concept of scalar triple product of three vectors and discuss its
properties and its geometrical interpretation.

5.10.1 Definition
Let a, b and c be three vectors. We call (a × b ). c , the scalar triple product of a, b and c
and denote this by [a b c ] . Usually [a b c ] is called box [a b c ] .

5.10.2 Note: (a × b ). c = 0 when

(i) one of a, b, c is 0 or
(ii) a, b or b, c or c, a are collinear vectors or
(iii) c is perpendicular to a × b .

5.10.3 Theorem: Let a, b and c be three non-coplanar vectors and OA = a, OB = b and

OC = c. Let V be the volume of the parallelopiped with OA, OB and OC as coterminus edges. Then

(i) (a × b ). c = V, if (a, b, c ) is a right handed system.

(ii) (a × b ). c = −V, if (a, b, c ) is a left handed system. a ×b

N
Proof : (i) Consider the parallelopiped OADBFCGE having OA, C
F
n
OB and OC as coterminus edges. Assume that a, b, c is right
c
handed system. Draw CM perpendicular to the plane determined G θ
E
by OA and OB (i.e., a and b) and N be the foot of the
O
perpendicular to the support of a × b (see Fig. 5.22). Let n be b
B

the unit vector in the direction of a × b so that by definition of a M

a × b , we have (a, b, n ) is a right handed system. Let θ be the A D

angle between a × b and c. i.e., è = ∠CON . Fig. 5.22
 Product of Vectors 197

V = (Area of the base parallelogram OADB) × (height of the vertex C from the base)
= a × b ( CM ) = a × b (ON ) . ... (1)

But from ∆ OCN , ON = (OC) cos θ

∴ V = a×b (OC ) cos è (from (1))
= a × b c cos è
= ( a × b ). c .
Thus V = (a × b ). c = [a b c ] .
(ii) Suppose (a, b, c ) is a left handed system.
∴ (a, b, − c ) is a right handed system (see note 5.7.2). But the volumes of the corresponding
parallelopipeds are same.
∴ V = (a × b ). ( −c ) = − (a × b ). c 
∴ (a × b ). c = − V .
5.10.4 Theorem: For any three vectors a, b and c
(a × b ). c = (b × c ). a = (c × a ). b that is, [a b c ] = [b c a ] = [c a b] .
Proof : If one of a, b and c is O or any two are collinear, the equality holds (by 5.10.2).
Assume that (a, b, c ) , (b, c, a ) and (c, a, b ) form right handed systems.
∴ (a × b ). c = (b × c ). a = (c × a ). b = volume of the parallelopiped = V.
If all the triads form left handed systems, then
(a × b ). c = (b × c ). a = (c × a ). b = − V
Thus (a × b ). c = (b × c ). a = (c × a ). b

5.10.5 Theorem : If a, b, c are any three vectors, then (a × b ). c = a . (b × c ) . (that is, in a scalar
triple product, the operations dot and cross can be interchanged)
Proof : From Theorem 5.10.4, we have
(a × b ). c = (b × c ). a = a . (b × c ) (Q dot product is commutative)
5.10.6 Theorem: If a, b, c are three nonzero vectors such that no two are collinear, then [a b c ] = 0
if and only if a, b and c are coplanar.
Proof: Suppose a, b and c are coplanar. Since a × b is perpendicular to the plane determined by
a and b it is also perpendicular to c. Hence (a × b ). c = 0 .
∴ [a b c ] = 0 .
Conversely assume that [a b c ] = 0 i.e, (a × b ). c = 0 .
∴ a × b is perpendicular to c. But a × b is perpendicular to both a and b.
∴ a × b is perpendicular to a, b and c .
∴ a , b, c are coplanar.
 198 Mathematics - IA

5.10.7 Corollary
Four distinct points A, B, C and D are coplanar if and only if [AB AC AD] = 0 .
Proof : A, B, C and D are coplanar ⇔ the vectors AB, AC and AD are coplanar
⇔ [AB AC AD] = 0 .
5.10.8 Theorem: Let ( i , j, k ) be orthogonal triad of unit vectors which is a right handed system.
Let a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3k and c = c1 i + c2 j + c3k .

a1 a2 a3
Then [a b c ] = b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3
Proof: It is known that a × b = ( a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) i − ( a1 b3 − a3 b1 ) j + ( a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) k
∴ [a b c ] = (a × b ). c
= ( a2 b3 − a3b2 ) c1 − ( a1 b3 − a3b1 ) c2 + ( a1 b2 − a2b1 ) c3
a1 a2 a3
= b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3
5.10.9 Corollary
Let a = a1 i + a2 j + a3k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3k and c = c1 i + c2 j + c3k . Then a, b, c are
a1 a2 a3
coplanar if and only if b1 b2 b3 = 0 .
c1 c2 c3
Proof: Follows from Theroems 5.10.6 and 5.10.8.
5.10.10 Corollary
Let α, β, γ be three noncoplanar vectors and a = a1 á + a2 â + a3 ã ,
b = b1 á + b2 â + b3 ã , c = c1 á + c2 â + c3 ã . Then a, b and c are coplanar if and only if
a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3 = 0.
c1 c2 c3
â× ã ã ×á á×â
Proof : From Theorem 5.9.8, a × b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
= ( a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) (â × ã ) − ( a1 b3 − a3 b1 ) ( ã × á ) + ( a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) (á × â )
∴ [ a b c ] = (a × b ) . c
= ( a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) (â × ã ) . (c1 á ) − ( a1 b3 − a3 b1 ) ( ã × á ) . ( c2 â )
+ ( a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) (á × â ) . ( c3 ã )
 Product of Vectors 199

= ( a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) c1 − ( a1 b3 − a3 b1 ) c2 + ( a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) c3  [á â ã ] ,
(Q [á â ã ] = [ â ã á ] = [ã á â ])
a1 a2 a3
∴ [a b c ] = b1 b2 b3 [á â ã ].
c1 c2 c3
Since á, â, ã are non-coplanar, [á â ã ] ≠ 0 .

a1 a2 a3
∴ a , b, c are coplanar vectors if and only if b1 b2 b3 = 0 .
c1 c2 c3
1
5.10.11 Theorem: The volume of a tetrahedron with a, b and c as coterminus edges is [a b c ] .
6
Proof: Let OABC be a tetrahedron and OA = a , OB = b , OC = c (Fig. 5.23).. Let V be the volume
of the tetrahedron OABC. By definition, the volume V is given by
1
V= (area of the base ∆ OAB ) (length of the perpendicular from C to the base ∆ OAB ).
3
CN is the perpendicular from C to ∆ OAB and CM is the perpendicular from C onto the supporting
line of a × b so that CN = OM = Length of the projection of c onto a × b

(a × b ). c [a b c ]
= =
a×b a×b M
C
a×b
Area of ∆ OAB =
2
1 1 [a b c ]
∴V = × a×b
3 2 a×b O
B
1
= [a b c ] .
N
6
A Fig. 5.23
5.10.12 Corollary
1
The volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are A, B, C and D is [DA DB DC] .
6
Proof: Since DA, DB and DC are coterminus edges of the tetrahedron ABCD, from the above theorem,
1
it follows that its volume is [DA DB DC] .
6
 200 Mathematics - IA

5.11 Vector equation of a plane - different forms, skew lines,

shortest distance -plane, condition for coplanarity etc.
In Chapter 4, we have discussed about the parametric vectorial equation of a plane in various forms.
In this section we obtain the vector equations of a plane by using dot and cross products. Also, we introduce
the concept of skew lines, the shortest distance between two skew lines and derive a formula for the shortest
distance. In this connection, we fix the origin of reference ‘O’. a is a point means a is the position vector
of a point with respect to origin ‘O’.
5.11.1 Theorem: The vector equation of a plane passing through the point A (a) and parallel to two
non-collinear vectors b and c is [r b c ] = [a b c ] .
Proof: Let a represent the point A and P(r) be any point in the plane. We may assume
that A ≠ P .
P lies in the plane
⇒ The vectors AP, b, c are coplanar
⇒ [AP b c] = 0 (by Theorem 5.10.6)
⇒ AP .(b × c) = 0
⇒ ( r − a ) . (b × c ) = 0
⇒ r . (b × c ) = a . (b × c )
⇒ [r b c ] = [a b c ] .
Suppose P(r) is any point in the space such that [r b c ] = [a b c ] .
In the above argument, if we retrace the steps backwards, we will have [AP b c ] = 0 .
Thus the vectors AP, b, c are coplanar. Hence P lies in the plane.
5.11.2 Theorem: The vector equation of the plane passing through points A( a ), B( b ) and
parallel to the vector c is [r b c ] + [r c a ] = [a b c ] .
Proof: Let P ( r ) be any point . We may assume that P ≠ A .
Then P lies in the plane ⇔ the vector AP × AB is perpendicular to the plane
⇔ AP × AB is perpendicular to the vector c.
⇔ ( AP × AB ) . c = 0 .
⇔ AP . ( AB × c ) = 0 (Theorem 5.10.5)
⇔ ( r − a ) . (( b − a ) × c ) = 0
⇔ ( r − a ). (b × c + c × a ) = 0
⇔ [r b c ] + [r c a ] = [a b c ] .
5.11.3 Theorem: The vector equation of the plane passing through three non-collinear points A(a),
B(b) and C(c) is [r b c ] + [r c a ] + [r a b ] = [a b c ] .
Proof: Let P ( r ) be any point.
 Product of Vectors 201

The four points A, B, C and P are coplanar

⇔ The vectors AP, AB and AC are coplanar
⇔ r − a , b − a and c − a are coplanar.
⇔ [r − a b − a c − a ] = 0
⇔ ( r − a ). (b − a ) × (c − a ) = 0
⇔ (r − a ). {b × c + a × b + c × a} = 0
⇔ r . [b × c + c × a + a × b ] = [a b c ]
⇔ [r b c ] + [r c a ] + [r a b ] = [a b c ] .

5.11.4 Theorem: The vector equation of the plane containing the line r = a + t b, t ∈R and
perpendicular to the plane r . c = q is [r b c ] = [a b c ] .

Proof: For the plane r . c = q , the vector c is a normal. Since the plane contains the line r = a + t b , it
passes through the point a and is parallel to the vectors b and c.
∴ By Theorem 5.11.1, the vector equation of the plane is [r b c ] = [a b c ] .
5.11.5 Skew lines, Shortest distance and Cartesian equivalents.
If two lines in space intersect at a point, then the shortest distance between them is zero. Also, if two
lines in space are parallel, then the shortest distance between them is the perpendicular distance or the length
of the perpendicular drawn from any point on one of the lines onto the other line.
In a space, there are pairs of lines which are neither intersecting nor parallel. Such a pair of lines is
called a pair of skew lines. Thus, two lines are called skew lines, if there is no plane containing both the
lines.
5.11.6 Example
Consider a room of size 1, 3, 2 units along X, Y and Z axes respectively. (Fig. 5.24).
Z
The line GE that goes diagonally across the ceiling
and the line DB passing through one corner of the ceiling
directly above A, goes diagonally down the wall. These
lines are skew lines because they are not parallel and also
G
never meet. F

By the shortest distance between two lines we mean D

E
the join of a point on one line with a point on the other line O Y
so that the length of the segment so obtained is the smallest. A C
In the case of skew lines, the line of the shortest distance B
will be perpendicular to both the lines.
X Fig. 5.24
 202 Mathematics - IA

5.11.7 Distance between two skew lines

Let L1 and L2 be two skew lines, as shown in Fig. 5.25, with equations.
r = a1 + λb1. T
Q
and r = a2 + µb2.
L2
Let S be the point on L1 with position vector a1 and let
T be the point on L2 with position vector a2. Then the
magnitude of the vector of shortest distance will be equal to
that of the projection of ST along the direction of the line of L1
S P
shortest distance. Fig. 5.25
If PQ is the vector of shortest distance between L1 and L2, then it is perpendicular to both bl and b2.
b1 × b2
The unit vector n along PQ would therefore be n = . Then PQ = d n, where d is the magnitude
| b1 × b2 |
of the shortest distance vector.
Let θ be the angle between ST and PQ. Then
PQ = ST . |cos θ|
PQ . ST
But cos θ =
| PQ || ST |
d n .(a2 − a1 )
= , since ST = a2 − a1.
d ST
(b1 × b2 ) . (a2 − a1 ) b ×b
= , since n = 1 2
ST |b1 × b2 | | b1 × b2 |
Hence the required shortest distance is
(b × b ) . (a2 − a1 )
d = PQ = ST|cos θ| = 1 2 .
| b1 × b2 |
5.11.8 Cartesian form
The shortest distance between the lines
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
l1 : = = and l2 : = =
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
is .
(b1c2 − b2 c1 ) 2 + (c1a2 − c2 a1 ) 2 + (a1b2 − a2b1 ) 2
 Product of Vectors 203

5.11.9 Plane passing through the intersection of two given planes

Let Π1 and Π2 be two given planes given by the equations r . n1 = d1 and r . n2 = d2 respectively. The
position vector of any point on the line of intersection must satisfy both the equations (Fig. 5.26).

Fig. 5.26

If t is the position vector of a point on the line, then

t . n1 = d1 and t . n2 = d2.
Therefore for all real values of λ, we have
t . (n1 + λn2) = d1 + λd2.
Since t is arbitrary, it satisfies for any point on the line. Hence, r . (n1 + λn2) = d1 + λd2 represents
a plane Π3 which is such that if any vector r satisfies both the equations Π1 and Π2, it also satisfies the
equation of Π3 i.e., any plane passing through the intersection of the planes r. n1 = d1 and r . n2 = d2 has the
equation r. (n1 + λn2) = d1 + λd2.

5.11.10 Cartesian form

In the Cartesian system, let
n1 = a1i + b1 j + c1k, n2 = a2i + b2 j + c2k , r = x i + y j + z k.
Then x (a1 + λa2) + y(b1 + λb2) + z(c1 + λc2) = r . (n1 + λn2) = d1 + λd2.
or (a1x + b1y + c1z − d1) + λ(a2x + b2y + c2z − d2) = 0
is the required cartesian form of the equation of the plane passing through the intersection of the given planes,
λ being the parameter.

5.11.11Condition for coplanarity of two lines

Let the given lines be
r = a1 + λb1 ... (1)
and r = a2 + µb2 ... (2)
If line (1) passes through the point A with position vector a1 and is parallel to b1 and line (2) passes
through the point B with position vector a2 and is parallel to b2, then AB = a2 − a1.
The given lines are coplanar if and only if AB is perpendicular to b1 × b2.
 204 Mathematics - IA

i.e., AB . (b1 × b2) = 0 or (a2 − a1) . (b1 × b2) = 0.

Cartesian form
Let (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) be the coordinates of the points A and B respectively.
Let (a1, b1, c1) be the direction ratios of b1 and (a2, b2, c2) be the direction ratios of b2. Then
AB = (x2 − x1)i + (y2 − y1) j + (z2 − z1)k
b1 = a1i + b1 j + c1k and b2 = a2 i + b2 j + c2 k
The given lines are coplanar if and only if AB . (b1 × b2) = 0. In the cartesian form, it can be expressed
as
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
a1 b1 c1 = 0.
a2 b2 c2

5.11.12 Perpendicular distance of a Point from a plane

Vector form : Consider a point P with Position vector a and a plane Π1 whose equation is r.n = d.
(Fig. 5.27(a), (b)).
Z
Z

Π2 Π1 Π2
P Q Q P
Π1
N a
a N′ d
d N′
O Y O Y
N

X
X
Fig. 5.27(a) Fig. 5.27(b)
Consider a plane Π2 through P parallel to the plane Π1. Thus n is also a unit vector normal to Π2 .
Hence its equation is (r − a) . n = 0 or r . n = a . n.
Let Q be the foot of the perpendicular from P to Π1, N′ be the foot of the perpendicular from the origin to Π2
and N be the foot of the perpendicular from N′ to Π1. Then O, N′ , N are collinear.

Thus the distance ON′ of this plane from the origin is |a . n|. The distance of P from the plane Π1
(Fig.5.27(a)) is PQ, ON − ON′ = |d − a.n | which is the length of the perpendicular from a point a to the
given plane. We may establish similar results for Fig. 5.27(b).
 Product of Vectors 205

5.11.13 Note : (i) If the equation of a plane Π is in the form r . N = d, where N is normal to the plane, then
| a.N − d |
the perpendicular distance of this plane from a point a is .
|N|
|d |
(ii) The length of the perpendicular from origin O to the plane r . N = d is , since a = 0.
|N|

5.11.14 Cartesian form

Let P(x1, y1, z1) be the given point with position vector a and Ax + By + Cz = D be the cartesian
equation of the given plane. Then
a = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k
N = Ai + B j + Ck
Hence, from 5.11.13(i), the perpendicular distance from P to the plane is

( x1i + y1 j + z1k ) . (Ai + Bj + Ck ) − D Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 − D

= .
A 2 +B2 +C2 A 2 +B2 +C2

5.11.15 Angle between a line and a plane

Vector form : The angle between a line and a plane is the complement of the angle between the line
and normal to the plane (Fig. 5.28).

Normal
Line

Fig. 5.28
If the equation of the line is r = a + λb and the equation of the plane is r . n = d, then the angle θ
b. n
between the line and the normal to the plane is cos θ = .
|b| |n|
Hence the angle φ between the line and the plane is given by (900 − θ).
b. n b. n
∴ sin φ = sin (900 − θ) = cos θ = or φ = sin −1 .
|b| |n| |b||n|
 206 Mathematics - IA

5.12 Vector triple product - results

In section 5.10, we have introduced the concept of scalar triple product of three vectors and in
section 5.11 studied some of its properties and its applications in deriving the equation of a plane in different
forms. Suppose a, b, c are three vectors. Then (a × b ) × c is called the vector triple product or vector
product of three vectors. In this section we study some properties of the vector product (a × b ) × c of
three vectors a, b, c.
5.12.1 Theorem: Let a, b, c be three vectors. Then
(i) (a × b ) × c = (a . c ) b − (b . c ) a
(ii) a × (b × c ) = (a . c ) b − (a . b ) c

Proof

(i) Without loss of generality, we may assume that a and b are non-collinear vectors and c is not parallel to
a × b , as otherwise (a × b ) × c = 0 = (a. c ) b − (b. c ) a . Fix the origin ‘O’. Let OA = a, OB = b.
We consider the plane OAB as XY-plane. Let i be the unit vector in the direction of OA and j be unit
vector perpendicular to i in the XY-plane. Fix the unit vector k perpendicular to xy-plane such that
( i , j , k ) is an orthogonal triad of unit vectors forming a right handed system. Then, we can write a = a1i,
b = b1i + b2 j and c = c1i + c2 j + c3k .

∴ (a × b ) × c = ( a1 b2 k ) × (c1i + c2 j + c3k )

= ( a1 b2 c1 ) j − ( a1 b2 c2 ) i

(a . c ) b − (b. c ) a = a1c1 (b1i + b2 j ) − (b1c1 + b2c2 ) a1i

= ( a1 c1 b2 ) j − ( a1b2c2 ) i

∴ (a × b ) × c = (a . c ) b − (b. c ) a

(ii) a × (b × c ) = − (( b × c ) × a )
= − (b . a ) c − (c . a ) b 

= (a . c ) b − (a . b ) c .

5.12.2 Note: In general, the vector product of three vectors is not associative.
5.12.3 Corollary: If a, b are non-collinear vectors and b is perpendicular to neither a nor to c,
then (a × b ) × c = a × (b × c ) if and only if the vectors a and c are collinear.
 Product of Vectors 207

Proof : Suppose (a × b ) × c = a × (b × c )
∴ (a . c ) b − (b . c ) a = (a . c ) b − (a . b ) c
∴ (b. c ) a = (a. b ) c
∴ a, c are collinear vectors.
Conversely suppose a, c are collinear vectors, and c = λ a .
∴ (a × b ) × c − a × (b × c ) = (a × b ) × (λ a ) − a × (b × λ a )
= λ (a × b ) × a − (a × (b × a ))
= λ (a × b ) × a − (a × b ) × a  (Q b × a = − (a × b ))
= λ (0 ) = 0 .
5.12.4 Theorem : If b is perpendicular to both a and c, then
(a × b ) × c = a × (b × c ) .
Proof : Suppose b is perpendicular to a and c.
Then a . b = 0 = b . c
(a × b ) × c = (a . c ) b − (b . c ) a = (a . c ) b
and a × (b × c ) = (a . c ) b − (a . b ) c = (a . c ) b

Thus (a × b ) × c = a × (b × c )
a .c a . d
5.12.5 Theorem : For any four vectors a, b, c and d (a × b ). (c × d ) = and in particular
b.c b.d
(a × b ) = a 2 b2 − (a . b )
2 2

Proof: (a × b ). (c × d ) = a . (b × (c × d )) (by 5.10.5)

= a . (b . d ) c − (b . c ) d  (by 5.12.1)
= (a . c ) (b . d ) − (a . d )(b . c )
a .c a . d
=
b .c b .d
In the above formula if c = a, and d = b, then
a .a a . b
(a × b ) . (a × b ) =
b .a b .b

= (a . a )(b . b ) − (a . b )
2

= a 2 b2 − (a . b ) .
2
 208 Mathematics - IA

5.13 Solved Problems

1. Problem: Prove that the vectors a = 2 i − j + k , b = i − 3 j − 5k and c = 3i − 4 j − 4k are
coplanar.
2 −1 1
Solution: (a × b ). c = 1 − 3 − 5 (by Theorem 5.10.8)
3 −4 −4
= 2 (12 − 20) + (−4 + 15) + (− 4 + 9)
= − 16 + 11 + 5 = 0
∴ a, b, c are coplanar vectors (Cor. 5.10.9).
2. Problem: Find the volume of the parallelopiped whose coterminus edges are represented by the
vectors 2 i − 3 j + k , i − j + 2k and 2 i + j − k .
Solution: Let a = 2 i − 3 j + k , b = i − j + 2k and c = 2 i + j − k
2 −3 1
(a × b ). c = 1 − 1 2
2 1 −1
= 2(1 − 2) + 3(−1 −4) + 1(1 + 2)
= −2 − 15 + 3 = − 14
∴ volume = (a × b ). c = 14.
3. Problem: If the vectors a = 2 i − j + k , b = i + 2 j − 3 k and c = 3 i + p j + 5 k are coplanar,
then find p.
Solution: It is known that a, b, c are coplanar if and only if [a b c ] = 0 .
(Theorem 5.10.10)
2 −1 1
∴ 0 = [a b c ] = 1 2 −3
= 2(10 + 3p) + 1 (5 + 9) + (p − 6)
3 p 5
= 20 + 6p + 14 + p − 6 = 7p + 28
∴ p = −4 .
4. Problem: Show that i × (a × i ) + j × (a × j ) + k × ( k × a ) = 2a for any vector a.
Solution: i × (a × i ) = ( i . i ) a − ( i . a ) i = a − ( i . a ) i
j × (a × j ) = a − ( j . a ) j
k × (a × k ) = a − ( k . a ) k
∴ i × (a × i ) + j × (a × j ) + k × (a × k ) = 3a − ( i . a ) i + ( j . a ) j + ( k . a ) k 
= 3a − a = 2a
(Q a = xi + y j + z k ⇒ x = i. a , y = a . j , z = a . k ) .
 Product of Vectors 209

5. Problem : Prove that for any three vectors a, b, c, [b + c c + a a + b ] = 2 [a b c ] .

Solution: [b + c c + a a + b ]

= (b + c ) . {(c + a ) × (a + b )}

= (b + c ) . {c × a + c × b + a × b}
= b . (c × a ) + b . (c × b ) + b . (a × b )
+ c . (c × a ) + c . (c × b ) + c . (a × b )
= [b c a ] + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + [c a b ]
= 2 [a b c ] .

6. Problem: For any three vectors a, b, c, prove that [b × c c × a a × b ] = [a b c ] .

2

Solution: [b × c c × a a × b ] = (b × c ) . {(c × a ) × (a × b )}
= (b × c ) ⋅ [{(c × a ) ⋅ b} a − {(c × a ) ⋅ a} b ]
= ( b × c ) . {[c a b ] a − [c a a ] b}

= (b × c ). a [c a b ] = [a b c ] .
2

1
7. Problem: Let a, b and c be unit vectors such that b is not parallel to c and a × (b × c ) = b .
2
Find the angles made by a with each of b and c.
1
Solution : b = a × (b × c ) = (a . c ) b − (a . b ) c
2

Since b and c are non collinear vectors, equating corresponding coefficients on both sides,
1
a .c = and a . b = 0 .
2
π
∴ a makes angle with c and is perpendicular to b.
3
8. Problem: Let a = i + j + k , b = 2i − j + 3k , c = i − j and
d = 6i + 2 j + 3k . Express d, interms of b × c , c × a and a × b .
1 1 1
Solution: [a b c ] = 2 −1 3
1 −1 0
= 1(0 + 3) −1(0 − 3) + 1( −2 + 1) = 5 .
d . a = 11, d . b = 19, d . c = 4
If d = x (b × c ) + y (c × a ) + z (a × b ), then we have
 210 Mathematics - IA

d .a d .b d .c
x= , y= , z= .
[a b c ] [a b c ] [a b c ]
11 19 4
∴x= , y= , z=
5 5 5
11 19 4
∴ d = (3i + 3 j − k ) + ( − i − j + 2k ) + ( 4i − j − 3k ) .
5 5 5
9. Problem: For any four vectors a, b, c and d, prove that
(b × c ). (a × d ) + (c × a ) . (b × d ) + (a × b ). (c × d ) = 0 .
Solution: We have (a × b) ⋅ (c × d ) = a ⋅ (b × (c × d ))
= a ⋅ (( b ⋅ d ) c − ( b ⋅ c ) d )
a ⋅c a ⋅d
= (a ⋅ c) (b ⋅ d ) − (a ⋅ d ) (b ⋅ c) = .
b⋅c b⋅d
b.a b.d c.b c.d a.c a.d
Then L.H.S. = + +
c.a c.d a.b a.d b.c b.d
= (b . a ) (c . d ) − (b . d )(c . a ) + (c . b ) (a . d ) − (a . b )(c . d )
+ (a . c )(b . d ) − (a . d )(b . c ) = 0.
10. Problem: Find the equation of the plane passing through the points A = (2, 3, −1), B = (4, 5, 2)
and C = (3, 6, 5).
Solution : Let ‘O’ be the origin. Let r = x i + y j + z k be the position vector of any point P in the plane
of ∆ABC . Then the vectors AP, AB, AC are coplanar.
∴ [AP AB AC] = 0.
Now AP = (x − 2, y − 3, z + 1)
AB = (2, 2, 3) and AC = (1, 3, 6)
x−2 y −3 z +1
∴ [AP AB AC] = 0 ⇒ 2 2 3 = 0.
1 3 6
i.e., (x − 2) (12 − 9) − (y − 3) (12 − 3) + (z + 1) (6 − 2) = 0
i.e., 3x − 9y + 4z + 25 = 0.
11. Problem: Find the equation of the plane passing through the point A = (3, −2, −1) and parallel
to the vectors b = i − 2j + 4k and c = 3 i + 2 j − 5 k .
Solution: Let r = x i + y j + z k be the position vector of any point P in the given plane.
Then [r − a b c ] = 0 (Theorem 5.11.1)
x −3 y + 2 z +1
∴ 1 −2 4
= 0.
3 2 −5
 Product of Vectors 211

∴ (x − 3) (10 − 8) − (y +2) (−5 −12) + (z +1) (2 + 6) = 0

⇒ 2x + 17 y + 8 z + 36 = 0.
12. Problem: Find the vector equation of the plane passing through the intersection of the planes
r . (i + j + k) = 6 and r . (2i + 3j + 4k) = −5 and the point (1, 1, 1).
Solution: Here n1 = i + j + k and n2 = 2i + 3j + 4k; Also d1 = 6 and d2 = −5.
Substituting these values in the relation r.(n1 + λn2) = d1 + λd2, we get
r .[(i + j + k + λ(2i + 3j + 4k)] = 6 − 5λ
or r . [(1 + 2λ) i + (1 + 3λ) j + (1 + 4λ)k] = 6 − 5λ, ...(1)
where λ is some real number.
Taking r = x i + y j + zk, we get
(x i + y j + z k) . [(1 + 2λ)i + (1 + 3λ) j + (1 + 4λ)k] = 6 − 5λ
or (1 + 2λ)x + (1 + 3λ) y + (1 + 4λ)z = 6 − 5λ
or (x + y + z − 6) + λ(2x + 3y + 4z + 5) = 0 ...(2)
Since this plane passes through the point (1, 1, 1), it should satisfy this equation (2). Then
3
(1 + 1 + 1 − 6) + λ(2 + 3 + 4 + 5) = 0 ⇒ λ = .
14
Substituting this value of λ in equation (1), we get
 3   9  6  15
r . 1 +  i + 1 +  j + 1 +  k  = 6 −
 7   14   7  14
 10 23 13  69
or r .  i + j + k = or r . ( 20 i + 23 j + 26k ) = 69 , which is the required vector
 7 14 7  14
equation of the plane.
13. Problem: Find the distance of a point (2, 5, −3) from the plane r.(6i − 3j + 2k) = 4.
Solution: Here a = 2i + 5 j − 3k , N = 6 i − 3j + 2k; and d = 4.
∴ The distance of the point (2, 5, −3) from the given plane is
| (2 i + 5 j − 3k ) .(6 i − 3 j + 2k ) − 4 | |12 − 15 − 6 − 4 | 13
= =
| 6 i − 3 j + 2k | 36 + 9 + 4 7 .
x +1 y z − 3
14. Problem: Find the angle between the line = = and the plane 10x + 2y − 11z = 3.
2 3 6
Solution: Let φ be the angle between the given line and the normal to the plane.
Converting the given equations into vector form, we have
r = (−i + 3 k) + λ (2i + 3j + 6k)
and r . (10i + 2j − 11k) = 3.
Here b = 2i + 3j + 6k and n = 10i + 2j − 11k.
 212 Mathematics - IA

(2i + 3 j + 6k ).(10i + 2 j − 11k )

sin φ =
22 + 32 + 62 102 + 22 + 112
−40 8  8 
= = or φ = sin −1   .
7 × 15 21  21 
15. Problem: For any four vectors a, b, c and d , (a × b ) × (c × d ) = [a c d ]b − [b c d ]a and
(a × b ) × (c × d ) = [a b d ]c − [a b c ]d .
Solution: Let m = c × d
∴ (a × b ) × (c × d ) = (a × b ) × m
= (a . m ) b − (b . m ) a
= (a .(c × d )) b − (b .(c × d ) ) a
= [a c d ] b − [b c d ] a .
Again Let a × b = n .
Then (a × b ) × (c × d ) = n × (c × d )
= (n . d ) c − (n . c ) d
= (( a × b ) . d ) c − (( a × b ) . c ) d ∴
= [a b d ] c − [a b c ] d .
16. Problem: Find the shortest distance between the skew lines r = (6 i + 2 j + 2 k ) + t ( i − 2 j + 2 k )
and r = ( − 4 i − k ) + s (3 i − 2 j − 2k ) .
b = (1
, −2,
Solution: The first line passes through the point A(6, 2, 2) and is A(6, 2, 2) 2)

parallel to the vector b = i − 2 j + 2k . Second line passes P

through the point C(−4, 0, −1) and is parallel to the vector

900
d = 3i − 2 j − 2k . (Fig. 5.29).
[ AC b d ]
Shortest distance = (Theorem 5.11.7)
b×d Q
C(−4, 0, −1)
− 10 − 2 − 3
−2, −2
)
[AC b d ] = 1 −2 2 = − 108 ; Fig. 5.29 d = (3,

3 −2 −2

i j k
b×d = 1 −2 2 = 8i + 8 j + 4k and b × d =12
3 −2 −2
[AC b d ] 108
∴ Shortest distance between the skew lines = = = 9.
b×d 12
 Product of Vectors 213

Exercise 5(c)
I. 1. Compute [i − j j−k k − i].

2. If a = i − 2 j − 3k , b = 2i + j − k , c = i + 3 j − 2k , then compute a . (b × c ) .
3. If a = (1, −1, −6), b = (1, −3, 4) and c = (2, −5, 3), then compute the following. (i) a . (b × c )
(ii) a × (b × c ) (iii) (a × b ) × c .
4. Simplify the following
(i) ( i − 2 j + 3k ) × ( 2i + j − k ) . ( j + k )
(ii) ( 2i − 3 j + k ) . ( i − j + 2k ) × ( 2i + j + k )
5. Find the volume of the parallelopiped having coterminus edges i + j + k , i − j and i + 2 j − k .
6. Find t for which the vectors 2i − 3 j + k , i + 2 j − 3k and j − t k are coplanar.
7. For non-coplanar vectors, a, b and c, determine p for which the vectors a + b + c , a + p b + 2c
and − a + b + c are coplanar.
8. Determine λ, for which the volume of the parallelopiped having coterminus edges i + j , 3i − j and
3 j + λ k is 16 cubic units.
∴
9. Find the volume of the tetrahedron having the edges i + j + k , i − j and i + 2 j + k .
10. Let a, b and c be non-coplanar vectors and á = a + 2b + 3c , â = 2a + b − 2c and
ã = 3a − 7c , then find [α β γ].
11. Let a, b and c be non-coplanar vectors. If [2a − b + 3c, a + b − 2c, a + b − 3c] = λ [a b c], then
find the value of λ.
12. Let a, b and c be non-coplanar vectors. If [a + 2b 2b + c 5c + a] = λ [a b c], then find λ.
13. If a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors, then find the value of
(a + 2b − c ). (a − b ) × (a − b − c )
.
[a b c ]
14. If a, b, c are mutually perpendicular unit vectors, then find the value of [a b c]2.
15. a , b , c are non-zero vectors and a is perpendicular to both b and c. If |a| = 2, |b| = 3, |c| = 4
2π
and (b, c) = , then find |[a b c]|.
3
16. If a , b , c are unit coplanar vectors, then find [2 a − b , 2 b − c , 2 c − a ] .
II. 1. If [b c d ] + [c a d ] + [a b d ] = [a b c ] , then show that the points with position vectors
a, b, c and d are coplanar.
2. If a, b and c are non-coplanar vectors, then prove that the four points with position vectors
2a + 3b − c, a − 2b + 3c, 3a + 4b − 2c and a − 6b + 6c are coplanar.
 214 Mathematics - IA

3. a, b and c are non-zero and non-collinear vectors and è ≠ 0 , is the angle between b and c. If
1
(a × b ) × c = b c a , then find sin θ.
3
4. Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are (1, 2, 1), (3, 2, 5), (2, −1, 0) and (−1, 0, 1).

5. Show that (a + b ) . (b + c ) × (c + a ) = 2 [a b c ] .
6. Show that the equation of the plane passing through the points with position vectors 3i − 5 j − k,
− i + 5j + 7k and parallell to the vector 3i − j + 7k is 3x + 2y − z = 0.

7. Prove that a ×  a × (a × b ) = (a . a )(b × a ) .

8. If a, b, c and d are coplanar vectors, then show that (a × b ) × (c × d ) = 0 .

9. Show that (a × b ) × (a × c ) . d = (a . d )[a b c ] .

10. Show that a .(b + c ) × (a + b + c ) = 0.

11. Find λ in order that the four points A(3, 2, 1), B (4, λ, 5), C (4, 2, −2) and D(6, 5, −1) be coplanar.
12. Find the vector equation of the plane passing through the intersection of planes
r . (2i + 2j − 3k) = 7, r . (2i + 5j + 3k) = 9 and through the point (2, 1, 3).
13. Find the equation of the plane passing through (a, b, c) and parallel to the plane r . (i + j + k) = 2.
14. Find the shortest distance between the lines r = 6i + 2j + 2k + λ(i − 2j + 2k) and
r = −4i − k + µ(3i − 2j − 2k) .
15. Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes
r . (i + j + k) = 1 and r . (2i + 3j − k) + 4 = 0 and parallel to X-axis.
16. Prove that the four points 4i + 5 j + k , − ( j + k ) , 3i + 9 j + 4k and −4i + 4 j + 4k are coplanar.
17. If a , b, c are non-coplanar, then show that the vectors a − b, b + c , c + a are coplanar.
18. If a , b, c are the position vectors of the points A, B and C respectively, then prove that the vector
a × b + b × c + c × a is perpendicular to the plane of ∆ABC .
III. 1. Show that (a × (b × c ) ) × c = (a . c ) (b × c ) and
(a × b ) . (a × c ) + (a . b ) (a . c ) = (a . a ) (b . c ) .
2. If A = (1, −2, −1), B = (4, 0, −3), C = (1, 2, −1) and D = (2, −4, −5), find the distance between
AB and CD.
3. If a = i − 2 j + k , b = 2i + j + k , c = i + 2 j − k , find a × (b × c ) and |(a × b) × c| .
4. If a = i − 2 j − 3k , b = 2i + j − k and c = i + 3 j − 2k ,
verify that a × (b × c ) ≠ (a × b ) × c .
Product of Vectors 215

5. If a = 2i + j − 3k , b = i − 2 j + k , c = − i + j − 4k and d = i + j + k , then compute

(a × b ) × (c × d ) .

6. If ( ) (
A = 1, a, a 2 , B = 1, b, b 2 ) (
and C = 1, c, c
2
) are non−coplanar vectors and

a a 2 1 + a3
b b 2 1 + b3 = 0 , then show that a b c + 1 = 0 .
c c2 1 + c3

7. If a, b, c are non-zero vectors, then (a × b . c ) = a b c ⇔ a . b = b . c = c . a = 0 .

8. If a = i − 2 j + 3k , b = 2i + j + k , c = i + j + 2k then find (a × b )× c and a × (b × c ) .

9. If a = 1, b = 1, c = 2 and a × (a × c ) + b = 0 then find the angle between a and c.

10. Let a = i − k , b = x i + j + (1 − x ) k and c = y i + x j + (1 + x − y ) k . Prove that the scalar

triple product [a b c ] is independent of both x and y.

11. Let b = 2i + j − k , c = i + 3k . If a is a unit vector then find the maximum value of [a b c ] .

12. Let a = i − j , b = j − k , c = k − i . Find unit vector d such that a . d = 0 = [b c d ] .

Key Concepts

L Concept of scalar product (or dot) of two non-zero vectors a and b containing angle ‘θ’ is introduced
as |a| |b| cos θ which is geometrically equal to product of the magnitude of one of the vectors and the
projection of the other on the first vector.

a .b a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
L If θ is the angle between a and b, then cos θ = = where
|a| |b| ∑ a12 ∑ b12
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k, b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k in (i, j, k) system and
a . b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3.

L Right handed and left handed system of vectors. Definition of cross product of vectors a and b
as a × b = (|a| |b| sin θ ) n where a, b are non-zero and non-collinear vectors, θ is the angle
between a and b and n is perpendicular to both a and b such that (a, b, n) is a right handed
system.
216 Mathematics - IA

L Cross product is not commutative, infact for any two vectors a and b, it is proved that
b × a = − (a × b).
i j k
L If a = a1i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1i + b2 j + b3 k then a × b = a1 a2 a3 .
b1 b2 b3
a×b
L If θ is the angle between the vectors a and b, then sin θ = .
|a||b|

L While determining the angle between two vectors, considering a . b is always better.
L Introduced the concept of scalar triple product of three vectors a, b and c as
(a × b) . c and explained the (a × b) . c is equal to ± V where ‘V’ is the volume of the
parallelopiped with a, b, c as coterminus edges according as (a, b, c) is a right handed system or a
left handed system and thus V is the numerical value of (a × b) . c.
L Introduced the notation [a b c] for (a × b) . c and proved that [a b c] = [b c a] = [c a b] .
L If a = a1i + a2 j + a3k, b = b1i + b2 j + b3k and c = c1i + c2 j + c3k then
a1 a2 a3
[a b c] = b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3
L A necessary and sufficient condition for three vectors a, b, c to be coplanar is that [a b c] = 0,
a1 a2 a3
equivalently b1 b2 b3 = 0.
c1 c2 c3
1
L Volume of a tetrahedron with vertices A, B, C and D is | [AB AC AD] |.
6
L Two lines are said to be skew lines if there is no plane containing both the lines. The shortest
| (c − a ) . (b × d ) |
distance between two straight lines r = a + t b and r = c + s d is .
|b × d |
L Vector equation of the line passing through the point a and parallel to the vector b is
(r − a) × b = 0.
L (a × b) × c = (a . c) b − (b . c) a and a × (b × c) = (a . c) b − (a . b) c.
a .c a .d
L (a × b) . (c × d) = and (a × b) × (c × d) = [a c d] b − [b c d]a
b .c b .d
= [a b d] c − [a b c] d.
Product of Vectors 217

Historical Note
Vector Analysis came into existence during the fourth decade of 19th century. Preceding the
advent of Vector Analysis three events merit mention.
(i) Discovery and geometrical representation of complex numbers.
(ii) Leibnitz’s search for a geometry of position.
(iii) The idea of parallelogram law of forces and velocities.
Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839 - 1903) work on Vector Analysis was of major importance in pure
mathematics. Using the ideas of Hermann Grassmann (1809 −1877), Gibbs produced a system more
easily applied than that of Hamilton.
During 19th century, while Grassmann’s Hypercomplex numbers were hardly noticed, Hamilton’s
quaternion calculus fell flat in the mathematical world. Except for Tait and Gibbs, the majority of the
scientists preferred to work with the old fashioned Cartesian methods. Even as recently as 1930’s the
vector could hardly be said to have come into its domain.

Answers
Exercise 5(a)
I. 1. 600 2. λ = 3
3. λ = 1 4. c = − 3i + 4 j + 4k
 2  1
5. Cos −1   6. λ =
 3 46  2
7. (i) 2( i + j + k ), 2 3 , (ii) 2( i + j + k ), j − k

 52 
8. r .(4i + 7 j − 4k ) = − 6 9. Cos −1 
 74 × 65 
 
1
II. 1. ± (3i + 4 j ) 2. 600 3. 29
5
4. r . (3i − 2 j − 2k ) = 2 , Cartesian form : 3x − 2y − 2z − 2 = 0 and the distance of this plane from
2
the origin is .
17
III. 2. ± 7 33 ( i − j − k )

Exercise 5(b)

I. 1. 9 2. 210 3. −2 ( 2i + 5 j + 11k )
4. p = 12 5. 0 6. x 2 + y 2
 218 Mathematics - IA

1
7. −6i − j − 6k 8. ± ( 2i − j − k ) 9.
3
6 2
41
10. 3 11. 5 3 12.
2
1
13. ±( −3i + 2 j − 6k ) 14.
3 3
7 2
II. 2. − 54 3. 3i − 4 j − 5k , 5 2 5. 50 2
1
6. ± ( i + j + 2k ) 7. ± ( 2i + j + k ) 9. ± ( 2i + j − 2k )
6
1
10. 25 11. ± (3i + j )
10
III. 2. a × (b × c ) = 2i + 4 j − 4k
3. a × b = − 16i − 50 j + 4k , a × c = − 5i − 4 j + 9k ,
a × (b + c ) = − 21i − 54 j + 13k
1
4. ( 5i + 2 j + 2 k ) 5. 1 7. 2
3
8. (i) 120 i + 304 j + 424 k (ii) −80

Exercise 5(c)
I. 1. 0 2. − 20
3. (i) 0, (ii) 29i − 67 j + 16k , (iii) − 40 i + 62 j + 130 k

4. (i) 12, (ii) − 12 5. 5 6. t = 1

7. p = 2 8. λ = ± 4 9. 1/6 10. 0
11. λ = − 3 12. λ = 12 13. 3 14. 1
15. 12 3 16. 0

2 2
II. 3. 4. 6 11. λ = 5
3
12. r . (38i + 68j + 3k) = 153
13. x + y + z = a + b + c 14. 9 15. y − 3z + 6 = 0

III. 2. 4 / 3 3. −9i − 6 j − 3k , 174 5. 5 114

8. 5 14, 54 9. 300 or 1500 11. 59
1
12. d = ± ( i + j − 2k )
6
T r i gon om et r y
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 219

“The acharya (master) title (in astronomy) is offered

on him who has acquired sufficient knowledge of
Trigonometry”
- Bhaskaracharya

Introduction

In the earlier classes we have constructed in

geometry, triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, hexagons
and so on. All these figures are generally called as polygons
with n sides. When n = 5, it is called a pentagon, when
Varahamihira
n = 6, it is called a hexagon, when n = 10 it is called a
(505 - 587)
decagon etc. On the same lines, when n = 3, we can call Varahamihira, also called Mihira,
the polygon as ‘trigon’ (instead of ‘triangle’). The word was an astronomer-mathematician,
‘trigonometry’ can be read as ‘trigon-o-metry’. This word born in Ujjain. Varahamihira’s
picture is found in the Indian
is derived from two Greek words Parliament along side Aryabhatta’s,
(i) trigonon (ii) metron of whom he was a follower. He was
considered to be one of the nine
The word ‘trigonon’ means a triangle and the word jewels (Navaratnas) of the court of
‘metron‘ means a measure. Thus trigonometry is the legendary king Vikramaditya.
Varahamihira discovered Pascal’s
science that deals with measurement of triangles. triangle and worked on magic
Trigonometry has great use in measurement of areas, squares. His most famous treatise
heights, distances etc. is ‘Pancha Siddhantika’ (575 A.D.).
 220 Mathematics - IA

It has many applications in almost all branches of science in general and in Physics and Engineering
in particular.

To study properties of triangles, first we should learn properties of the angles of a triangle.
Though in geometry the angles of a triangle or a quadrilateral etc. are always less than two right angles,
in the study of trigonometry, we do not impose any restriction on the magnitude of an angle. It can be
any real number (positive or negative or zero).

According to the great mathematician ‘Euclid’, angle is ‘the inclination of two lines intersecting
at a point’. We can formally define angle as follows.
B
An ‘angle’ is the union of two rays having a common end
point in a plane. The amount of rotation in the plane that is necessary
to bring one ray into the position of the other ray is called the
‘magnitude of the angle’. (see Fig. 6.1). An angle is usually
denoted by θ, α etc. O A
Angle θ
uuur Fig. 6.1
In figure 6.1 angle AOB is θ. OA is called the initial side
uuur
and OB is called the terminal side of the angle θ. In the process of
uuur uuur
rotation, OB will be collinear with OA but will have direction
B O A
uuur Straight Angle
opposite to that of OA . At this instant the angle formed by the two
Fig. 6.2
rays is called a positive straight angle which is shown in Fig. 6.2.

A positive ‘right angle’ is defined as half of a positive straight B

angle which is shown in Fig. 6.3.

We have learnt, in the previous classes, that there are three

systems for the measurement of angles.

1. Sexagesimal system or British system

2. Centisimal system or French system O Right Angle A

3. Circular measurement Fig. 6.3

Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 221

In the Sexagesimal system

1 right angle = 90 degrees (900)
1 degree = 60 minutes ( 60′ )
1 minute = 60 seconds ( 60′′ )
In the Centisimal system
1 right angle = 100 grades (100g)
1 grade = 100 minutes ( 100′ )
1 minute = 100 seconds ( 100′′ )
In the circular measure, one radian is defined as the amount of the angle subtended by an arc
of length ‘r’ units of a circle of radius ‘r’ units at the centre of that circle. This angle is independent of the
size of the circle (i.e., the radius of the circle). One radian is denoted by 1C. In this measure
2 right angles = πC
Though we have used the same name ‘minute‘ (or ‘second’) in both ‘sexagesimal system’ and
‘centisimal system’, it can be easily observed that they are not same.
1
1 minute in the sexagesimal system = th of a right angle where as
90 × 60
1
1 minute in the centisimal system = th of a right angle.
100 × 100
The conversion from one system to the other can be easily done using the equation :
180 200 π
= = .
D G R
where D, G, R respectively denote degrees, grades and radians.
For example, to convert 300 into grades and radians, put D = 30 in the above equation and
find G, R as follows:
180 200 π 100 30 π π
= = . Hence G = , R= =
30 G R 3 180 6
100 g πC
Thus 30 0 = = .
3 6

6.1 Trigonometric ratios - variation - Graphs and periodicity

a
A ratio is where a, b are two real numbers and b is non-zero. If we take a right angled triangle
b
with θ as one of its acute angles, using the lengths a, b, c of the three sides of the triangle (see Fig. 6.4) we
b a b c c a
can form six ratios, namely, , , , , , .
c c a b a b
 222 Mathematics - IA

These six ratios are called the trigonometric ratios of the angle θ.
b
Each of these ratios is given a name (for example, is called sine θ,
c
a b
is called cosine θ, is called tangent θ and so on). Now we give
c a
the definition of these trigonometric ratios formally in the following. Later,
we observe that this definition is independent of the triangle.
Fig. 6.4
6.1.1 Definition
Let θ be a real number and 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π and r > 0 . Consider a rectangular coordinate
system with OX, OY as axes. Draw a circle with centre O and radius r. Choose a point P on the
circle such that the line OP makes an angle θ radians with OX → (positive X-axis) measured in

anti-clock wise direction (positive direction). See the figures below.

Y Y

P(x, y) P(x, y)

r
r
θ
θ
O M X M O X

Fig. 6.5(i)
Fig. 6.5(ii)
Y
Y

θ
θ M
M O X O
X
r
r

P(x, y) P(x, y)

Fig. 6.5(iii) Fig. 6.5(iv)

Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 223

Let (x, y) be the coordinates of P with reference to the coordinate axes OX and OY. First
observe that
y = 0 ⇔ è = 0 or è = π
π 3π
x = 0 ⇔ è = or è = .
2 2
We define the six trigonometric ratios of θ as follows :
y
Sine of θ =
r
x
Cosine of θ =
r
π 3π 
when x ≠ 0 or è ∉  ,
y
Tangent of θ = 
x 2 2 
x
Cotangent of θ = when y ≠ 0 or è ∉ {0, π }
y
r  π 3π 
Secant of θ = when x ≠ 0 or è ∉  , 
x 2 2 
r
Cosecant of θ = when y ≠ 0 or è ∉ {0, π }
y
First we observe that these trigonometric ratios are independent of the choice of r. Let us take two
circles with radii r1 and r2 with r1 ≠ r2 . We can take r1 < r2 .
Y Y

P1(x1, y1) P2(x2, y2)

r1 r2
θ
θ
O M1 X M2
O X

Fig. 6.6(i) Fig. 6.6(ii)

Let P1 ( x1 , y1 ) be a point on the circle with radius r1 and centre ‘O’ such that angle XOP1 = è
and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) be a point on the circle with radius r2 and centre ‘O’ such that angle XOP2 = è . Draw
perpendiculars P1 M1 and P2 M 2 from P1 and P2 respectively to OX. Then the triangles OM1P1 and
π π
OM2P2 are similar (two right angled triangles with same angles è , − è , ). Hence the corresponding
2 2
sides are proportional.
 224 Mathematics - IA

OM1 M1P1 OP1 x y r

Thus we get = = or 1 = 1 = 1 .
OM 2 M 2 P2 OP2 x2 y2 r2
y1 y x1 x y1 y
Hence we get = 2; = 2; = 2 so on.
r1 r2 r1 r2 x1 x2

Thus the above definitions of the six trigonometric ratios of θ are independent of the choice of r
(or the size of the triangle).
The six trigonometric ratios of θ defined above are briefly written as sin è, cos è,
tan è, cot è, sec è, cosec è respectively. From these definitions we can observe the following :

6.1.2 Note
1. sin è = 0 ⇔ y = 0 ⇔ è = 0 or è = π .
π 3π
2. cos è = 0 ⇔ x = 0 ⇔ è = or è = .
2 2
sin è 1
3. If x ≠ 0 , then tan è = and sec è = .
cos è cos è
cos è 1
4. If y ≠ 0 , then cot è = and cosec è = .
sin è sin è
5. In triangle OMP, from Pythagoras theorem, x 2 + y 2 = r 2 .
2 2
So   +   = 1 .
x y
r r
Hence cos 2 è + sin 2 è = 1
 π 3π 
If è ∉  ,  , then cos è ≠ 0 and hence on dividing both sides by cos è , we get
2

2 2 
1 + tan 2 è = sec 2 è

Similarly, if è ∉ {0, π } , then we get

1 + cot 2 è = cosec 2è
6. From the definitions of the six trigonometric ratios given in 6.1.1 we can make the following important
observations.

π
(i) If P(x, y) is in the first quadrant (but not on the coordinate axes), that is, if 0 < θ < , then
2
x > 0 and y > 0. Hence all the six trigonometric ratios are positive. (see Fig. 6.5(i)).
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 225

π
< θ < π , then
(ii) If P(x, y) lies in the second quadrant (but not on the coordinate axes), that is, if
2
x < 0 and y > 0. Hence sin θ and consequently cosec θ are positive and other trigonometric
ratios are negative (see Fig. 6.5(ii)).
 3π 
(iii) If P(x, y) lies in third quadrant  π < è <  , then tan θ and cot θ are positive and others are
 2 
negative (see Fig. 6.5(iii)).
 3π 
(iv) If P(x, y) lies in fourth quadrant  < θ < 2 π  , then cos θ and sec θ are positive and others
 2 
are negative (see Fig. 6.5(iv)). Y

In all the above 4 cases P does not

sine > 0 ALL > 0
lie on coordinate axes, that is,
(Silver) (All)
 π 3π 
è ∈ [0, 2π] 0 , , π , , 2π  .
 2 2  O X
The above facts can be easily tangent > 0 cosine > 0
(Tea) (Cups)
remembered by the adjacent
diagram.

The trigonometric ratios which are positive in various quadrants can also be remembered as follows.
I II III IV
All Silver Tea Cups
(all sine tan cos)
It is enough to know about the properties of sine, cosine and tangent of the angle θ in the four
quadrants as the remaining trigonometric ratios are their reciprocals only.

So far, we have defined trigonmetric ratios only when è ∈ [0, 2π] .

That is we have taken subsets of [0, 2π] as domains for these trigonometric ratios.
Now we shall extend the domains of definitions of the trigonometric functions sin è, cos è ... to the
whole real number system.

6.1.3 Definition
For any real number x, let n be the largest integer such that 2 n π ≤ x. (That is, n is the
x
integral part of ). Write è = x − 2n π . Then 0 ≤ è ≤ 2π . We define
2π
sin x = sin è = sin ( x − 2nπ )
and cos x = cos è = cos ( x − 2nπ )
 226 Mathematics - IA

Note that, for any 0 ≤ è < 2π and for any integer n, we have
sin ( 2 n π + è ) = sin è
and cos ( 2 n π + è ) = cos è etc.
π 13 π π  17 π
For example, sin = sin , cos   = cos etc.
6 6 4 4
If the angle è (0 ≤ è < 2π ) is measured in anti-clockwise direction (starting from the initial
side OX), it is defined as positive angle and if the same angle θ is measured in clockwise direction, it is defined
as negative angle and it is identified with −θ. (see the Fig. 6.7. Y

The trigonometric ratios of ‘− θ’ are defined as follows.

−y
sin ( −è ) = sin ( 2π − è ) =
r
r
θ
 y
= −   = − sin è.
 r 2π − θ −θ X
x
cos ( − è ) = cos ( 2π − è ) = = cos è . r
r
 π 3π 
If è ∉  ,  , then tan ( − è ) = − tan è .
2 2 
Fig. 6.7
6.1.4 Definition
π 3π
The angles 0 , ,π, , 2π have their terminal side along either X-axis or Y-axis. Hence
2 2
these angles are called “Quadrant angles”.
π π π
We have learnt the values of the trigonometric ratios of the angles , , in earlier classes. The
6 4 3
values of the trigonometric ratios of these angles and the quadrant angles are given in the following table.
Table 6.1
Angle (θθ)
ðC ðC 0 ðC ðC 0 3ð
C
Trigonometric 0C(00) (300) (45 ) (600) (90 ) π (180 )
0 C
πC(3600)
(2700) 2π
ratio 6 4 3 2 2
0 1 1 1 2 3 3 4
sin θ 0= = = = 1= 0 −1 0
4 2 4 2 4 2 4 4
4 3 3 1 2 1 1 0
cos θ 1= = = = 0= −1 0 1
4 2 4 2 4 2 4 4
1
tan θ 0 1 3 Not defined 0 Not defined 0
3
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 227

nπ mπ
We can put any real number α in the form α = + è as well as α = − è for some
2 2
 π
è ∈ 0 ,  and for some integers n and m. Hence, in the following table we give the change that occurs
 2
nπ   π  π
in a trigonometric ratio when applied on the angles in the form ± è  è ∈  0,   . When è = 0 or ,
2   2  2
some of the trigonometric ratios are undefined and hence we give their values separately.
Table 6.2
α)
Angle (α sin α cos α tan α
Trigonometric ratio
nπ − θ (−1)n+1 sin θ (−1)n cos θ − tan θ
nπ + θ (−1)n sin θ (−1)n cos θ tan θ
π
(2n + 1) −θ (−1)n cos θ (−1)n sin θ cot θ
2
π
(2n + 1) +θ (−1)n cos θ (−1)n+1 sin θ − cot θ
2
The following useful observations can be made from the above table.
π
1. If a trigonometric ratio is applied on n ± è ( n ∈ Z ) , then
2
(i) When n is even, there is no change in the trigonometric ratio (sign may be + or −).
(ii) When n is odd, the change in the trigonometric ratio (sign may be + or −) is as indicated below
sine ↔ cosine; tangent ↔ cotangent; secant ↔ cosecant .
2. Whether we get + or − sign in the answer, should be decided by taking into consideration the quadrant
π
in which the angle n ± è lies.
2
Note: We usually take angles in radians. In case, we take an angle θ in degrees we write θ0. If nothing is
mentioned we assume that the angle is given in radians.
Example : Find the values of
(i) sin 2100 (ii) cos 5850 (iii) tan 4800
(iv) sec 5100 (v) cosec 7500 (vi) cot 7650
Solution
(i) sin 2100 = sin (1800 + 300 ) = − sin 300 = −
1
.
2
(or) sin 2100 = sin ( 2700 − 600 ) = − cos 600 = −
1
.
2
 228 Mathematics - IA

0 0 0
(
0 0
)
(ii) cos 585 = cos (540 + 45 ) = cos 3 (180 ) + 45 = − cos 45 = −
0 1
2
.

(iii) tan 480 = tan ( 450 + 30 ) = tan (5 (90 ) + 30 ) = − cot 30 = − 3 .

0 0 0 0 0 0

sec 510 = sec ( 450 + 60 ) = sec (5 (90 ) + 60 ) = − cosec 60 = −

0 0 0 0 0 2 0
(iv) .
3
(v) cosec 750 = cosec ( 2 (360 ) + 30 ) = cosec 30 = 2 .
0 0 0 0

(vi) cot 765 = cot ( 2 (360 ) + 45 ) = cot 45 = 1 .

0 0 0 0

Now we list the changes that occur in various trigonometric ratios when applied on angles of the form
nπ
± è , where è = 0 or π / 2 and n ∈ Z .
2
(i) sin n π = 0 = tan n π and hence cosec n π , cot n π are undefined.
(ii) cos n π = ( −1) = sec n π .
n

π π π π
(iii) cos ( 2n + 1) = 0 = cot ( 2n + 1) and hence sec ( 2n + 1) , tan ( 2n + 1) are undefined.
2 2 2 2
π π
(iv) sin ( 2n + 1) = ( −1) = cosec ( 2n + 1) .
n

2 2
6.1.5 Definition
π
If θ is any angle then − è is called its complement and π − è is called its supplement.
2

In other words, two angles è, φ are said to be complementary angles if è + φ = π and

2
π π
supplementary angles if è + φ = π . For example, the angles , are complementary
6 3
π 5π
angles and , are supplementary angles.
6 6

6.1.6 Solved Problems

1. Problem: Find the values of
5π  π
(i) sin
3
(ii) tan 8550( ) (iii) sec 13 
 3 
Solution
5π  π π 3
(i) sin = sin  2 π −  = − sin = − .
3  3 3 2
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 229

(ii)
0 0
( 0 0
)
tan (8550 ) = tan (900 − 45 ) = tan 5 (180 ) − 45 = − tan 45 = − 1 .
0

 π
   π  π π
(iii) sec 13  = sec  4π +  = sec  2 ( 2π ) +  = sec = 2 .
 3  3  3 3
2. Problem: Simplify
 13π   π
(i) cot  θ −  (ii) tan  −23 
 2   3
Solution

 13π  cot  −  13π − θ   = − cot  13π − θ 

(i) cot  θ −  =   2   
 2      2 
 π  π 
= − cot 6π +  − θ   = − cot  − θ 
 2  2 
= − tan θ.
 π  π
(ii) tan  −23  = − tan  23 
 3  3
 5π 
= − tan  6π + 
 3
 5π   π
= − tan   = − tan  2π − 
 3   3
π
= tan = 3 .
3
π 4π 6π 9π
3. Problem: Find the value of sin 2 + sin 2 + sin 2 + sin 2 .
10 10 10 10
π 4π 6π 9π
Solution: sin 2 + sin 2 + sin 2 + sin 2
10 10 10 10
π  π π  π π   π 
= sin   + sin  −  + sin  +  + sin  π − 
2 2 2 2

 
10  2 10   2 10   10 
π π π π
= sin
2
+ cos 2 + cos 2 + sin 2
10 10 10 10
= 2 ( since, for any angle θ, sin 2 è + cos 2 è = 1 ).
4
4. Problem: If sin è = and θ is not in the first quadrant, find the value of cos θ.
5
Solution: sin θ is positive and θ is not in the first quadrant. Hence θ is in the second quadrant and therefore
cos θ < 0.
 230 Mathematics - IA

We have
cos 2 è + sin 2 è = 1 (see note 6.1.2 (5))
16 9
⇒ cos 2 è = 1 − sin 2 è = 1 − =
25 25
⇒ cos è = ± 3 / 5
∴ cos è = − 3 / 5 (since cos è < 0 ) .
2
5. Problem: If sec è + tan è = , find the value of sin è and determine the quadrant in which θ lies.
3
Solution: We know that sec 2è − tan 2 è = 1 .
1 3
So sec è − tan è = =
sec è + tan è 2
2 3
∴ (sec è + tan è ) + (sec è − tan è ) = +
3 2
13 13
⇒ 2sec è = ⇒ sec è = .
6 12
2 3 −5
Again, (secè + tan è ) − (secè − tan è ) = − =
3 2 6
−5 −5 −5 13 −5
⇒ 2 tan è = ⇒ tan è = and sin è = ÷ = .
6 12 12 12 13
Since sec θ is +ve and tan θ is −ve, θ lies in the IV quadrant.
π 2π 3π ... 7π
6. Problem: Prove that cot . cot . cot cot = 1.
16 16 16 16
π 2π 3π ... 7π
Solution: cot . cot . cot cot
16 16 16 16
 π 7π   2π 6π   3π 5π  4π
=  cot . cot  .  cot . cot  . cot  . cot  . cot
 16 16   16 16   16 16  16
 π π π   2π  π 2π  
=  cot . cot  −   . cot  −
 2 16   .
.  cot
 16  2 16    16
 3π  π 3π   π
 cot 16 . cot  2 − 16   . cot 4

 π π   2π 2π   3π 3π 
=  cot . tan  .  cot . tan   cot . tan . 1
 16 16   16 16   16 16 
= 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 = 1.
7. Problem: If 3sin è + 4 cos è = 5 , then find the value of 4 sin è − 3cos è .
Solution: Given that 3sin è + 4 cos è = 5
write 4 sin è − 3cos è = a
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 231

Squaring and adding we get (3sin è + 4 cos è ) + ( 4sin è − 3cos è ) = 52 + a 2

2 2

⇒ a 2 + 25 = 9sin 2 è +16cos 2 è + 24sin è cosè + 16sin 2 è + 9 cos è − 24sin è cos è

2

= 25 sin 2 è + 25 cos 2 è = 25 .
⇒ a2 = 0 ⇒ a = 0 .
∴ 4 sin è − 3 cos è = 0 .
8. Problem: If cos è + sin è = 2 cos è, prove that cos è − sin è = 2 sin è .
Solution: Given cos è + sin è = 2 cos è , then ( )
2 − 1 cos è = sin è .
On multiplying both sides by ( 2 + 1) , we get
( 2 + 1)( 2 − 1) cos è = ( )
2 + 1 sin è

⇒ cos è = 2 sin è + sin è

⇒ cos è − sin è = 2 sin è .
9. Problem: Find the value of 2 (sin 6 è + cos 6 è ) − 3 (sin 4 è + cos 4 è ) .

Solution: 2 (sin 6 è + cos 6 è ) − 3 (sin 4 è + cos 4 è )

{ } − 3{(sin è ) + (cos è ) }
= 2 (sin 2 è ) + (cos 2 è )
3 3 2 2 2 2

= 2 {(sin è + cos è ) − 3sin è cos è (sin è + cos è ) }

2 2 3 2 2 2 2

− 3 {(sin è + cos è ) − 2sin è cos è}

2 2 2 2 2

= 2 (1 − 3sin 2 è cos 2 è ) − 3 (1 − 2 sin 2 è cos 2 è )

= − 1.

( tan è + cot è ) = sec 2 è + cosec 2 è = sec 2 è . cosec 2è .

2
10. Problem: Prove that

( tan è + cot è ) = tan 2 è + cot 2 è + 2 tan è cot è

2
Solution:
= tan 2 è + cot 2 è + 2
= (1 + tan 2 è ) + (1 + cot 2 è )
= sec 2 è + cosec 2 è .
1 1
Again, sec 2 è + cosec 2 è = +
cos è
2
sin 2 è
sin 2 è + cos 2 è 1
= = = sec 2 è . cos ec 2 è .
cos è . sin è
2 2
cos è . sin è
2 2
 232 Mathematics - IA

11. Problem: If cos è > 0, tan è + sin è = m and tan è − sin è = n , then show that m2 − n 2 = 4 m n .
Solution: Given that m = tan è + sin è and n = tan è − sin è .
By adding, we get m + n = 2 tan è .
By subtracting, we get m − n = 2 sin è .
On multiplying these two equations, we get m 2 − n 2 = 4 tan è sin è

= 4 tan 2 è . sin 2 è = 4 tan 2 è (1 − cos 2 è ) (since cos è > 0 )

=4 tan 2 è − sin 2 è = 4 mn .

tan 1600 − tan 1100 1 − λ2

12. Problem: If tan 200 = λ , then show that = .
1 + tan 1600 . tan 1100 2λ
tan 1600 − tan 1100
Solution: L.H.S. =
1 + tan 1600 . tan 1100

=
( )
tan 1800 − 200 − tan 900 + 200 ( )
(
1 + tan 180 − 20
0 0
) . tan (90 0
+ 20 0
)
1
−λ +
− tan 20 + cot 20 λ = 1 − λ = R.H.S.
0 0 2
= =
1 + ( − tan 200 )( − cot 200 ) 1+1 2λ

Exercise 6(a)
I.1. Convert the following into simplest form
 21π 
(i) tan (θ − 14π) (ii) cot  − θ
 2 
(iii) cosec (5π + θ) (iv) sec (4π − θ)
2. Find the value of each of the following
 7π 
(i) sin (−4050) (ii) cos  − 
 2 
(iii) sec(21000) (iv) cot (−3150)
3. Evaluate
(i) cos2450 + cos2 1350 + cos2 2250 + cos2 3150
2 2π 5π 3π
(ii) sin + cos 2 − tan 2
3 6 4
(iii) cos 225 − sin 225 + tan 4950 − cot 4950
0 0

11π
(iv) (cos θ − sin θ) if (a) θ = 7 π (b) θ =
4 3
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 233

1
4. (i) If sin θ = − and θ does not lie in the third quadrant, find the values of
3
(a) cos θ (b) cot θ
(ii) If cos θ = t (0 < t < 1) and θ does not lie in the first quadrant, find the values of
(a) sin θ (b) tan θ.
(iii) Find the value of sin 3300 . cos 1200 + cos 2100 . sin 3000
1
(iv) If cosec θ + cot θ = , find cos θ and determine the quadrant in which θ lies.
3
5. (i) If sin α + cosec α = 2, find the value of sinn α + cosecnα, n ∈ Z .
(ii) If sec θ + tan θ = 5, find the quadrant in which θ lies and find the value of sin θ.
II.
1. Prove that

π 
cos(π − A) . cot  + A  cos(−A)
(i) 2  = cos A .
 3π 
tan(π + A) tan  + A  sin(2π − A)
 2 
 π  3π 
sin(3π − A) cos  A −  tan  − A
 2  2 
(ii) = cos 4 A .
 13π   π
cosec  + A sec(3π + A) cot  A − 
 2   2
1
(iii) sin 7800 sin 4800 + cos 2400 . cos 3000 = .
2
sin150 − 5cos 300 + 7 tan 225
0 0 0
(iv) =−2.
tan1350 + 3sin 2100
 π   3π   5π   7π   9π 
(v) cot   .cot   .cot   .cot   .cot   = 1 .
 20   20   20   20   20 
2. (i) Simplify
 11π   35π   7π 
sin  −  tan   sec  − 
 3   6   3 .
 5π   7π   17 π 
cos   cosec   cos  
 4   4   6 
tan 6100 + tan 7000 1 − p 2
(ii) If tan 200 = p, prove that = .
tan 5600 − tan 4700 1 + p 2
(iii) If α, β are complementary angles such that b sin α = a, then find the value of
(sin α cos β − cos α sinβ).
234 Mathematics - IA

1
3. (i) If cos A = cos B = − and A does not lie in the second quadrant and B does not lie in the third
2
quadrant, then find the value of 4 sin B − 3 tan A .
tan B + sin A
(ii) If 8 tan A = −15 and 25 sin B = −7 and neither A nor B is in the fourth quadrant, then show that
−304
sinA cos B + cos A sin B = .
425
(iii) If A, B, C, D are angles of a cyclic quadrilateral, then prove that
(a) sinA − sinC = sin D − sin B and
(b) cos A + cos B + cos C + cos D = 0.
4. (i) If a cos θ − b sin θ = c, then show that a sin θ + b cos θ = ± a 2 + b 2 − c 2 .

(ii) If 3 sin A + 5 cos A = 5, then show that 5 sin A − 3 cos A = +3.

(iii) If tan2 θ = (1 − e2), show that sec θ + tan3 θ . cosec θ = (2 − e2)3/2.
III.
1. Prove the following:
(tan θ + sec θ − 1) 1 + sin θ
(i) = .
(tan θ − sec θ + 1) cos θ
(ii) (1 + cot θ − cosec θ)(1 + tan θ + sec θ) = 2.
(iii) 3(sin θ − cos θ)4 + 6(sin θ + cos θ)2 + 4(sin6 θ + cos6 θ) = 13.

2. Prove that
(i) (sin θ + cosec θ)2 + (cos θ + sec θ)2 − (tan2θ + cot2 θ) = 7.
 1 
(ii) cos4α + 2 cos2α 1 −  = (1 − sin α) .
4

 sec α 
2

(1 + sin θ − cos θ )2 =
1 − cos θ
(iii) 1 + cos θ .
(1 + sin θ + cos θ )2
2sin θ (1 − cos θ + sin θ)
(iv) If = x , then find the value of .
(1 + cos θ + sin θ) (1 + sin θ)
3. Eliminate θ from the following:
(i) x = a cos3 θ ; y = b sin3 θ
(ii) x = a cos4 θ ; y = b sin4 θ
(iii) x = a(sec θ + tan θ); y = b (sec θ − tan θ)
(iv) x = cot θ + tan θ ; y = sec θ − cos θ
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 235

6.1.7 Definition (Domain, Range and Graph of a function)

Let A, B be two sets and f : A → B be a function. Let us recall that A is called the
domain of f and B is called the codomain of f and that the set { f (x) | x∈ A} is called the
range of f (range of f is always a subset of the codomain of f ). The subset

{( x, f ( x )) }
x∈ A of A × B is called the graph of the function f .

6.1.8 Definition (Periodic function, Period)

Let E ⊆ R and f : E → R be a function. Then f is called a ‘Periodic function’ if
there exists a positive real number ‘p’ such that
(i) (x + p ) ∈ E for all x ∈ E and
(ii) f ( x + p ) = f ( x ) for all x ∈ E .
If such a positive real number ‘p’ exists, then it is called ‘a period’ of f.

It can be easily observed that if f : E → R is a periodic function and ‘p’ is a period of f,

then for any positive integer n, we get
(i) (x + n p ) ∈ E for all x ∈ E and (ii) f ( x + n p ) = f ( x ) for all x ∈ E .
Hence ‘np’ is also a period of f.
If f : E → R is a periodic function and if there exists smallest positive real number p such
that f ( x + p ) = f ( x ) for all x ∈ E then ‘p’ is called ‘the period’ of f.
It can be noted that a function f may be periodic without having ‘the period’. For example, if we
take any constant function f : E → R . (That is f ( x ) = k for all x ∈ R ), then any positive real number
is a period of f but f does not have the period.
For any real number θ, we have observed that θ and 2 π + è have same trigonometric ratios
(see definition 6.1.3) and hence all trigonometric functions ( f ( x ) = sin x, f ( x ) = cos x etc.) are periodic.
Now we find the periods of the trigonometric functions.
6.1.9 Theorem
The sine function is periodic and 2π is the period.
Proof : Define f (x) = sin x for all x ∈ R . Then
f ( 2 π + x ) = sin ( 2 π + x ) = sin x = f ( x ) for all x ∈ R .
Hence f ( x ) = sin x is a periodic function and 2π is a period of f.
Suppose 0 < k < 2 π and k is a period of f. Then
f ( x + k ) = f ( x ) for all x ∈ R . ... (1)
 236 Mathematics - IA

In particular, f ( 2 π − k + k ) = f ( 2 π − k ) (by taking x = 2π − k )

Thus f ( 2 π − k ) = f ( 2 π ) .

That is, sin ( 2 π − k ) = sin 2π = 0 . ... (2)

Since 0 < k < 2 π , we get 0 < 2 π − k < 2 π and hence we get 2 π − k = π from (2).
Thus k = π . Now
π π   π
1 = sin = sin  + k  (taking  x =  in (1))
2 2   2
3π
= sin (since k = π )
2
= − 1, a contradiction.
Thus 2 π is the least positive real number such that sin ( x + 2 π ) = sin x for all x ∈ R . Hence
2 π is the period of f (x) = sin x.
We can prove the following theorem similarly.

6.1.10 Theorem
1. The function f (x) = cos x is periodic and 2π is the period.
2. The function f (x) = tan x is periodic and π is the period.
While finding the period of a periodic function, the following points will be useful.

6.1.11 Note
1. If f is periodic, then so is λ f , for any scalar λ.
2. Let f : R → R be a periodic function and p be a period of f. Let a, b, c be real constants such
that a ≠ 0 . Then the function g : R → R defined by g ( x ) = f ( ax + b ) + c for all x ∈ R is
p p
also periodic and is a period of g. Further, if p is the period of f, then is the period of g.
a a
3. Let f : A → R , g : B → R be two periodic functions, p1 be a period of f and p2 be a period
of g. Let p be a common integral multiple of p1 and p2 and C = A ∩ B. . Then, for any x ∈ C ,
we have (x + p ) ∈ C . Now f + g , f − g and f g are all periodic and p is a period of each
f
of them. If g ( x ) ≠ 0 for all x ∈ C , then
f
is also periodic and p is a period of .
g g
6.1.12 Example
Find the period of the function f defined by
(i) f ( x ) = sin (5 x + 3) for all x ∈ R
(ii) f ( x ) = x − [ x ] for all x ∈ R , where [x] = integral part of x.
 Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 237

Solution
(i) f ( x ) = sin (5 x + 3) . We know that the function g ( x ) = sin x for all x ∈ R , has the period
2 π . Now f ( x ) = g (5 x + 3) . Hence by note 6.1.11(2) above, we get that f is periodic and the
2π 2π
period of f is = .
5 5
(ii) f (1 + x ) = 1 + x − [1 + x ] = 1 + x − {1 + [ x ]} = x − [ x ] = f ( x )
∴ f is a periodic function and 1 is a period of f, if 0 < λ < 1 .
1− λ
Take x = . Then 0 < (λ + x ) < 1 . Therefore, [ x ] = 0 = [λ + x ] . Now
2
f (λ + x ) = λ + x − [λ + x ] = λ + x and f ( x ) = x − [x] = x . Thus
f (λ + x ) ≠ f ( x ) .
Hence 1 is the period of f .
6.1.13 Variation of trigonometric ratios
(i) Variation of sin x. (Fig 6.8)
As x increases from 0 to π/2 , sin x increases from 0 to 1
As x increases from π/2 to π , sin x decreases from 1 to 0
As x increases from π to 3π/2 , sin x decreases from 0 to −1
As x increases from 3π/2 to 2π , sin x increases from −1 to 0

(ii) Variation of cos x. (Fig 6.9)

As x increases from 0 to π/2 , cos x decreases from 1 to 0
As x increases from π/2 to π , cos x decreases from 0 to −1
As x increases from π to 3π/2 , cos x increases from −1 to 0
As x increases from 3π/2 to 2π , cos x increases from 0 to 1

(iii) Variation of tan x. (Fig 6.10)

As x increases from 0 to π/2 , tan x increases from 0 to ∞
As x increases from π/2 to π , tan x increases from − ∞ to 0
As x increases from π to 3π/2 , tan x increases from 0 to ∞
As x increases from 3π/2 to 2π , tan x increases from − ∞ to 0

Similarly, we can obtain the variations of cosec x, sec x and cot x . These variations can be
easily understood from the graphs of these trigonometric functions given in 6.1.15.
 238 Mathematics - IA

6.1.14 Domain and Range of trigonometric functions

If we define f ( x ) = sin x , then it is called a trigonometric function corresponding to the trigonometric
ratio sine. Similarly, the trigonometric functions corresponding to the other trigonometric ratios can be
defined. The domain and range of each of these trigonometric functions are given in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3
Trigonometric function Domain ( x ) Range ( y )

y = sin x R [-1, 1]
y = cos x R [-1, 1]
 π 
y = tan x R ( 2 n + 1) n ∈ Z R
 2 
y = cot x R {n π n ∈ Z} R
 π 
y = sec x R ( 2 n + 1) n ∈ Z ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1,∞ )
 2 
y = cosec x R {n π n ∈ Z} ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1,∞ )
6.1.15 Graphs of trigonometric functions
We plot the graphs of the trigonometric functions by taking x in radians on X-axis and y on Y-axis.
We first write the values of y corresponding to different values of x in a table and then by taking a suitable
scale we plot these points in the coordinate plane and join these points by a smooth curve to get the graph.
1. Graph of y = sin x
Table 6.4

x −π −π / 2 0 π/2 π 3π / 2 2π 5π / 2 3π
y = sin x 0 − 1 0 1 0 − 1 0 1 0
Y

−π π X
−π/2 0 π/2 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π

−1 y = sin x
Fig. 6.8
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 239

2. Graph of y = cos x
Table 6.5
x −π −π / 2 0 π/2 π 3π / 2 2π 5π / 2 3π 7π / 2
y = cos x −1 0 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1 0
Y

X
−π −π/2 0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2

−1

y = cos x

Fig. 6.9
3. Graph of y = tan x

First observe that though tan x is not defined for x = π / 2, tan x → ∞ as x → π / 2 in the

π 3π 5π
interval (0 , π / 2 ) and tan x → − ∞ as x → in (π / 2, π ) . Similarly at x = , also. We
2 2 2
keep these points in mind while drawing the graph of y = tan x.

Table 6.6

x −π −π / 2 0 π/2 π 3π / 2 2π 5π / 2 3π
y = tan x 0 not 0 not 0 not 0 not 0
defined defined defined defined
 240 Mathematics - IA

Y
2

−π π/2 π X
−π/2 0 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2

−1

−2
y = tan x
Fig. 6.10
4. Graph of y = cot x
Before drawing the graph note that cot x is undefined at −π , 0 , π , 2π etc. since sin x = 0 at these
 π  π 
values of x. But cot x → ∞ as x → 0 in  0 ,  and cot x → − ∞ as x → 0 in  − , 0  .
 2  2 
Similarly for π , 2π etc. We keep these points in mind while drawing the graph of y = cot x .
Table 6.7
x −π −π / 2 0 π/2 π 3π / 2 2π 5π / 2 3π
y = cot x not not not not not
defined 0 defined 0 defined 0 defined 0 defined

X
−π −π/2 0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2

y = cot x
Fig. 6.11
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 241

5. Graph of y = sec x
−π π 3π 5π
Like y = tan x, this function is also not defined at , , , etc. Also note that sec x → ∞
2 2 2 2
π  π π π  3π 5π
as x → in  0 ,  and sec x → − ∞ as x → in  , π  . Similarly for 2 , 2 etc.
2  2 2 2 
We keep these points in view while drawing the graph of y = sec x.

Table 6.8
x −π −π / 2 0 π/2 π 3π / 2 2π 5π / 2 3π
y = sec x −1 not 1 not −1 not 1 not −1
defined defined defined defined

Y
2

X
−π −π/2 0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2

−1

−2

y = sec x
Fig. 6.12
6. Graph of y = cosec x

Like the function y = cot x, this function is also not defined at all integral multiples of π like
−π, 0, π, 2π etc. (since sin x = 0 at these values of x). But note that cosec x → ∞ as x → 0
 π  −π 
in  0 ,  and cosec x → − ∞ as x → 0 in  , 0  . Similarly for π , 2π , 3π etc. We keep these
 2  2 
things in mind while drawing the graph of y = cosec x .
242 Mathematics - IA

Table 6.9
x −π −π/2 0 π/2 π 3π / 2 2π 5π / 2 3π
y=cosec x not −1 not 1 not −1 not 1 not
defined defined defined defined defined

Y
2

−π −π/2 0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 X

−1

−2

y = cosec x
Fig. 6.13

Exercise 6(b)
I. Find the periods for the given 1 - 5 functions
1. cos (3x + 5) + 7 2. tan 5x

 4x + 9 
3. cos   4. | sin x |
 5 
5. tan (x + 4x + 9x + .... + n2x) (n any positive integer)
2
6. Find a sine function whose period is .
3
7. Find a cosine function whose period is 7.
II. Sketch the graph of the following functions
π
1. tan x between 0 and 2. cos 2x in the interval [0, π].
4
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 243

3. sin 2x in the interval (0, π). 4. sin x in the interval [−π, +π]
5. cos2 x in [0, π]
III. Sketch the region enclosed by y = sin x, y = cos x and X-axis in the interval [0, π].

6.2 Trigonometric ratios of compound angles

In this section, we define a compound angle and give formulae to find the trigonometric ratios of
compound angles.

6.2.1 Definition

The algebraic sum of two or more angles is called a “Compound angle”.

If A, B, C are three angles then A + B, A − C, A + B + C, A − B + C etc. are compound angles.

6.2.2 Theorem : If A, B are two real numbers, then

cos ( A + B ) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

Proof: We prove this theorem in various cases depending on the magnitudes of A, B, A + B.

Case (i): A > 0, B > 0 and A + B < 2 π.

Consider a rectangular Cartesian system OXY. Let C be the circle in XY plane with centre at the
origin O(0, 0) and radius 1 unit. Suppose the circle cuts OX at P. Then P = (1, 0). Let us take the points
Q, R on this circle such that ∠POQ = A and ∠POR = A + B measured in anti-clockwise (positive)
direction. Let S be the point on the circle such that ∠POS = B measured in clockwise (negative)
direction. Then the coordinates of Q, R, S are respectively (cos A, sin A), (cos (A + B), sin (A + B)),
Y
(cos (−B), sin (−B)). A+B

Sub - Case (i): A + B < π. R

Q
Then the angles A, B, A + B are as shown in Fig. 6.14.
A X
In triangle POR, OP = OR = 1 unit and O P(1, 0)
B
∠POR = A + B and in triangle QOS, OQ = OS = 1 unit
and ∠QOS = A + B . Therefore, the two triangles POR and
QOS are congruent. Hence PR = QS . S

Fig. 6.14
 244 Mathematics - IA

Sub - Case (ii): A + B = π. Y

Then the points P, O, R are collinear (lie on X-axis) and

Q
the points Q, O, S are collinear as shown in Fig. 6.15.
A+ B
A X
R O P(0, 1)
Clearly PR = 2 = QS (diameters of the unit circle).
B

S
Sub - Case (iii): A + B > π (Fig. 6.16).

Without loss of generality we can assume A< π. Fig. 6.15

In the triangle POR, ∠POR = 2 π − ( A + B ) Y

(since 2 π − ( A + B ) < π ) and

Q

OP = OR = 1 unit and in the triangle QOS, S A+B

A X
∠QOS = 2 π − ( A + B ) and OQ = OS = 1 unit. O P(0, 1)
B

Hence the two triangles are congruent. Therefore PR = QS.

R
In all the 3 sub-cases above, we get

P R = QS ⇒ PR 2 = QS2 . Fig. 6.16

⇒ ( cos ( A + B) − 1) + (sin ( A + B) − 0)
2 2

= ( cos A − cos ( − B)) + (sin A − sin ( − B))

2 2

⇒ cos 2 ( A + B) + 1 − 2 cos ( A + B) + sin 2 ( A + B)

= (cos A − cos B) + (sin A + sin B)

2 2

⇒ 2 − 2 cos ( A + B) = cos 2 A + cos 2 B − 2 cos A cosB + sin 2 A + sin 2 B + 2 sin A sin B

= 2 − 2 (cos A cos B − sin A sin B )

⇒ cos ( A + B ) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B. ... (1)

Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 245

Case (ii): A = 0 (or B = 0) : We consider the case A = 0. The proof when B = 0 is similar.
Then A + B = B, cos A = 1 and sin A = 0. Thus,
Cos A Cos B − sin A sin B = cos B = cos (A + B).

Case (iii): A ≥ 0, B ≥ 0 and A + B = 2π

In this case, cos B = cos ( 2π − A ) = cos A and
sin B = sin ( 2π − A ) = − sin A . Thus,
cos A cos B − sin A sin B = cos 2 A + sin 2 A = 1 = cos 2 π = cos ( A + B ) .
Case (iv): A ∈[0 , π ] , B ∈[π , 2 π ] (or A ∈ [π , 2π ) , B ∈ [0, π ]) .
Write è = B − π . Then è ∈ [0, π ] . Hence
cos ( A + B ) = cos ( A + π + è ) = − cos ( A + è ) = − {cos A cos è − sin A sin è}
(since A + è ≤ 2 π )
= cos A cos (π + è ) − sin A sin (π + è )
= cos A cos B − sin A sin B .
Case (v): A∈ (π , 2π ] and B∈ (π , 2π ]
Write α = A − π , β = B − π . Then 0 ≤ α , β ≤ π and hence
cos ( A + B ) = cos (π + α + π + β ) = cos ( 2 π + α + β )
= cos (α + β ) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
= cos (π + α ) cos (π + β ) − sin (π + α ) sin (π + β )
= cos A cos B − sin A sin B
Thus we have proved the theorem for all A, B ∈[0, 2 π ] .
Finally, we prove the result in the general case.
A  B 
Let A, B ∈R . Take m =   and n =   . Then
 2π  2 π 
2 π m ≤ A < 2 π ( m + 1) and 2 π n ≤ B < 2 π ( n + 1) .
Write α = A − 2 π m and β = B − 2 n π . Then α , β ∈ [0, 2 π ) and we have
cos ( A + B ) = cos ( 2 π m + α + 2 n π + β ) = cos (α + β )
= cos α cos β − sin α sin β
Therefore cos ( A + B ) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B .
The other formulae are derived from the above theorem as follows.
6.2.3 Corollary: For any A, B ∈R
(i) cos ( A − B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
(ii) sin ( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
 246 Mathematics - IA

(iii) sin ( A − B ) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B

Proof: (i) cos ( A − B ) = cos ( A + ( − B ))

= cos A cos ( − B ) − sin A sin ( − B )

= cos A cos B + sin A sin B
since cos ( − B) = cos B and sin ( − B ) = − sin B

π   ð  
(ii) sin ( A + B ) = cos  − ( A + B )  = cos   − A  − B 
2   2  
ð  ð 
= cos  − A  cos B + sin  − A  sin B
2  2 
= sin A cos B + cos A sin B.
(iii) sin ( A − B ) = sin ( A + ( − B ))
= sin A cos ( − B ) + cos A sin ( − B )
= sin A cos B − cos A sin B .

6.2.4 Theorem
π
(i) If none of A, B and (A + B) is an odd multiple of , then
2
tan A + tan B
tan ( A + B ) =
1 − tan A tan B

(ii) If none of A, B and (A + B) is an integral multiple of π, then

cot B cot A − 1
cot ( A + B ) =
cot B + cot A
Proof
π
(i) Since none of A, B, A + B is an odd multiple of , none of cos A, cos B, cos A + B is zero. Now
2
sin ( A + B ) sin A cos B + cos A sin B .
tan (A + B) = =
cos ( A + B ) cos A cos B − sin A sin B
On dividing the numerator and the denominator in R.H.S. by cos A cos B, we get
sin A cos B cos A sin B
+
cos A cos B cos A cos B tan A + tan B
tan ( A + B ) = = .
cos A cos B
−
sin A sin B 1 − tan A . tan B
cos A cos B cos A cos B
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 247

(ii) Since none of A, B, (A + B) is an integral multiple of π, none of sin A, sin B, sin (A + B) is zero. Now
cos ( A + B ) cos A cos B − sin A sin B .
cot ( A + B ) = =
sin ( A + B ) sin A cos B + cos A sin B
On dividing the numerator and denominator in R.H.S. by sinA sinB we get
cos A cos B sin A sin B
−
sin A sin B sin A sin B cot A cot B − 1
cot ( A + B ) = = .
sin A cos B cos A sin B cot B + cot A
+
sin A sin B sin A sin B

6.2.5 Note
π
1. If none of A, B, A + B is an odd multiple of , then tan A, tan B are defined and
2
tan A tan B ≠ 1 (since cos (A + B) ≠ 0) and hence the formula for tan (A + B) given in the above
theorem is valid.
2. If none of A, B, A + B is an integral multiple of π, then cot A, cot B are defined and cot B + cot A ≠ 0
(since sin (A + B) ≠ 0) and hence the formula for cot (A + B) given in the above theorem is valid.
On replacing ‘B’ by ‘− B’ in Theorem 6.2.4, we get the following.

6.2.6 Corollary
π
(i) If none of A, B, A − B is an odd multiple of , then
2
tan A − tan B
tan ( A − B ) =
1 + tan A tan B

(ii) If none of A, B, A − B is an integral multiple of π, then

cot A cot B + 1
cot ( A − B ) =
cot B − cot A

6.2.7 Theorem: For any two real numbers A, B

(i) sin ( A + B ) sin ( A − B ) = sin 2 A − sin 2B = cos 2B − cos 2A .
(ii) cos ( A + B ) cos ( A − B ) = cos 2 A − sin 2 B = cos 2 B − sin 2 A .
Proof (i) sin ( A + B ) sin ( A - B )
= (sin A cos B + cos Asin B) . (sin A cos B − cos Asin B)
= sin 2 A cos 2 B − cos 2 A sin 2 B
= (
sin 2 A 1 − sin 2 B ) − (1 − sin A ) sin B
2 2

= sin 2 A − sin 2 B
 248 Mathematics - IA

= (1 − cos A ) − (1 − cos B )
2 2

= cos 2 B − cos 2 A .
(ii) cos ( A + B ) cos ( A − B )

= (cos A cos B − sin A sin B ) (cos A cos B + sin A sin B )

= cos 2 A cos 2 B − sin 2 A sin 2 B
= ( ) ( )
cos 2 A 1 − sin 2 B − 1 − cos 2 A sin 2 B
= cos 2 A − sin 2 B
= ( ) (
1 − sin 2 A − 1 − cos 2 B )
= cos 2 B − sin 2 A .
Now we give the formulae for sin ( A + B + C ) , cos ( A + B + C ) ,

tan ( A + B + C ) and cot ( A + B + C ) in the following.

6.2.8 Theorem: If A, B, C are real numbers, then

(i) sin ( A + B + C ) = sin A cos B cos C + cos A sin B cos C
+ cosA cosB sinC − sinA sinB sinC .

(ii) cos ( A + B + C ) = cos A cos B cos C − cos A sin B sin C

− sin A cos B sin C − sin A sin B cos C .
π
(iii) If none of A, B, C and A + B + C is an odd multiple of and at least one
2
π
of A + B, B + C, C + A is not an odd multiple of , then
2
tan A + tan B + tan C − tan A tan B tan C
tan ( A + B + C ) = .
1 − tan A tan B − tan B tan C − tan C tan A

(iv) If none of A, B, C and A + B + C is an integral multiple of π, then

cot A + cot B + cot C − cot A cot B cot C .
cot ( A + B + C ) =
1 − cot A cot B − cot B cot C − cot C cot A
Proof
(i) sin ( A + B + C ) = sin (( A + B ) + C )
= sin ( A + B ) cos C + cos ( A + B ) sin C
= (sin A cos B + cos A sin B ) cos C + (cos A cos B − sin A sin B ) sin C.
= sin A cos B cos C + cos A sin B cos C + cos A cos B sin C − sin A sin B sin C
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 249

This formula can be written as,

sin ( A + B + C ) = ∑ (sin A cos B cos C ) − sin A sin B sin C

(ii) cos ( A + B + C ) = cos (( A + B ) + C )

= cos ( A + B ) cos C − sin ( A + B ) sin C

= (cos A cos B − sin A sin B ) cos C − (sin A cos B + cos A sin B ) sin C
= cos A cos B cos C − sin A sin B cos C − sin A cos Bsin C − cos A sin Bsin C
This can be written as
cos ( A + B + C ) = cos A cos B cos C − ∑ cos A sin Bsin C
π
(iii) Suppose none of A, B, C, A + B + C is an odd multiple of and assume,
2
π
without loss of generality, that A + B is not an odd multiple of . Then
2
tan ( A + B ) + tan C
tan ( A + B + C ) = tan (( A + B ) + C ) =
1 − tan ( A + B ) tan C
tan A + tan B
+ tan C
1 − tan A tan B
=
 tan A + tan B 
1−   tan C
 1 − tan A tan B 
tan A + tan B + tan C (1 − tan A tan B )
=
1 − tan A tan B − ( tan A + tan B ) tan C
tan A + tan B + tan C − tan A tan B tan C .
=
1 − tan A tan B − tan B tan C − tan C tan A
This can be written as
Σ tan A − Π tan A s −s
tan ( A + B + C ) = = 1 3
1 − Σ tan A tan B 1 − s2

In the above formula,

s1 = Sum of the tangents taken one at a time.
s2 = Sum of the products of the tangents taken two at a time.
s3 = Sum of the products of the tangents taken three at a time.

(iv) Assume that none of A, B, C, A + B + C is an integral multiple of π and assume, without loss of
generality, that A + B is not a multiple of π, then
cot ( A + B ) cot C − 1
cot ( A + B + C ) = cot (( A + B ) + C ) =
cot C + cot ( A + B )
 250 Mathematics - IA

 cot A cot B − 1 
  cot C − 1
 cot B + cot A 
=
cot A cot B − 1
cot C +
cot B + cot A
cot A cot B cot C − cot C − cot B − cot A
=
cot C cot B + cot C cot A + cot A cot B − 1
cot A + cot B + cot C − cot A cot B cot C .
=
1 − cot A cot B − cot B cot C − cot C cot A
This can be written as
Σ cot A − Π cot A s1 − s3 .
cot ( A + B + C ) = =
1 − Σ cot A cot B 1 − s2
In the above formula
s1 = Sum of the cotangents taken one at a time
s2 = Sum of the products of the cotangents taken two at a time
s3 = Sum of the products of the cotangents taken three at a time
6.2.9 Solved Problems
1. Problem: Find the values of sin 750, cos 750, tan 750 and cot 750.
Solution

(i) sin 750 = sin ( 450 + 300 ) = sin 450 cos 300 + cos 450 sin 300
1 3 1 1 3 +1
= . + . = .
2 2 2 2 2 2
(ii) cos 750 = cos ( 450 + 300 ) = cos 450 cos 300 − sin 450 sin 300
1 3 1 1 3 −1 .
= ⋅ − ⋅ =
2 2 2 2 2 2

( )
2
sin 75 0
3 +1 3 +1
(iii) tan 750 = = = = 2 + 3.
cos 750 3 −1 3−1 ( 3 +1 )( )
1 1
(iv) cot 75 = = = 2 − 3.
0

tan 750 2 + 3
5
2. Problem: If 0 < A, B < 900. cos A = and sin B = 4 then find sin(A + B).
13 5
5 12
Solution: 0 < A < 900 and cos A = ⇒ sin A = .
13 13

0 < B < 900 and sin B = 4 ⇒ cos B = 3 .

5 5
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 251

∴ sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

12 3 5 4 56 .
= . + . =
13 5 13 5 65
3 +1
0 0
 1  1
3. Problem: Prove that sin  52  − sin 2  22 
2
= .
 2  2 4 2
0 0
 1  1
Solution: Put A =  52  and B =  22  . Then
 2  2
0 0
 1  1
sin 2  52  − sin 2  22 
 2  2
= sin A − sin B = sin ( A + B ) sin ( A − B ) (from Theorem 6.2.7(i))
2 2

3 +1 1 3 +1
= sin 75 sin 30 = ⋅ =
0 0
.
2 2 2 4 2
4. Problem: Prove that tan 700 − tan 200 = 2 tan 500 .
tan 700 − tan 200
Solution: tan 500 = tan (700 − 200 ) =
1 + tan 700 . tan 200
(
⇒ tan 700 − tan 200 = tan 500 1 + tan 700 . tan (900 − 700 ) )
= tan 50 0
(1 + tan 70 0
. cot 70 0
)
= 2 tan 50 . 0

π
5. Problem: If A + B = , then prove that
4
(i) (1 + tan A ) (1 + tan B ) = 2 , (ii) (cot A − 1) (cot B − 1) = 2 .
Solution
π
(i) A+B=
4
π
⇒ tan ( A + B ) = tan =1
4
tan A + tan B
⇒ = 1 ⇒ tan A + tan B = 1 − tan A tan B
1 − tan A tan B
⇒ tan A + tan B + tan A tan B = 1 ... (1)
Now, (1 + tan A ) (1 + tan B ) = 1 + tan A + tan B + tan A tan B = 2 (from (1))
π π
(ii) A+B= ⇒ cot (A + B) = cot = 1
4 4
cot A cot B − 1
⇒ = 1 ⇒ cot A cot B − 1 = cot A + cot B
cot B + cot A
⇒ cot A cot B − cot A − cot B = 1 ... (2)
Now, ( cot A − 1) ( cot B − 1) = cot A cot B − cot A − cot B + 1 = 2 (from (2)).
 252 Mathematics - IA

1 1
6. Problem: If sin α = , sin β = and α, β are acute, show that α + β = π/4.
10 5
Solution
1 1
Given α is acute and sin α = ⇒ tan α = .
10 3
1 1
β is acute and sin β = ⇒ tan β = .
5 2
tan α + tan β
Therefore tan (α + β) =
1 − tan α tan β
1 1
+
= 3 2 =1
1 1
1− ⋅
3 2
⇒ α + β = π/4.
12 3
7. Problem: If sin A = , cos B = and neither A nor B is in the first quadrant, then find the
13 5
quadrant in which A + B lies.
Solution: From hypothesis, A lies in the second quadrant and B in the fourth quadrant
π
so that 2 n π + < A < 2 nπ + π
2
3π
and 2 m π + < B < ( 2 m + 2 ) π for some integers m, n.
2
On adding, we get
2 nπ + 2 mπ + 2π < A + B < 2 nπ + 2 mπ + 2π + π
That is 2 k π < A + B < 2 k π + π where k = m + n + 1
Therefore, A + B lies either in first or in second quadrant . ... (1)

144 144 25
Now cos 2 A + sin 2 A = 1 ⇒ cos 2 A + = 1 ⇒ cos 2 A = 1 − =
169 169 169
5
⇒ cos A = ±
13
5
⇒ cos A = − (Since A lies in 2nd quadrant)
13
9 16
Similarly, cos 2 B + sin 2 B = 1 ⇒ sin 2 B = 1 − =
25 25
4 4
⇒ sin B = ± ⇒ sin B = −
5 5
(Since B lies in 4th quadrant)
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 253

Now, cos ( A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

 − 5 3  12   − 4  33
=    −    = .
 13   5   13   5  65
Therefore, from (1), A + B lies in the first quadrant.

π 
8. Problem: Find (i) tan  + A  interms of tan A and
4 
π 
(ii) cot  + A  interms of cot A.
4 
Solution
π
tan + tan A
π  4 1 + tan A
(i) tan  + A  = = (provided tan A ≠ 1 )
4  1 − tan π tan A 1 − tan A
4
π
cot cot A − 1
π  4 cot A − 1
(ii) cot  + A  = = (only when cot A + 1 ≠ 0).
4  π cot A + 1
cot A + cot
4
cos 9 + sin 90
0
9. Problem: Prove that = cot 360 .
cos 90 − sin 90
cos 90 + sin 90
Solution: L.H.S. =
cos 90 − sin 90
1 + tan 90
= (on dividing numerator and denominator by cos 90 )
1 − tan 9 0

= tan ( 450 + 90 ) (by problem 8(i))

= tan 540 = tan (90 − 360 ) = cot 360 = R.H.S.
10. Problem: Show that cos 420 + cos 780 + cos1620 = 0 .
Solution: L.H.S. = cos (600 − 180 ) + cos (600 + 180 ) + cos (1800 − 180 )
= cos 600 cos180 + sin 600 sin180 + cos 600 cos180
− sin 600 sin180 − cos180
1
= 2 cos 600 cos180 − cos180 = 2. .cos180 − cos180 = 0 .
2
11. Problem: Express 3 sin θ + cos θ as a sine of an angle.
 3 1 
Solution: 3 sin θ + cos θ = 2  sin θ + cos θ 
 2 2
 
 254 Mathematics - IA

π π
= 2(cos sin θ + sin cos θ)
6 6
π
= 2 . sin (θ + ).
6
π π 3
12. Problem: Prove that sin2 θ + sin2 (θ + ) + sin2 (θ − ) = .
3 3 2
π π
Solution: L.H.S. = sin2 θ + sin2 (θ + ) + sin2 (θ − )
3 3
π π π π
= sin2 θ + (sin θ cos + cos θ sin )2 + (sin θ cos − cos sin θ)2
3 3 3 3
π π
= sin2 θ + 2 (sin2 θ cos2 + cos2 θ sin2 )
3 3
 1 3
= sin 2 θ + 2  sin 2 θ. + cos 2 θ. 
 4 4
1 3
= sin 2 θ + sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ
2 2
3 2 3 3
= sin θ + cos 2 θ = (sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ)
2 2 2
3
= = R.H.S.
2
π
13. Problem: If A, B, C are the angles of a triangle and if none of them is equal to , then prove that
2
(i) tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan C .
(ii) cot A cot B + cot B cot C + cot C cot A = 1 .
Solution
(i) Given A + B + C = π
⇒ A + B = π − C ⇒ tan ( A + B ) = tan (π − C )
tan A + tan B
⇒ = − tan C
1 − tan A tan B
⇒ tan A + tan B = − tan C (1 − tan A tan B) = − tan C + tan A tan B tan C
⇒ tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan C.
1
(ii) Replacing tan A by etc. in (i) above, we get
cot A
1 1 1 1
+ + =
cot A cot B cot C cot A . cot B cot C
⇒ cot A cot B + cot B cot C + cot C cot A = 1 .
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 255

14. Problem: Let ABC be a triangle such that cot A + cot B + cot C = 3 . Then prove that
ABC is an equilateral triangle.
Solution: Given that A + B + C = 1800 , by problem 13(ii),
we get ∑ cot A cot B = 1. Now
∑ (cot A − cot B ) = ∑ (cot A + cot 2 B − 2 cot A cot B)
2 2

= 2 cot 2 A + 2 cot 2 B + 2 cot 2 C − 2 cot A cot B − 2 cot B cot C − 2 cot C cot A

(on expanding)
= 2 {(cot A + cot B + cot C) 2
− 2cot A cot B − 2cot B cot C − 2cot C cot A }
− 2 (cot A cot B + cot B cot C + cot C cot A )
= 2 ( cot A + cot B + cot C ) − 6 (cot A cot B + cot B cot C + cot C cot A )
2

= 2 ⋅ 3 − 6.1 = 0
⇒ cot A = cot B = cot C
⇒ cot A = cot B = cot C =
3
3
=
1
3
(
since cot A + cot B + cot C = 3 )
π
⇒ A =B = C = (since each angle lies in the interval [0, π]).
3
15. Problem : Suppose x = tan A, y = tan B, z = tan C .
π
Suppose none of A, B, C, A − B, B − C, C − A is an odd multiple of .
2
 x− y  x− y
Then prove that ∑1 + x y = Π 
  1 + x y 
x− y tan A − tan B
Solution : Observe that = = tan ( A − B ) etc. ... (1)
1+ xy 1 + tan A tan B
Write P = A − B, Q = B − C, R = C − A. Then P + Q + R = 0.
⇒ P + Q = − R ⇒ tan (P + Q) = tan ( − R )
tan P + tan Q
⇒ = − tan R
1 − tan P. tan Q
⇒ tan P + tan Q = − tan R (1 − tan P tan Q )
= − tan R + tan P tan Q tan R
⇒ tan P + tan Q + tan R = tan P tan Q tan R
⇒ ∑ tan P = Π tan P
⇒ ∑ tan ( A − B ) = Π tan ( A − B )
 x−y   x−y 
⇒ ∑  =Π  from (1).
1 + x y  1 + x y 
 256 Mathematics - IA

6.2.10 Note
1. In problem 1, we obtained the trigonometric ratios of 750.
Since 150 = 900 − 750 and 1050 = 1800 − 750, we also get that
3 −1
(i) sin150 = cos 750 = .
2 2
3 +1
(ii) cos150 = sin 750 = .
2 2
1 1
(iii) tan150 = cot 750 = = = 2 − 3.
2+ 3
0
tan 75

(iv) cot150 = tan 750 = 2 + 3.

3 +1
(v) sin1050 = sin (1800 − 750 ) = sin 750 = .
2 2

(vi) cos1050 = − cos 750 = −

( ).
3 −1
2 2
(vii) tan1050 = − tan 750 = − 2 + 3 .( )
(viii) cot 1050 = − cot 750 = − (2 − 3 ) .

6.2.11 Extreme values of trigonometric functions

We have observed that, for any è ∈ R , − 1 ≤ sin è ≤ 1 .
π  π
Also we know that sin = 1 and sin  −  = − 1 . Hence the maximum and minimum values of
2  2
sin è are respectively 1 and − 1 as è ranges over R . Each of them is called an extreme value of
sin è . Similarly, the maximum and minimum values of cos è are respectively 1 and −1 over R .
6.2.12 Theorem
If a, b, c ∈ R such that a 2 + b 2 ≠ 0 , then the maximum and minimum values of

a sin x + b cos x + c are respectively c + a 2 + b 2 and c − a 2 + b 2 over R .

Solution: Define f ( x ) = a sin x + b cos x + c for all x∈R .

Put a = r cos è and b = r sin è where r = a 2 + b 2 . Then
f ( x ) = r cos è sin x + r sin è cos x + c
= r (cos è sin x + sin è cos x ) + c
= r sin (è + x ) + c ... (1)
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 257

We know that − 1 ≤ sin (è + x ) ≤ 1 . So that

− r ≤ r sin (è + x ) ≤ r
and hence c − r ≤ {c + r sin (è + x )} ≤ c + r from (1).
Hence the maximum and minimum values of f over R are respectively c + a 2 + b 2 and

c− a2 + b2 .

6.2.13 Note

From the above theorem, we get that the range of the function f is
c − a 2 + b2 , c + a 2 + b 2  (since f is “continuous” on R)
 

6.2.14 Example
Find the maximum and minimum values of

 π  π
(i) 3 sin x − 4 cos x (ii) cos  x +  + 2 2 sin  x +  − 3
 3  3
Solution

(i) From Theorem 6.2.12, we get that the maximum value of 3 sin x - 4 cos x is 9 + 16 = 5 and the
minimum value is − 9 + 16 = − 5 .

(ii) Again, from Theorem 6.2.12, we get that the maximum value of
π
cos α + 2 2 sin α − 3 (where α = x + ) is −3 + 1 + 8 = 0 and the minimum
3
value is −3 − 1 + 8 = − 6 .

Exercise 6(c)
I.1. Simplify the following
0 0 0 0
cot 550 cot 350 − 1
(i) cos 100 cos 40 + sin 100 . sin 40 (ii)
cot 550 + cot 350
π  π 
(iii) tan  + θ  . tan  − θ  (iv) tan 750 + cot 750
4  4 
(v) sin 11400 cos 3900 − cos 7800 sin 7500
2. Express

(i)
( 3 cos 250 + sin 250 ) as a sine of an angle.
2
258 Mathematics - IA

(ii) (cos θ − sin θ) as a cosine of an angle.

(iii) tan θ in terms of tan α, if sin (θ + α) = cos (θ + α).
cos110 + sin110
3. (i) If tan θ = and θ is in the third quadrant, find θ.
cos110 − sin110
5 4
(ii) If 00 < A, B < 900, such that cos A = and sin B = , find the value of sin (A − B).
13 5

(iii) What is the value of tan 200 + tan 400 + 3 tan200 tan 400 ?
(iv) Find the value of tan 560 − tan 110 − tan 560 tan 110.

sin(A+B) sin(A − B)
(v) Evaluate ∑ cos 2 A cos 2 B
; if none of cos A, cos B, cos C is zero.

sin(C − A)
(vi) Evaluate ∑ sin C sinA if none of sinA, sin B, sin C is zero.

4. Prove that
(i) cos 350 + cos 850 + cos 1550 = 0
(ii) tan 720 = tan 180 + 2 tan 540
−1
(iii) sin 7500 cos 4800 + cos 1200 cos 600 =
2
4π 4π
(iv) cos A + cos ( − A) + cos ( + A) = 0
3 3
2π 2π 3
(v) cos2θ + cos2( + θ) + cos2( − θ) =
3 3 2
5. Evaluate
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
(i) sin 82 − sin 22 cos 112 − sin 2 52
2 2 2
(ii)
2 2 2 2

2π A 2π A 0 0
(iii) sin  +  − sin  − 
1 1
8 2 8 2
(iv) cos 2 52 − sin 2 22 .
2 2
6. Find the minimum and maximum values of
(i) 3 cos x + 4 sin x (ii) sin 2x − cos 2x
7. Find the range of
(i) 7 cos x − 24 sin x + 5 (ii) 13 cos x + 3 3 sin x − 4
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 259

II.
−3 7 π π
1. (i) If cos α = and sin β = , where < α < π and 0 < β < , then find the values of
5 25 2 2
tan (α + β) and sin (α + β).
π 24 4
(ii) If 0 < A < B < and sin (A + B) = and cos (A − B) = , then find the value of tan 2A.
4 25 5
24 3
(iii) If A + B, A are acute angles such that sin (A + B) = and tan A = , then find the value of
25 4
cos B.
1 1
(iv) If tan α − tan β = m and cot α − cot β = n, then prove that cot(α − β) = − .
m n
7 4
(v) If tan(α − β) = and tan α = , where α and β are in the first quadrant prove that
24 3
α + β = π/2.
2. (i) Find the expansion of sin (A + B − C).

(ii) Find the expansion of cos (A − B − C).

3 5 16
(iii) In a ∆ABC, A is obtuse. If sin A = and sin B = , then show that sin C = .
5 13 65
sin(α + β) a + b
(iv) If = , then prove that a tan β = b tan α.
sin (α − β) a − b

III.
3π
1. (i) If A − B = , then show that (1 − tan A) (1 + tan B) = 2.
4
π π
(ii) If A + B + C = and if none of A, B, C is an odd multiple of , then prove that
2 2

(a) cot A + cot B + cot C = cot A cot B cot C

(b) tan A tan B + tan B tan C + tan C tan A = 1 and hence show that

cos (B + C)
(c) ∑ cos B cos C = 2.
2. (i) Prove that sin2α + cos2 (α + β) + 2 sinα sin β cos(α + β) is independent of α.
(ii) Prove that cos2 (α − β) + cos2β − 2 cos(α − β) cos α cos β is independent of β.
 260 Mathematics - IA

6.3 Trigonometric ratios of multiple and sub-multiple angles

In this section, we derive formulae for the trigonometric ratios of multiple angles 2A, 3A, ... in terms
A A
of those of A. Also we discuss about the trigonometric ratios of the sub-multiple angles , , .... of A.
2 3

6.3.1 Definition

If A is an angle, then its integral multiples 2A, 3A, 4A, ... are called “Multiple angles of
1 1
A” and the multiples of A by fractions like , , ... are called “submultiple” angles of A.
2 3

6.3.2 Theorem
Let A be any real number. Then

(i) sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A

(ii) cos 2 A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A

= 2 cos 2 A − 1
= 1 − 2sin 2 A
π
(iii) If A and 2A are not odd multiples of , then
2
2 tan A
tan 2 A =
1 − tan 2 A

(iv) If 2A is not an integral multiple of π , then

cot 2 A − 1
cot 2 A =
2 cot A

Proof: (i) We know that sin ( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B .

Hence, sin 2 A = sin ( A + A ) = sin A cos A + cos A sin A
= 2 sin A cos A .
(ii) Similarly, cos 2 A = cos ( A + A ) = cos A . cos A − sin A . sin A
= cos A − sin A .
2 2

= cos 2 A − (1 − cos 2 A ) = 2 cos 2 A − 1

= 2 (1 − sin 2 A ) − 1
= 1 − 2 sin 2 A .
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 261

tan A + tan A
(iii) tan 2 A = tan ( A + A ) =
1 − tan A . tan A
2 tan A
= .
1 − tan 2 A
cot A . cot A − 1 cot 2 A − 1
(iv) cot 2 A = cot ( A + A ) = = .
cot A + cot A 2 cot A
6.3.3 Theorem
π
For any real number A, which is not an odd multiple of ,
2
2 tan A 1 − tan 2 A
(i) sin 2 A = (ii) cos 2 A =
1 + tan 2 A 1 + tan 2 A
Proof
(i) From Theorem 6.3.2, sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A
2 sin A cos A
=
cos 2 A + sin 2 A
2 sin A cos A
cos 2 A 2 tan A
= = .
cos A + sin A
2 2
1 + tan 2 A
cos 2 A
(ii) Also, cos 2 A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A
cos 2 A − sin 2 A
cos 2 A − sin 2 A cos 2 A 1 − tan 2 A
= = = .
cos 2 A + sin 2 A cos 2 A + sin 2 A 1 + tan 2 A
cos 2 A
A
On replacing A by in the above Theorems 6.3.2, 6.3.3, we get
2
6.3.4 Corollary
A π
If is not an odd multiple of , then
2 2
A
2 tan
A A 2 .
(i) sin A = 2 sin cos =
2 2 1 + tan 2 A
2
A 2 A 2 A A
(ii) cos A = cos
2
− sin = 2 cos − 1 = 1 − 2 sin 2 .
2 2 2 2
 262 Mathematics - IA

A
1 − tan 2
= 2
2 A .
1 + tan
2
A π 2 tan A 2
(iii) If and A are not odd multiples of , then tan A = .
2 2 1 − tan 2 A 2

cot 2 A 2 − 1
(iv) If A is not an integral multiple of π, then cot A = .
2 cot A 2
Now, we derive formulae for sin 3A, cos 3A, tan 3A and cot 3A in the following.
6.3.5 Theorem
For any real number A,

(i) sin 3A = 3sin A − 4sin 3 A

(ii) cos 3A = 4 cos3 A − 3cos A

π 3 tan A − tan 3 A
(iii) If 3A is not an odd multiple of , then tan 3A =
2 1 − 3 tan 2 A

3cot A − cot 3 A
(iv) If 3A is not an integral multiple of π, then cot 3A =
1 − 3cot 2 A

Proof : (i) sin 3A = sin ( 2 A + A ) = sin 2 A cos A + cos 2 A sin A

= 2 sin A cos 2 A + (1 − 2 sin 2 A ) sin A
= 2 sin A (1 − sin 2 A ) + sin A − 2 sin 3 A
= 3sin A − 4sin 3 A .
(ii) cos 3A = cos ( 2 A + A ) = cos 2 A cos A − sin 2 A sin A
= ( 2 cos 2 A − 1) cos A − 2 sin 2 A cos A
= 2 cos3 A − cos A − 2 cos A (1 − cos 2 A )
= 4cos3 A − 3cos A .
π
(iii) Assume that A is not an odd multiple of . Then
2
tan 2A + tan A
tan 3A = tan ( 2A + A ) =
1 − tan 2A . tan A
2 tan A
+ tan A
1 − tan 2 A 2 tan A + tan A (1 − tan 2 A )
= =
1−
2 tan A
. tan A 1 − tan 2 A − 2 tan 2 A
1 − tan 2 A
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 263

3 tan A − tan 3A
= .
1 − 3 tan 2 A
cot 2 A cot A − 1
(iv) cot 3 A = cot ( 2 A + A ) =
cot A + cot 2 A
 cot 2 A − 1 
  cot A − 1
 2 cot A  cot 3 A − cot A − 2 cot A
= =
cot 2 A − 1 2 cot 2 A + cot 2 A − 1
cot A +
2 cot A
cot 3 A − 3 cot A 3cot A − cot 3 A
= =
3cot 2 A − 1 1 − 3cot 2 A
Another way of proving this result is
3
1−
1 1 − 3 tan A 2
cot 2 A cot A (cot 2 A − 3 )
cot 3A = = = =
tan 3A 3 tan A − tan 3 A 3
−
1 3cot 2 A − 1
cot A cot 3 A
3cot A − cot A3
= .
1 − 3cot 2 A

6.3.6 Note
1. It can be verified independently that the formula for tan 3A given in Theorem 6.3.5 (iii) above, remains
π
valid even when 2A is an odd multiple of .
2
2. Also, the formula for cot 3A given in Theorem 6.3.5 (iv) above remains valid even if 2A is an
integral multiple of π provided 3A is not an integral multiple of π. (That is, 2A is an odd integral
multiple of π)
A
On replacing A by in the above Theorem 6.3.5, we get the following
3
6.3.7 Corollary
If A is any real number, then
A A
(i) sin A = 3sin − 4 sin 3 .
3 3
3 A A
(ii) cos A = 4 cos − 3cos .
3 3
π 3 tan A/3 − tan 3 A/3
(iii) If A is not an odd multiple of , then tan A = .
2 1 − 3 tan 2 A/3
3cot A/3 − cot 3 A/3
(iv) If A is not an integral multiple of π, then cot A = .
1 − 3cot 2 A/3
 264 Mathematics - IA

6.3.8 Theorem
For any A ∈ R ,

1 − cos 2 A
(i) sin A = ±
2
1 + cos 2 A
(ii) cos A = ±
2
π 1 − cos 2 A
(iii) If A is not an odd multiple of , then tan A = ±
2 1 + cos 2 A
Proof
(i) We know that cos 2 A = 1 − 2sin 2 A.

1 − cos 2 A
So 2sin 2 A = 1 − cos 2 A and hence sin A = ± .
2
1 + cos2A
(ii) cos 2 A = 2cos2 A −1 ⇒ 2cos2 A =1 + cos 2 A ⇒ cosA = ± .
2
π
(iii) Assume that A is not an odd multiple of . Then
2
2sin 2 A 1 − cos 2A 1 − cos 2 A
tan A =
2
= ⇒ tan A = ± .
2 cos 2 A 1 + cos 2A 1 + cos 2 A
A
On replacing A by in Theorem 6.3.7, we get the following.
2

6.3.9 Corollary
For any real number A,
A 1 − cos A
(i) sin =±
2 2
A 1 + cos A
(ii) cos =±
2 2
A 1 − cos A
(iii) If A is not an odd multiple of π, then tan =±
2 1 + cos A
6.3.10 Example
5 −1 5 +1
Prove that (i) sin180 = (ii) cos 360 =
4 4
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 265

Solution : (i) Write A = 180 . Then 5 A = 900 .

Now 2 A = 900 − 3 A ⇒ sin 2 A = sin (900 − 3A) = cos 3 A

⇒ 2 sin A cos A = 4 cos3 A - 3cos A

(
⇒ 2sin A = 4cos 2 A - 3 since cos180 ≠ 0 )
(
⇒ 2sin A = 4 1 − sin 2 A − 3 )
⇒ 4 sin 2 A + 2 sin A − 1 = 0 .
This is a quadratic equation in sin A, so that
− b ± b 2 − 4 a c − 2 ± 4 + 16 −2 ± 2 5
sin A = = =
2a 8 8

−1± 5
=
4
Since A lies in first quadrant sin A > 0.
5 −1 5 −1
Therefore sin A = . That is, sin 180 = .
4 4
(ii) cos 36 = cos 2 A (where A = 180)
0

2
 5 − 1
= 1 − 2sin A = 1 − 2 
2
 (from (i) above)
 4 

= 1−
(
6−2 5
=
)
8 − 6 +2 5
=
5 +1
.
8 8 4
6.3.11 Example
Find the values of (i) sin 360 (ii) cos180

Solution: (i) sin 360 = 1 − cos 2 360 (we take positive square root because sin 360 > 0 )

 5 + 1
= 1 − 
2

= 1−
(6 + 2 5 )
10 − 2 5
 . =
 4  16 4
10 + 2 5
(ii) Similarly, we can prove that cos180 = 1 − sin 2 180 = .
4
6.3.12 Solved Problems
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
1. Problem: Find the values of (i) sin 22 (ii) cos 22 (iii) tan 22 (iv) cot 22 .
2 2 2 2
 266 Mathematics - IA

0
1
Solution: If A = 22 , then 2 A = 450 . Therefore, from Theorem 6.3.8, we get
2
1 - cos 2 A
(i) sin A = (since sin A > 0 )
2
1
1−
1 − cos 45 2−1
0 0
1 2 =
∴ sin 22 = = .
2 2 2 2 2

10 1 + cos 2 A 2 +1
(ii) cos 22 = = .
2 2 2 2
0

( )
1 2
1
0 sin 22
2 −1 2 −1
(iii) tan 22 = 2 = = = 2 − 1.
2 1
0
2 +1 2 −1
cos 22
2
0
1 1 1
(iv) cot 22 = = = 2 + 1.
2 −1
0
2 1
tan 22
2
2. Problem: Find the values of
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
(i) sin 67 (ii) cos 67 (iii) tan 67 (iv) cot 67
2 2 2 2
0 0
Solution: This is a direct consequence of problem 1 above since 67 1 = 900 − 22
1 .
2 2
1 − cos 2θ
3. Problem: Simplify .
sin 2θ
1 − cos 2θ 2sin 2 θ sin θ
Solution: = = = tan θ .
sin 2θ 2sin θ cos θ cos θ
2 +1
4. Problem: If cos A = , find the value of cos 2A.
2 2
 2 +1  2 +1 1
Solution: cos 2A = 2cos2A − 1 = 2   − 1 = −1 = .
 2 2  2 2
−5 π
5. Problem: If cos θ = and < θ < π, find the value of sin 2θ.
13 2
Solution: π < θ < π ⇒ sin θ > 0 and cos θ = − ⇒ sin θ =
5 12
2 13 13
∴ sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
12  −5  −120
= 2⋅  = .
13  13  169
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 267

2 tan x
6. Problem: For what values of x in the first quadrant is positive ?
1 − tan 2 x
2 tan x
Solution: > 0 ⇒ tan 2 x > 0
1 − tan 2 x
π
⇒ 0 < 2 x < (since x is in the first quadrant)
2
π
⇒ 0< x< .
4
−3 3π
7. Problem: If cos θ = and π < θ < , find the value of tan θ /2.
5 2

3
1+
θ 1 − cos θ 5 = +2 .
Solution: tan = ± =±
2 1 + cos θ 1−
3
5
3π π θ 3π
Given π < θ < ⇒ < <
2 2 2 4

⇒ tan θ/2 < 0

∴ tan θ/2 = −2.
π
8. Problem: If A is not an integral multiple of , prove that
2
(i) tan A + cot A = 2 cosec 2 A (ii) cot A − tan A = 2 cot 2 A
sin A cos A sin 2 A + cos 2 A
Solution: (i) tan A + cot A = + =
cos A sin A sin A cos A
1 2 2
= = = = 2 cosec 2 A.
sin A . cos A 2sin A cos A sin 2 A
1 1 − tan 2 A
(ii) cot A − tan A = − tan A = = 2 cot 2 A .
tan A tan A
π
9. Problem: If θ is not an integral multiple of , prove that
2
tan è + 2 tan 2 è + 4 tan 4 è + 8 cot 8 è = cot è
Solution: From problem 8(ii) above tan A = cot A − 2 cot 2 A ... (1)
Therefore, tan è + 2 tan 2è + 4 tan 4 è + 8 cot 8è
= (cot è − 2cot 2è ) + 2 (cot 2è − 2cot 4è ) + 4 (cot 4è − 2cot 8è ) + 8cot 8è (by (1) above)
= cot è .
 268 Mathematics - IA

10. Problem: For A∈R , prove that

π  π  1
(i) sin A sin  + A  sin  − A  = sin 3A
3  3  4
π  π  1
(ii) cos A cos  + A  cos  − A  = cos3A and hence deduce that
3  3  4
3
(iii) sin 20 sin 40 sin 60 sin 80 =
0 0 0 0
16
π 2π 3π 4π 1
(iv) cos cos cos cos = .
9 9 9 9 16
Solution
π  π 
(i) sin A . sin  + A  sin  − A
3  3 
 π 
= sin A .  sin 2 − sin 2 A  (from Theorem 6.2.7 (i)).
 3 

3  sin A (3 − 4sin 2 A )
= sin A  − sin A  =
2

4  4

=
1
4
( 3sin A − 4 sin 3 A ) = sin 3A .
1
4

π  π 
(ii) cos A cos  + A  cos  − A 
 3   3 
 π
= cos A  cos 2 A − sin 2  (from Theorem 6.2.7 (ii))
 3
3  cos A ( 4 cos A − 3)
2
 2
= cos A  cos A −  =
 4 4

= ( 4 cos3 A − 3cos A ) = cos 3 A .

1 1
4 4
(iii) Substituting A = 200 in (i) above, we get
sin 200 sin ( 600 + 200 ) sin (600 − 200 ) = sin 3 ( 200 )
1
4
1
sin 200 sin 800 sin 400 = sin 600
4
On multiplying both sides of the above equation by sin 600 , we get
1 2 0 1 3 3
sin 200 sin 400 sin 600 sin 800 = sin 60 = . =
4 4 4 16
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 269

Similarly, from (ii) above, we get

1
(iv) cos 20 0 cos 40 0 cos 80 0 = cos 60 0
4
On multiplying both sides by cos 600 , we get
1 1
cos 200 cos 400 cos 600 cos 800 =
cos 2 600 =
4 16
π 2π 3π 4π 1
That is, cos cos cos cos = .
9 9 9 9 16
π
11. Problem: If 3A is not an odd multiple of , prove that
2
tan A . tan (600 + A ) . tan (600 − A ) = tan 3 A
and hence find the value of tan 60 tan 420 tan 660 tan 780 .

Solution: From problems 10(i) and 10(ii) above, we have

sin A . sin (600 + A ) . sin (600 − A ) = sin 3A

1
... (1)
4

cos A . cos (600 + A ) . cos (600 − A ) =

1
cos 3 A ... (2)
4
On dividing (1) and (2), we get
tan A . tan (600 + A ) . tan (600 − A ) = tan 3 A ... (3)
Now, put A = 60 in (3), we get

tan 60 . tan 660 . tan 540 = tan180 ... (4)

Again on substituting A = 180 in (3) above, we get
tan180 . tan 780 . tan 420 = tan 540 ... (5)
On multiplying (4) and (5), we get
( tan 6 . tan 66 . tan 54 ) . ( tan18 . tan 78 . tan 42 ) = tan18 . tan 54
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Hence, we get tan 60 . tan 420 . tan 660 . tan 780 = 1 .

(α − β)
12. Problem: For α , β ∈ R , prove that (cos α + cos β ) + (sin α + sin β ) = 4 cos 2
2 2
.
2
Solution: (cos α + cos β ) + (sin α + sin β )
2 2

= cos 2 α + cos 2 β + 2 cos α cos β + sin 2 α + sin 2 β + 2sin α sin β

= 2 + 2 (cos α cos β + sin α sin β ) (since cos 2 α + sin 2 α = 1 = cos 2 β + sin 2 β )
 270 Mathematics - IA

= 2 (1 + cos (α − β ))
α − β 
= 2. 2 cos 2   (by from 6.3.2 (ii) )
 2 
α −β
= 4 cos 2 .
2
13. Problem: If a, b, c are nonzero real numbers and α , β are solutions of the equation

2b c c2 − a2
a cos è + b sin è = c then show that (i) sin α + sin β = and (ii) sin α . sin β = .
a + b2
2
a 2 + b2
Solution: a cos è + b sin è = c
⇒ a cos è = c − b sin è
⇒ a 2 cos 2 è = c 2 − 2 b c sin è + b 2 sin 2 è
⇒ a 2 (1 − sin 2 è ) = c 2 − 2 b c sin è + b 2 sin 2 è
⇒ ( a 2 + b 2 ) sin 2 è − 2 b c sin è + (c 2 − a 2 ) = 0 .

This is a quadratic equation in sin è , whose roots are sin α and sin β (since α , β are two
solutions of the given equation). Therefore,
2b c
sin α + sin β = sum of the roots =
a + b2
2

c2 − a2
sin α . sin β = product of the roots = 2 .
a + b2
π 1
14. Problem: If θ is not an odd multiple of and cos è ≠ − , prove that
2 2
sin è + sin 2è
= tan è .
1 + cos è + cos 2è
sin è + sin 2è sin è + 2sin è cos è
Solution: = (from Theorem 6.3.2)
1 + cos è + cos 2è cos è + 2 cos 2 è
sin è (1 + 2 cos è )
=
cos è (1 + 2 cos è )
sin è  1
=  since cos è ≠ −  = tan è .
cos è  2
4 π 3π 5π 7π 3
15. Problem: Prove that sin + sin 4 + sin 4 + sin 4 = .
8 8 8 8 2
π 3π 5π 7π
Solution: sin
4
+ sin 4 + sin 4 + sin 4
8 8 8 8
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 271

π π π  π π   π
= sin 4 + sin 4  −  + sin 4  +  + sin 4  π − 
8 2 8 2 8  8
π π π π
= sin 4 + cos 4 + cos 4 + sin 4
8 8 8 8
 π π
= 2 sin 4 + cos 4 
 8 8
 2 π π 
2π  π
( )
2

= 2  sin + cos  − 2sin 2 cos 2  since a 2 + b 2 = ( a + b ) − 2 a b

2

 8 8 8 8 

 π π
= 2  1 − 2sin 2 cos 2 
 8 8
π π π π
2

= 2 − 4sin cos 2 = 2 −  2sin cos 
2

8 8  8 8

 π
2
1 3
= 2 −  sin  =2 − = .
 4 2 2
16. Problem: If none of 2A and 3A is an odd multiple of π/2, then prove that
tan 3A tan 2A tan A = tan 3A − tan 2A − tan A .
tan 2 A + tan A
Solution: tan 3A = tan ( 2 A + A ) =
1 − tan A . tan 2 A
⇒ tan 3A (1 − tan A tan 2 A ) = tan 2A + tan A
⇒ tan 3A − tan A tan 2 A tan 3A = tan 2 A + tan A
⇒ tan 3 A − tan 2A − tan A = tan A tan 2 A tan 3 A .

Exercise 6(d)
sin 2θ 3cos θ + cos3θ
I. 1. Simplify (i) (ii)
1 + cos 2θ 3sin θ − sin 3θ
2. Evaluate the following
(i) 6 sin 200 − 8 sin3 200 (ii) cos2 720 − sin2 540 (iii) sin2 420 − sin2 120
sin 4θ
3. (i) Express in terms of cos3 θ and cos θ.
sin θ
(ii) Express cos6 A + sin6 A in terms of sin 2A.

1 − cos θ + sin θ
(iii) Express in terms of tan θ/2.
1 + cos θ + sin θ
272 Mathematics - IA

3 π
4. (i) If sin α = , where < α < π , evaluate cos 3α and tan 2α.
5 2
7 3π
(ii) If cos A =and < A < 2π , then find the value of cot A/2.
25 2
π
(iii) If 0 < θ < , show that 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 cos 4θ = 2 cos(θ / 2) .
8
5. Find the extreme values of (i) cos 2x + cos2 x. (ii) 3 sin2 x + 5 cos2 x
 π
6. If a ≤ cos θ + 3 2 sin  θ +  + 6 ≤ b , then find the largest value of a and smallest value of b.
 4
7. Find the periods for the following functions
 πx   πx 
(i) cos4 x (ii) 2sin   + 3cos   (iii) sin2 x + 2cos2 x
 4   3 
π  5sin x + 3cos x
(iv) 2sin  + x cos x (v)
4  4sin 2 x + 5cos x
II.
π 4
1. (i) If 0 < A < , and cos A = , find the values of sin 2A and cos 2A.
4 5
cot 3 A − 3cot A
(ii) For what values of A in the first quadrant, the expression is positive ?
3cot 2 A − 1
cos3A + sin 3A
(iii) Prove that = 1 + 2sin 2A .
cos A − sin A
π  cos 2θ
2. (i) Prove that cot  − θ  = and hence find the value of cot 150.
4  1 − sin 2θ
−4
(ii) If θ lies in third quadrant and sin θ = , find the values of cosec (θ/2) and tan (θ/2.)
5
12
(iii) If 4500 < θ < 5400 and sin θ = , then calculate sin (θ /2) and cos (θ /2).
13
1 1 4
(iv) Prove that 0
+ 0
= .
cos 290 3 sin 250 3
3. Prove that
sin 2A (1 − cos A) A
(i) . = tan .
(1 − cos2A) cos A 2
(ii) sin 2 x . sec 2 x = tan  x  .
(sec x + 1) (sec 2 x + 1) 2
(cos3 θ − cos 3θ) (sin 3 θ + sin 3θ)
(iii) + = 3.
cos θ sin θ
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 273

cos 3A
4. (i) Show that cos A = . Hence find the value of cos 150.
(2 cos 2A − 1)
sin 3A
(ii) Show that sin A = . Hence find the value of sin 150.
1 + 2 cos 2A
sin 2α 1
0
(iii) Prove that tan α = and hence deduce the values of tan 150 and tan 22 .
1 + cos 2α 2
5. Prove that
1 3
(i) − =4
sin10 cos100
0

(ii) 3 cosec 200 − sec 200 = 4

(iii) tan 90 − tan 270 − cot 270 + cot 90 = 4.
sin α cos α
(iv) If = , then prove that a sin2α + b cos 2α = b.
a b

A 5 B 20 C 2
6. (i) In a ∆ABC; if tan = and tan = , then show that tan   = .
2 6 2 37 2 5
5
(ii) If cos θ = and 2700 < θ < 3600, evaluate sin( θ/2) and cos (θ/2).
13
−4 θ θ
(iii) If 1800 < θ < 2700 and sin θ = calculate sin   and cos   .
5 2 2

π 3π 5π 7π
7. (i) Prove that cos
2
+ cos 2 + cos 2 + cos 2 =2.
8 8 8 8

4π 4  3π  4  5π  4  7π  3
(ii) Show that cos   + cos   + cos   + cos   = .
8  8   8   8  2
III.
 π  2π 
1. (i) If tan x + tan  x +  + tan  x +  = 3 , show that tan 3x = 1.
 3  3 

π 2π 3π 4π 5
(ii) Prove that sin .sin .sin .sin = .
5 5 5 5 16

2 π  2  2π  2  3π  2  9π 
(iii) Show that cos   + cos   + cos   + cos   = 2 .
 10   5   5   10 
 274 Mathematics - IA

2. Prove that
1 − sec8α tan 8α
(i) =
1 − sec 4α tan 2α
 π  3π   7π   9π  1
(ii)  1 + cos   1 + cos   1 + cos  1 + cos  = .
10 10 10 10 16
3. Prove that
2π 4π 8π 1
(i) cos .cos .cos = .
7 7 7 8
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 1
(ii) cos .cos .cos .cos .cos =
11 11 11 11 11 32
3 5
4. (i) If cos α = and cos β = and α, β are acute angles, then prove that
5 13
 α −β  1  α + β  16
(a) sin 2  = and (b) cos 2  =
 2  65  2  65

(ii) If A is not an integral multiple of π, prove that

sin16A
cos A. cos 2A . cos 4A. cos 8A = and hence deduce that
16sin A
2π 4π 8π 16π 1 .
cos .cos .cos .cos =
15 15 15 15 16

6.4 Sum and product transformations

Making use of the formulae of sin ( A + B) , sin ( A − B) , cos ( A + B) , cos ( A − B) etc., in this
section we give formulae to transform the sum (difference) of two trigonometric ratios into products and
vice-versa.

6.4.1 Theorem (Transformation of product into sum)

For A, B ∈ R we have
1. 2 sin A cos B = sin ( A + B ) + sin ( A − B )
2. 2 cos A sin B = sin ( A + B ) − sin ( A − B )
3. 2 cos A cos B = cos ( A + B ) + cos ( A − B )
4. 2 sin A sin B = cos ( A − B ) − cos ( A + B )
Proof : We know that, sin ( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B and
sin ( A − B ) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 275

On adding these identities, we get

sin ( A + B ) + sin ( A − B ) = 2sin A cos B . ... (1)
On subtracting, we get
sin ( A + B) − sin ( A − B) = 2 cos A sin B . ... (2)
Similarly, we have
cos ( A + B ) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
cos ( A − B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B .
On adding, these two identities, we get
cos ( A + B ) + cos ( A − B ) = 2 cos A cos B . ... (3)
On subtracting, we get
cos ( A + B ) − cos ( A − B ) = − 2sin A sin B (or)
cos ( A − B ) − cos ( A + B ) = 2sin A sin B. ... (4)

6.4.2 Note
The four identities in the above theorem can be remembered easily as follows
2 sin A cos B = sin (sum ) + sin (difference )
2 cos A sin B = sin (sum ) − sin (difference )
2 cos A cos B = cos (sum ) + cos (difference )
2 sin A sin B = cos (difference ) − cos (sum )
In the following theorem we give transformations from sum into products.

6.4.3 Theorem
For any two real numbers C and D, we have
C + D C − D
1. sin C + sin D = 2sin   cos  
 2   2 
C + D C − D
2. sin C − sin D = 2 cos   sin  
 2   2 
C + D C − D
3. cos C + cos D = 2 cos   cos  
 2   2 
C + D C − D
4. cos C − cos D = − 2sin   sin  
 2   2 
C +D C −D
Proof : Write A = and B = . Then A + B = C and A − B = D.
2 2
Now, we get, from Theorem 6.4.1, all the above 4 transformations.
 276 Mathematics - IA

6.4.4 Solved Problems

5 −1
1. Problem: Prove that sin 78 + cos 132 =
0 0
.
4
Solution: sin 780 + cos1320 = sin 780 + cos (900 + 420 )
780 + 420 780 − 420
= sin 78 − sin 42 = 2cos
0 0
sin
2 2
1 5 −1 5 −1
= 2 cos 600 sin180 = 2 ⋅ ⋅ = .
2 4 4
1
2. Problem: Prove that sin 210 cos 90 − cos 840 cos 60 = .
4
Solution: sin 21 cos 9 − cos84 cos 6
0 0 0 0

=
1
2
(
2sin 210 cos 90 − 2 cos (900 − 60 ) cos 60 )
=
1
2
( ( ) (
sin 210 + 90 + sin 210 − 90 − 2sin 60 cos 60 ) )
=
1
2
(
sin 300 + sin120 − sin120 ) = 12 sin 30 0
=
1.
4
3. Problem: Find the value of sin 340 + cos 640 − cos 40 .
0
(
Solution: sin 34 + cos 64 − cos 4
0 0
)
640 + 40 640 − 40
= sin 340 − 2 sin sin (by Theorem 6.4.3 (4))
2 2
= sin 34 − 2 . sin 34 . sin 30
0 0 0

1
= 0 (since sin 300 = ).
2
3
4. Problem: Prove that cos 76 + cos 16 − cos 76 cos 16 =
2 0 2 0 0 0
.
4
Solution: cos 2 760 + cos 2 160 − cos 760 cos 160

(
= cos 2 760 + 1 − sin 2 160 − ) 1
2
(
2 cos 760 cos160 )
( 1
= 1 + cos 2 760 − sin 2 160 −
2
) ( (
cos 760 + 160 + cos 760 − 160 ) ( ))
( ) (
= 1 + cos 76 + 16 cos 76 − 16 −
0 0 0 0 1
2
)
cos 920 + cos 600 ( )
1 1
= 1 + cos 920 cos 600 − cos 920 − cos 600
2 2
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 277

1 1 1 1
=1+ cos 920 − cos 920 − (since cos 600 = )
2 2 4 2
3
= .
4
5. Problem: If a, b ≠ 0 and sin x + sin y = a and cos x + cos y = b , find the values of
x+ y x− y
(i) tan , (ii) sin interms of a and b.
2 2
Solution
x + y x − y
(i) sin x + sin y = a ⇒ 2sin   cos  =a ... (1)
 2   2 
x + y x − y
cos x + cos y = b ⇒ 2 cos   cos  =b ... (2)
 2   2 
x +y a
On dividing (1) by (2), we get tan = .
2 b
(ii) First method
a 2 + b 2 = (sin x + sin y ) + (cos x + cos y )
2 2

= sin 2 x + sin 2 y + 2 sin x sin y + cos 2 x + cos 2 y + 2 cos x cos y

= 2 + 2 (cos x cos y + sin x sin y )
= 2 + 2 cos ( x − y )
a 2 + b2 − 2
∴ cos ( x − y ) =
2
x −y a 2 + b2 − 2 4 − a 2 − b2
Now 2sin 2   = 1 − cos ( x − y ) = 1 − =
 2  2 2
x − y 4−a −b2 2
⇒ sin   =± .
 2  2
Second method
From (1) and (2), we get
 x+ y  2  x − y 2  x + y 2  x −y
a 2 + b 2 = 4 sin 2   cos   + 4 cos   cos  
 2   2   2   2 
x − y  2 x +y x+ y
= 4 cos 2   sin + cos 2 
 2  2 2 
x − y
= 4 cos 2  
 2 
x − y a + b .
2 2
⇒ cos 2   =
 2  4
 278 Mathematics - IA

x − y 2  x − y a 2 + b2 4 − a 2 − b2
Now, sin 2   = 1 − cos   = 1 − =
 2   2  4 4

x − y 4 − a 2 − b2
Hence sin   =± .
 2  2
1
6. Problem: Prove that cos120 + cos840 + cos1320 + cos1560 = − .
2
Solution: cos120 + cos 840 + cos1320 + cos1560

( ) (
= cos120 + cos1320 + cos840 + cos1560 )
1320 + 120 1320 − 120 840 + 1560 1560 − 840
= 2 cos . cos + 2 cos cos
2 2 2 2
= 2 cos 720 . cos 600 + 2 cos1200 cos 360
1  1
= 2.sin180 . + 2  −  cos 360
2  2
 5 − 1  5 + 1 1
= sin180 − cos 360 =   −   = − .
 4   4  2
7. Problem: Show that, for any θ ∈ R ,
5è 3è
4 sin cos cos 3è = sin è − sin 2 è + sin 4 è + sin 7 è .
2 2
5è 3è  5è 3è 
Solution: 4 sin cos cos 3è = 2  2 sin cos  cos 3è
2 2  2 2 
= 2 (sin 4è + sin è ) cos3è
= 2sin 4è cos 3è + 2 cos 3è sin è
= sin ( 4 è + 3 è ) + sin ( 4è − 3è ) + sin (3è + è ) − sin (3è − è )
= sin 7 è + sin è + sin 4è − sin 2è .
8. Problem: If none of A, B, A + B is an integral multiple of π, then
1 − cos A + cos B − cos ( A + B ) A B
prove that = tan cot .
1 + cos A − cos B − cos ( A + B ) 2 2
Solution : 1 − cos A + cos B − cos (A + B) = 1 − c os ( A + B ) − (cos A − cos B )
A+B A+B A −B
= 2 sin 2 + 2 sin sin
2 2 2
A+B A+B A−B 
= 2sin  sin + sin 
2  2 2 
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 279

A+B A B
= 2 sin  2sin cos  ... (1)
2  2 2
Now, 1 + cos A − cos B − cos ( A + B )
= (1 − cos ( A + B )) + (cos A − cos B )
A+B A+B A−B
= 2 sin 2 − 2 sin sin
2 2 2
A+B A+B A−B 
= 2 sin  sin − sin 
2  2 2 
A + B  A B
= 2sin    2 cos sin  ... (2)
 2   2 2
From (1) and (2), we get that
 A +B A B
4 sin   . sin cos
1 − cos A + cos B − cos ( A + B )  2  2 2
=
1 + cos A − cos B − cos ( A + B )  A +B A B
4 sin   cos sin
 2  2 2
A B
= tan cot .
2 2
 π  π   π  1
9. Problem: For any α ∈R , prove that cos 2  α −  + cos 2  α +  − cos
2
α −  = .
 4  12   12  2

 π   π   π 
Solution: cos 2  α −  +  cos 2  α +  − cos
2
α −  
 4   12   12  

 π
1 + cos  2α − 
 2  π   π   π   π 
= + sin   α −  +  α +   ⋅ sin   α −  −  α +  
2  12   12    12   12  

1 + sin 2 α  π 1 1 1 1
= + sin 2 α .sin  −  = + sin 2 α − sin 2 α = .
2  6 2 2 2 2
π
10. Problem: Suppose (α − β ) is not an odd multiple of , m is a non zero real number such that
2
sin (α + β ) 1− m π  π 
m ≠ − 1 and = . Then prove that tan  − α  = m . tan  + β  .
cos (α − β ) 1+ m 4  4 

sin (α + β ) 1− m .
Solution: Given that =
cos (α − β ) 1+ m
280 Mathematics - IA

By using componendo and dividendo, we get

sin      cos     1 m 1 m 2 1
   (given that m  0 )
sin      cos (   ) 1  m  1  m  2 m m

 m sin      cos       sin      cos    

  
 m sin      sin       
 2 
  
  sin      sin       
 2 
     
    2         2    
 m . 2 sin   cos  
 2   2 
   
     
    2         2    
  2 cos   sin  
 2  2
 
   
       
 m. sin     . cos       cos     sin   
4   4 4   4

       
 m sin     . cos      cos     sin    
4   4  4   4 
(since cos     cos  and sin      sin  )
   
sin     sin    
 m. 4   4 
   
cos     cos    
4  4 

   
 m tan      tan    
4  4 .

Exercise 6(e)

I. 1. Prove that sin 500  sin 70 0  sin10 0  0 .

sin 70 0  cos 40 0 1
2. Prove that 0 0
 .
cos 50  sin 20 3
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 281

3. Prove that cos 550 + cos 650 + cos1750 = 0 .

( )
4. Prove that 4 cos 660 + sin 840 = 3 + 15 .
3 +1
5. Prove that cos 200 cos 400 − sin 50 sin 250 = .
4
3+ 5
6. Prove that cos 480 . cos120 = .
8
 2π   4π 
II. 1. Prove that cosè + cos  + è  + cos  + è = 0 .
 3   3 
2  π 2  π  2  π  1
2. Prove that sin  α −  + sin  α +  − sin  α −  = .
 4  12   12  2
1 1
3. If sin x + sin y = and cos x + cos y = , then show that
4 3
x+ y 3 7
(i) tan = (ii) cot ( x + y ) =
2 4 24
 π   5π 
4. If neither  A −  nor  A −  is an integral multiple of π, prove that
 12   12 
π  π  4cos 2 A
cot  − A  + tan  + A  = .
 12   12  1 − 2sin 2 A
5. Prove that 4 cos120 cos 480 cos 720 = cos 360 .
6. Prove that sin100 + sin 200 + sin 400 + sin 500 = sin 700 + sin 800 .

4 2 x− y x+ y
III. 1. If cos x + cos y = and cos x − cos y = , find the value of 14 tan + 5 cot .
5 7 2 2
2. If none of the denominators is zero, prove that
n n  n  A −B
 cos A + cos B   sin A + sin B  2 . cot   , if n is even
  +  =  2 
 sin A − sin B   cos A − cos B  
 0 , if n is odd
3. If sin A = sin B and cos A = cos B, then prove that A = 2 n π + B for some integer n.
α
4. If cos n α ≠ 0 and cos ≠ 0, then show that
2
sin ( n + 1)α − sin ( n − 1) α α
= tan .
cos ( n + 1) α + 2 cos n α + cos ( n − 1)α 2
α
5. If sec (è + α ) + sec (è − α ) = 2secè and cos α ≠ 1, then show that cos è = ± 2 cos .
2
 282 Mathematics - IA

π
6. If none of x, y, z is an odd multiple of and if
2
sin ( y + z − x ) , sin ( z + x − y ) , sin ( x + y − z ) are in A.P., then prove that
tan x, tan y, tan z are also in A.P.
7. If x, y, z are non zero real numbers and if
 2π   4π 
x cos è = y cos  è +  = z cos  è +  for some è∈R , then
 3   3 
show that xy + yz + zx = 0 .
π
8. If neither A nor A + B is an odd multiple of and if m sin B = n sin (2A + B), then prove that
2
( m + n ) tan A = ( m − n ) tan ( A + B) .
9. If tan ( A + B) = λ tan ( A − B) , then show that (λ + 1) sin 2 B = (λ −1) sin 2 A .

6.4.5 Identities
When A, B, C are 3 real numbers satisfying the conditions like A + B + C = 0 or
π
A+B+C = or A + B + C = π or A + B + C = 2 π etc., we prove some identities relating to the
2
trigonometric ratios of A, B, C.

1. If A, B, C are angles in a triangle, that is, if A + B + C = π, then we have the following identities.
A +B+C = π ⇒ A+B=π−C
( )
So that, sin ( A + B ) = sin 1800 − C = sin C . Similarly,

sin ( B + C ) = sin A and sin (C + A ) = sin B .

Also cos ( A + B ) = cos (π − C ) = − cos C . Similarly,

cos ( B + C ) = − cos A and cos (C + A) = − cos B.

π
2. If A + B + C = , then we have
2
π 
sin ( A + B ) = sin  − C  = cos C , similarly, we get
2 
sin ( B + C ) = cos A; sin (C + A ) = cos B; cos ( A + B ) = sin C;

cos ( B + C ) = sin A; cos (C + A ) = sin B .

Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 283

3. If A + B + C = π, then A + B + C = π and hence we get that

2 2 2 2

 A +B  π C C
sin   = sin  −  = cos . Similarly,
 2  2 2 2

B + C A C+A B A+B C
sin   = cos ; sin = cos ; cos = sin
 2  2 2 2 2 2

B + C A C + A B
cos   = sin ;cos   = sin .
 2  2  2  2
4. If A + B + C = 0 , then

sin ( A + B) = sin ( − C) = − sin C . Similarly, we get

sin ( B + C) = − sin A and sin (C + A ) = − sin B

Again, cos ( A + B) = cos ( − C ) = cos C . Similarly,

cos ( B + C ) = cos A and cos (C + A ) = cos B

We make use of all these identities in the following.

6.4.6 Solved Problems

1. Problem: If A, B, C are the angles of a triangle, prove that

(i) sin 2 A + sin 2 B + sin 2 C = 4 sin A sin Bsin C .

(ii) sin 2 A + sin 2 B − sin 2 C = 4 cos A cos Bsin C .

Solution
(i) sin 2A + sin 2 B + sin 2 C

= 2sin ( A + B ) cos ( A − B ) + 2sin C cos C

= 2sin C cos ( A − B ) + 2 sin C cos C (since sin (A + B) = sin C)

= 2sin C {cos ( A − B ) + cos C}

= 2sin C {cos ( A − B ) − cos ( A + B )} (since cos (A + B) = − cos C)

= 2 sin C ( 2sin A sin B )

= 4 sin A sin B sin C .

 284 Mathematics - IA

(ii) sin 2 A + sin 2 B − sin 2 C

= 2sin ( A + B ) cos ( A − B ) − 2sin C cos C
= 2sin C cos ( A − B ) − 2 sin C cos C

= 2 sin C {cos ( A − B ) − cos C}

= 2 sin C {cos ( A − B ) + cos ( A + B )}

= 2 sin C {2 cos A cos B}

= 4 cos A cos Bsin C .
2. Problem : If A, B, C are angles of a triangle, prove that
(i) cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2 C = − 4 cos A cos Bcos C −1 .
(ii) cos 2 A + cos 2 B − cos 2 C = 1 − 4 sin A sin B cos C .
Solution
(i) cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2 C
= 2 cos ( A + B ) cos ( A − B ) + 2 cos 2 C −1
= − 2 cos C cos ( A − B ) + 2 cos 2 C − 1 (since cos (A + B) = −cos C)
= − 2 cos C {cos ( A − B ) − cos C} − 1

= − 2 cos C {cos ( A − B ) + cos ( A + B )} −1

= − 2 cos C ( 2 cos A cos B ) − 1 = − 4 cos A cos B cos C − 1 .
(ii) cos 2 A + cos 2 B − cos 2 C

(
= 2 cos ( A + B ) cos ( A − B ) − 2cos 2 C − 1 )
= 1 − 2cosCcos ( A − B) − 2cos2 C
= 1 − 2cos C (cos ( A − B) + cos C )
= 1− 2 cos C{cos ( A − B) − cos ( A + B)}

= 1 − 2cos C ( 2sin Asin B)

= 1 − 4 sin Asin B cos C .

3. Problem : If A, B, C are angles in a triangle, then prove that
A B C
(i) sin A + sin B + sin C = 4 cos cos cos .
2 2 2
A B C
(ii) cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 + 4 sin sin sin .
2 2 2
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 285

Solution
(i) sin A + sin B + sin C
A + B  A −B C C
= 2 sin   cos   + 2sin cos
 2   2  2 2
C  A −B C C A + B C
= 2 cos cos   + 2sin cos (since sin   = cos )
2  2  2 2  2  2
C   A −B C
= 2 cos cos   + sin 
2   2  2

C  A − B A + B  A + B C
= 2 cos cos   + cos    (since cos  2  = sin 2 )
2   2   2   

C  A B
= 2cos  2cos cos 
2  2 2
A B C
= 4 cos cos cos .
2 2 2
(ii) cos A + cos B + cos C
 A +B  A −B 2 C
= 2 cos   cos   + 1 − 2sin
 2   2  2
C  A −B 2 C
= 1 + 2sin cos   − 2sin
2  2  2
C   A −B C
= 1 + 2 sin cos   − sin 
2   2  2

C   A−B  A + B 
= 1 + 2 sin cos   − cos  
2   2   2 
C  A B
= 1 + 2sin  2 sin sin 
2  2 2
A B C
= 1 + 4 sin sin sin .
2 2 2

π
4. Problem: If A + B + C = , then show that
2
(i) sin2A + sin2B + sin2C = 1 − 2 sin A sin B sin C.
(ii) sin 2 A + sin 2 B + sin 2 C = 4 cos A cos B cos C .
 286 Mathematics - IA

Solution
(i) sin 2 A + sin 2 B + sin 2 C

=
1
2
{
2sin 2 A + 2sin 2 B + 2sin 2 C }
1
= {1 − cos 2 A + 1 − cos 2 B + 1 − cos 2 C}
2

=
1
2
{3 − (cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2C)}
=
1
2
{3 − (1 + 4sin A sin B sin C)} (from problem 3(ii) since 2 A + 2 B + 2 C = π )
1
= ( 2 − 4sin A sin B sin C )
2
= 1 − 2 sin A sin B sin C .

(ii) since 2 A + 2 B + 2 C = π, from problem 3(i), we get

sin 2 A + sin 2 B + sin 2 C = 4 cos A cos B cos C .

3π
5. Problem: If A + B + C = , prove that
2

cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2 C = 1 − 4 sin A sin B sin C .

Solution: cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2 C
= 2 cos ( A + B ) cos ( A − B ) + 1 − 2sin 2 C

= 2 ( − sin C ) cos (A − B) + 1 − 2 sin 2 C

3π
(since cos(A + B) = cos ( − C) = − sin C)
2
= 1 − 2 sin C {cos ( A − B ) + sin C}

= 1 − 2 sin C {cos ( A − B ) − cos ( A + B )} (as above)

= 1 − 2sin C ( 2 sin A sin B ) = 1 − 4 sin A sin B sin C .

6. Problem: If A, B, C are angles of a triangle , then prove that
A B C A B C
sin 2 + sin 2 − sin 2 = 1 − 2 cos cos sin .
2 2 2 2 2 2
A B C
Solution: sin 2 + sin 2 − sin 2
2 2 2
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 287

1  2 A B C
= 2sin + 2sin 2 − 2sin 2 
2  2 2 2

=
1
2
{ (1 − cos A ) + (1 − cos B) − (1 − cos C )}
=
1
2
{1 − (cos A + cos B ) + cos C}
1  A+B A−B C 
= 1 − 2 cos cos + 1 − 2sin 2 
2  2 2 2 
1  C A−B C  A+B C
= 2 − 2 sin cos − 2sin 2   since cos = sin 
2  2 2 2  2 2
C  A−B C
= 1 − sin  cos + sin 
2  2 2
C  A−B A + B
= 1 − sin  cos + cos  (as above)
2  2 2 
C A B A B C
= 1 − sin  2 cos cos  = 1 − 2 cos cos sin .
2  2 2 2 2 2
7. Problem: If A, B, C are the angles in a triangle , then prove that
A B C π −A π −B π −C.
sin + sin + sin = 1 + 4 sin sin sin
2 2 2 4 4 4
A B C
Solution: sin + sin + sin
2 2 2
A + B A − B A + B  A+ B C
= 2 sin   cos   + cos    since cos = sin 
 4   4   2   2 2
A + B A − B 2 A + B
= 2 sin   cos   + 1 − 2 sin  
 4   4   4 
A + B  A − B  A + B 
= 1 + 2 sin    cos   − sin  
 4   4   4 
π − C  A−B π A + B 
= 1 + 2 sin    cos − cos  − 
 4  4 2 4 
π −C π −B  A − π 
= 1 + 2 sin  −2 sin sin  
4  4  4 
π − A  π − B π − C
= 1 + 4 sin   sin   sin  .
 4   4   4 
 288 Mathematics - IA

8. Problem: If A + B + C = 0 , then prove that

cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2 C = 1 + 2 cos A cos B cos C .
Solution: cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2 C

=
(1 + cos 2A ) + (1 + cos 2B) + (1 + cos 2C )
2 2 2
1
= {3 + cos 2A + cos 2B + cos 2C}
2

=
1
2
{
3 + 2 cos ( A + B ) cos ( A − B ) + 2 cos 2 C − 1}
=
1
2
{2 + 2cos C . cos ( A − B ) + 2 cos 2 C }
(since cos ( A + B ) = cos ( −C ) = cos C)
= 1 + cos C (cos ( A − B ) + cos C )
= 1 + cos C {cos ( A − B ) + cos ( A + B )}
= 1 + cos C ( 2 cos A cos B )
= 1 + 2 cos A cos B cos C .
9. Problem: If A + B + C = 2S , then prove that

A B C
cos (S − A ) + cos (S − B ) + cos (S − C ) + cosS = 4 cos cos cos .
2 2 2

Solution: cos (S − A ) + cos (S − B ) + cos (S − C ) + cosS

 2S − A − B  B − A 2S − C  −C 
= 2 cos   cos   + 2 cos . cos  
 2   2  2  2 

C B− A  A +B  C
= 2cos cos   + 2cos   cos (since 2 S − C = A + B)
2  2   2  2

C  A − B  A + B 
= 2 cos cos   + cos  
2   2   2 

C  A B
= 2 cos  2 cos cos 
2  2 2

A B C
= 4 cos cos cos .
2 2 2
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 289

Exercise 6(f )
I. 1. If A, B, C are angles in a triangle, then prove that
(i) sin 2A − sin 2B + sin 2C = 4 cos A sin B cos C.
(ii) cos 2A − cos 2B + cos 2C = 1 − 4 sin A cos B sin C.
2. If A, B, C are angles in a triangle, then prove that
A B C
(i) sin A + sin B − sin C = 4 sin sin cos .
2 2 2
A B C
(ii) cos A + cos B − cos C = − 1 + 4 cos cos sin .
2 2 2
3. If A, B, C are angles in a triangle, then prove that

(i) sin 2 A + sin 2 B − sin 2 C = 2 sin A sin B cos C .

(ii) cos 2 A + cos 2 B − cos 2 C = 1 − 2 sin A sin B cos C .
4. If A + B + C = π, then prove that
A B C  A B C
(i) cos 2 + cos 2 + cos 2 = 2  1 + sin sin sin  .
2 2 2  2 2 2
2 A B C A B C
(ii) cos + cos 2 − cos 2 = 2 cos cos sin .
2 2 2 2 2 2
5. In triangle ABC, prove that
A B C ð−A ð −B ð−C
(i) cos + cos + cos = 4 cos cos cos
2 2 2 4 4 4
A B C ð+A ð +B ð−C
(ii) cos + cos − cos = 4 cos cos cos
2 2 2 4 4 4
A B C ð−A ð −B ð−C
(iii) sin + sin − sin = − 1 + 4 cos cos sin
2 2 2 4 4 4
π
6. If A + B + C = , then prove that cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2 C = 1 + 4 sin A sin Bsin C .
2
3π
7. If A + B + C = , then prove that
2
(i) cos 2 A + cos 2 B − cos 2C = − 2 cos A cos B sin C .
(ii) sin 2 A + sin 2 B − sin 2 C = − 4 sin A sin B cos C .
8. If A + B + C = 0, then prove that
(i) sin 2 A + sin 2 B + sin 2 C = − 4 sin A sin B sin C .
A B C
(ii) sin A + sin B − sin C = − 4 cos cos sin .
2 2 2
 290 Mathematics - IA

9. If A + B + C + D = 2π, then prove that

A+B A +C A +D .
(i) sin A − sin B + sin C − sin D = − 4 cos sin cos
2 2 2
(ii) cos2A +cos 2B +cos2C +cos 2D = 4 cos ( A + B) cos ( A + C) cos ( A + D) .

10. If A + B + C = 2S, then prove that

S−A S−B C
(i) sin (S − A ) + sin (S − B ) + sin C = 4 cos cos sin .
2 2 2
S−A S−B C
(ii) cos (S − A ) + cos (S − B ) + cos C = − 1 + 4 cos cos cos .
2 2 2

Key Concepts
L For any angle θ, cos 2 è + sin 2 è = 1 .
L If cos è ≠ 0, then 1 + tan 2 è = sec 2 è or tan 2 è = sec 2 è − 1 .
L If sin è ≠ 0 , then 1 + cot 2 è = cosec 2è or cot 2 è = cosec 2è − 1 .
L The trigonometric ratios that are positive in different quadrants are given by
Quadrant : I II III IV
Trigonometric : All sine tangent cosine
ratio that is +ve
Remember : All Silver Tea Cups

L sin ( − è ) = − sin è ; cos ( − è ) = cos è ; tan ( − è ) = − tan è.

L All trigonometric functions are periodic.

The period of f ( x ) = sin x is 2 π .
The period of f ( x ) = cos x is 2 π .
The period of f ( x ) = tan x is π .
L If y = f ( x ) is a periodic function with period k, then g ( x ) = f ( a x + b ) is a periodic function
k
with period .
a
L If y = f ( x ) , y = g ( x) are periodic functions with l, m as the periods respectively, then for
a, b ∈ R , the function h, defined by

h (x) = a f (x) + b g (x)

is a periodic function and the l.c.m of {l, m} (if exists) is a period of h.
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 291

L (i) The range of sin x or cos x is [−1, 1].

(ii) The range of tan x or cot x is R.
(iii) The range of sec x or cosec x is ( − ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) .
 L For any two angles A, B
sin ( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin ( A − B ) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
cos ( A + B ) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
cos ( A − B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
π
 L If none of A, B, A + B, A − B is an odd multiple of , then
2
tan A + tan B .
tan ( A + B ) =
1 − tan A tan B
tan A − tan B .
tan ( A − B ) =
1 + tan A tan B
L If none of A, B, A + B, A − B is an integral multiple of π, then
cot A cot B − 1 .
cot ( A + B ) =
cot B + cot A
cot A cot B + 1 .
cot ( A − B ) =
cot B − cot A
 L If A, B, C∈R
sin ( A + B + C ) = ∑ (sin A cos B cos C) − sin A sin B sin C .
cos ( A + B + C ) = cos A cos B cos C − ∑ (cos A sin B sin C ).
ð
 L If none of A, B, A + B + C is an odd multiple of and at least one of
2
ð
A + B, B + C, C + A is not an odd multiple of , then
2

tan ( A + B + C ) = ∑ ( tan A ) − Π tan A .

1 − ∑ ( tan A tan B )

 L If none of A, B, C, A + B + C is an integral multiple of π and at least one of

B + C, C + A, A + B is not an integral multiple of π, then

cot ( A + B + C ) =
∑ (cot A ) − Π (cot A ) .
1 − ∑ (cot A cot B )
 292 Mathematics - IA

 L For any A ∈R ,
2 tan A
(i) sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A = .
1 + tan 2 A
(ii) cos 2 A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A = 2 cos 2 A − 1
1 − tan 2 A .
= 1 − 2sin 2 A =
1 + tan 2 A
ð 2 tan A .
(iii) If A and 2A are not odd multiples of , then tan 2 A =
2 1 − tan 2 A

cot 2 A − 1 .
(iv) If 2A is not an integral multiple of π, then cot 2 A =
2cot A
L For any A ∈ R ,
(i) sin 3 A = 3sin A − 4 sin 3 A .
(ii) cos 3 A = 4 cos3A − 3cos A .
ð 3 tan A − tan 3A
(iii) If 3A is not an odd multiple of , then tan 3A = .
2 1 − 3 tan 2 A

3cot A − cot 3A
(iv) If 3A is not an integral multiple of π, then cot 3A = .
1 − 3cot 2 A
 L For any A ∈ R ,
1 − cos 2 A
(i) sin A = ± .
2
1 + cos 2 A
(ii) cos A = ± .
2
ð 1 − cos 2 A .
(iii) If A is not an odd multiple of , then tan A = ±
2 1 + cos 2 A
 L For any A ∈ R ,
A 1 − cos A A 1 + cos A
(i) sin =± (ii) cos =± .
2 2 2 2
A 1 − cos A .
(iii) If A is not an odd multiple of π, then tan = ±
2 1 + cos A
 L Transformations from product to sums are
(i) 2sin A cos B = sin ( A + B ) + sin ( A − B)
(ii) 2 cos A sin B = sin ( A + B ) − sin ( A − B )
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 293

(iii) 2 cos A cos B = cos ( A + B ) + cos ( A − B )

(iv) 2sin A sin B = cos ( A − B ) − cos ( A + B )
L Transformations from sums to products are
 C +D   C −D .
(i) sin C + sin D = 2 sin   cos  
 2   2 
 C +D   C −D 
(ii) sin C − sin D = 2 cos   sin  .
 2   2 
 C +D   C −D 
(iii) cos C + cos D = 2 cos   cos  .
 2   2 
 C +D   C −D 
(iv) cos C − cos D = − 2 sin   sin  .
 2   2 
 L If A + B + C = π, then
(i) sin 2 A + sin 2 B + sin 2 C = 4 sin A sin B sin C .
(ii) sin 2 A + sin 2 B − sin 2 C = 4 cos A cos B sin C .
(iii) cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2 C = − 1 − 4 cos A cos B cos C .
(iv) cos 2 A + cos 2 B − cos 2 C = 1 − 4 sin A sin B cos C .
A B C
(v) sin A + sin B + sin C = 4 cos cos cos .
2 2 2
A B C
(vi) sin A + sin B − sin C = 4 sin sin cos .
2 2 2
A B C
(vii) cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 + 4 sin sin sin .
2 2 2
A B C
(viii) cos A + cos B − cos C = − 1 + 4 cos cos sin .
2 2 2
A B C π −A π −B π −C
(ix) sin + sin + sin = 1 + 4 sin . sin . sin .
2 2 2 4 4 4
A B C π −A π −B π −C
(x) sin + sin − sin = 1 + 4 cos cos sin .
2 2 2 4 4 4
A B C π −A π −B π −C
(xi) cos + cos + cos = 4 cos cos cos .
2 2 2 4 4 4
A B C π +A π +B π −C
(xii) cos + cos − cos = 4 cos cos cos .
2 2 2 4 4 4
294 Mathematics - IA

Historical Note
In early Indian mathematics, trigonometry formed an integral part of Astronomy. References to
trigonometric concepts are found in ‘Surya Siddhanta’, Varahamihira’s (505 - 587) ‘Pancha Siddantika’
and Brahmagupta’s (628 A.D.) ‘Brahmasphuta Siddhanta’. A detailed and systematic study on the
subject was made by ‘Bhaskaracharya’ (12th century A.D.) in his ‘Siddhanta Siromani’.
Aryabhatta and Varahamihira were great astronomers and mathematicians of his times in India.
Varahamihira’s ‘Pancha Siddhantika’ is a monumental work in astronomy. It gives the description of
the five siddhantas namely, Paulisa, Romaka, Vasista, Soura and Paitamaha of earlier period. His
knowledge of trigonometry was amazing. Several of his formulas are the standard results that we find
in modern trigonometry. The technical terms he used for various trigonometric functions are very
interesting and highly meaningful. His magnum opus is the well known “Brihat Samhita”. Besides
being a mathematician - astronomer he was equally a great hydrologist and was an expert in locating the
ground water deposits.

Answers
Exercise 6(a)
I. 1. (i) tan θ (ii) tan θ (iii) − cosecθ (iv) sec θ
1
2. (i) − (ii) 0 (iii) 2 (iv) 1
2
1 ( 3 + 1)
3. (i) 2 (ii) (iii) 0 (iv) (a) 2, (b)
2 2

2 2 − 1− t2
4. (i) and −2 2 (ii) (a) − 1 − t 2 (b)
3 t
−4
(iii) 1 (iv) , 2nd quadrant
5

12
5. (i) 2 (ii) 1st quadrant and
13
2 2a 2 − b 2 2
II. 2. (i) (iii) 3. (i)
3 b2 3
III. 2. (iv) x
Trigonometric Ratios upto Transformations 295

2/3 2/3 1/ 2 1/ 2
x  y x  y
3. (i)   +  =1 (ii)   +  =1
a b a b
(iii) xy = ab; (iv) ( x 2 y ) 2 / 3 − ( xy 2 ) 2 / 3 = 1

Exercise 6(b)

2π π 5π
I. 1. 2. 3.
3 5 2
6π
4. π 5. 6. sin 3πx
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
2π
7. cos x
7

Exercise 6(c)

1
I. 1. (i) (ii) 0 (iii) 1 (iv) 4
2
1
(v)
2
 π 1 − tan α
2. (i) sin 850 (ii) 2 cos  θ +  (iii)
 4 1 + tan α

16
3. (i) 2360 (ii) (iii) 3
65
(iv) 1 (v) 0 (vi) 0

3+ 3 −( 3 + 1) 1 3− 3
5. (i) (ii) (iii) sin A (iv)
4 2 4 2 2 4 2

6. (i) −5 and + 5 (ii) − 2 and + 2

7. (i) [−20, 30] (ii) [−18, 10]

−3 3 3 4
II. 1. (i) and (ii) (iii)
4 5 4 5
2. (i) sin A cos B cos C + cos A sin B cos C − cos A cos B sin C + sinA sin B sin C
(ii) cosA cosB cosC + sinA sinB cos C + sinA cos B sinC − cos A sinB sinC
 296 Mathematics - IA

Exercise 6(d)
I. 1. (i) tan θ (ii) cot3θ

5 ( 5 + 1)
2. (i) 3 (ii) − (iii)
4 8

3 2
3. (i) (8 cos3 θ − 4 cos θ) (ii) 1 − sin 2A (iii) tan (θ/2)
4

44 24 −4
4. (i) ,− (ii)
125 7 3

5. (i) −1 and 2 (ii) 3 and 5

6. a = 1 and b = 11

7. (i) π (ii) 24 (iii) π

(iv) π (v) 2π

24 7
II. 1. (i) , (ii) 0 < A < π/6 or π/3 < A < π/2
25 25
5 −3 −2
2. (i) 2 + 3 (ii) , −2 (iii) ,
2 13 13

3 +1 3 −1
4. (i) (ii) (iii) (2 − 3), ( 2 −1)
2 2 2 2
2 −3 2 −1
6. (ii) , (iii) ,
13 13 5 5

Exercise 6 (e)
III. 1. 0
 Trigonometric Equations 297

“Brahmagupta was the first Indian writer, so far

as we know, who applied algebra to astronomy to
a great extent”
− D.E. Smith

Introduction
In earlier classes, we have solved equations
f ( x ) = 0 such as ax + b = 0 ( a ≠ 0 ) , ax2 + bx+ c = 0
(a ≠ 0) etc. A solution for the equation f (x) = 0 means
a number x0 that satisfies the given equation. That is,
f ( x0 ) = 0 . In this chapter, we solve equations involving
Brahmagupta
the trigonometric functions like (598−668)
(598−
Brahmagupta was born in
4 sin2 x − 3 sin x − 1 = 0 Bhinmal city in the state of
Rajasthan. Brahmasphuta
3 tan2 x + 4 tan x − 7 = 0 Siddhanta is his most famous
work. He lived and worked in the
great astro nomical centre of
ancient India - Ujjain. He made
significant contributions to
Trigonometry.
 298 Mathematics - IA

7.1 General solutions of trigonometric equations

In this section we derive general solution of simple trigonometric equations like sin x = k, cos x = k
etc.
7.1.1 Definition
An equation consisting of the trigonometric functions of a variable angle θ ∈ R is called a
‘trigonometric equation’.

7.1.2 Definition
The values of the variable angle θ, that is any number θ, satisfying the given trigonometric
equation is called a ‘solution’ of the equation. The set of all solutions of a trigonometric equation
is called the ‘solution set’ of the equation. A ‘general solution’ of the equation is an expression of
the form θ0 + f (n) where θ0 is a particular solution and f (n) is a function of n ∈ Z involving
π.

7.1.3 Example
1 π 5π 13π
The equation sin θ = has a solution θ = . But θ = , ... are also solutions of this
2 6 6 6
π 5π
or 2 n π +
equation. The general solution is è = 2 n π + ( n ∈ Z ). If θ is a solution of a trigonometric
6 6
equation, then 2 n π + θ (n ∈ Z) is also a solution of the same equation since 2π is a period of all
trigonometric functions.
Now we define the concept of the principal solution and give formula (or method) to find general
solution of trigonometric equations.

7.1.4 Definition
(a) The function f (x) = sin x has domain R and range [−1, 1]. But if we define the function
 π π
f :  − ,  → [− 1, 1] by f (x) = sin x, then f is a bijection. Hence, for each k∈ [−1, 1],
 2 2
 −π π   −π π 
there exists unique θ ∈  ,  such that sin θ = k. This θ ∈  ,  is called the
 2 2  2 2
‘principal solution’ of the equation sin x = k. If k ∈ R [−1, 1], then the equation sin x = k

has no solution.
 Trigonometric Equations 299

3 π
For example, the equation sin x = has principal solution x = and the equation
2 3
−1 −π
sin x = has principal solution x = whereas the equation sin x = 2 has no solution.
2 6
Now we give the definitions of principal solutions of other trigonometric functions in the following.

(b) Cosine function is a bijection from [0, π] onto [−1, 1]. Hence for k ∈ [ − 1, 1], there exists
unique α ∈ [0, π ] such that cos α = k. This ‘α’ is called the ‘principal solution’ of the
equation cos x = k.

 π π
(c) The tangent function is a bijection from  − ,  onto R so that, for any
 2 2
 π π 
k ∈ R , the unique α ∈  − ,  such that tan α = k is the ‘principal solution’ of the
 2 2
equation tan x = k.
1 1
(d) If k ≠ 0, cot x = k if and only if tan x = and in this case tan x = has a solution.
k k
1
Therefore, when k ≠ 0, these two equations (cot x = k; tan x = ) have same solution set.
k
But the principal solution of the equation cot x = k is the unique real number α ∈ (0, π )
such that cot α = k.
1
(e) Sec x = k iff cos x = . The second equation has a solution if and only if k ≥ 1 . In this case,
k
1
the solution set of sec x = k is the same as the solution set of cos x = . The principal solution
k
1
of cos x = may be referred to as the principal solution of sec x = k.
k
1
(f) Cosec x = k if and only if sin x = . The second equation has a solution if and only if
k
1
k ≥ 1 . The solution set of cosec x = k is the same as the solution set of sin x = . The
k
1
principal solution of sin x = may be referred to as the principal solution of cosec x = k.
k

7.1.5 General solution of the equations sin x = 0, cos x = 0 and tan x = 0

 π π
(i) If θ ∈  − ,  , then sin θ = 0 if and only if θ = 0. Hence the principal solution of sin x = 0 is 0.
 2 2
Let θ be any real number such that sin θ = 0. Then there exists an integer k such that
 300 Mathematics - IA

  è  è 
2 k π ≤ è < 2 ( k + 1) π  Here k =   , the integral part of 
  2π  2π 

That is, 0 ≤ è − 2k π < 2π .

Since θ and θ − 2 k π are coterminal angles, we get
0 = sin θ = sin (θ − 2 k π).
Hence we get θ − 2 k π = 0 or θ − 2 k π = π.
That is, θ = 2 k π or (2 k + 1) π.

Thus we get sin θ = 0 if and only if θ = n π for some integer n. Hence the general solution of the
equation sin x = 0 is x = n π + 0 = n π, n ∈ Z.
π
(ii) Clearly, the principal solution of the equation cos x = 0 is x = . Now,
2
 π π
cos x = 0 ⇔ sin  x −  = 0 ⇔ x− = n π, n ∈ Z
 2 2
π π
⇔ x = nπ + ,n ∈ Z ⇔ x = ( 2 n + 1) , n ∈ Z .
2 2
π
Therefore, x = (2 n + 1) , n ∈ Z is the general solution of cos x = 0.
2
(iii) Clearly, the principal solution of tan x = 0 is x = 0.
tan x = 0 ⇔ sin x = 0 ⇔ x = n π , n ∈ Z .
Now, Therefore, the general solution of the equation tan x = 0 is x = n π, n ∈ Z.
π
(iv) We know that x = is the principal solution of the equation cot x = 0. Now, for any x ∈R ,
2
π
cot x = 0 ⇔ cos x = 0 ⇔ x = (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z.
2
π
Therefore, the general solution of the equation cot x = 0 is x = (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z.
2
−1 < k < 1)
7.1.6 General solution of the equation sin x = k (−
Let k ∈ [−1, 1] and α be the principal solution of the equation sin x = k.

− π π
(That is, α ∈  , and sin α = k). Let θ be any solution of sin x = k.
 2 2 
 Trigonometric Equations 301

Now
sin θ = k = sin α ⇔ sin è − sin α = 0
è + α è − α
⇔ 2 cos   sin   = 0
 2   2 
è+α è − α
⇔ cos = 0 or sin   = 0.
2  2 
From 7.1.5 (ii) above, we get that
è + α è+α π
cos  =0 ⇔ = ( 2 n + 1) , n ∈ Z
 2  2 2
⇔ è = ( 2 n + 1) π − α , n ∈ Z
Now, from 7.1.5 (i),
è − α è−α
sin  =0 ⇔ = n π, n ∈ Z ⇔ è = 2 n π + α , n ∈ Z .
 2  2
Thus è = n π + ( − 1) α , where n ∈ Z .
n

∴ General solution of the equation sin x = k ( − 1 ≤ k ≤ 1) is

x = n π + ( − 1) α , n ∈ Z,
n

where α is the principal (or any) solution of the equation.

{
Thus the solution set of the equation sin x = k is n π + ( − 1) α | n ∈ Z .
n
}
7.1.7 General solution of cos x = k (− −1 < k < 1)
Let k ∈ [− 1, 1] and α be the principal solution of the equation cos x = k. (That is, α ∈ [0, π] ).
If θ is any solution of the equation cos x = k, then
cos θ = k = cos α
⇔ cos è − cos α = 0
è + α è − α
⇔ 2 sin   sin  =0
 2   2 
è+α è−α
⇔ sin = 0 or sin =0
2 2
è+α è+α
Now sin =0 ⇔ = n π, n ∈ Z by 7.1.5 (i)
2 2
⇔ è = 2 nπ − α .
è−α è−α
Again, sin =0 ⇔ = n π, n ∈ Z as above
2 2
⇔ è = 2nπ + α, n ∈ Z
Hence, è = 2 n π ± α where n ∈ Z.
Therefore, general solution of the equation cos x = k ( −1 ≤ k ≤ 1) is x = 2 n π ± α , n ∈ Z .
where α is the principal (or any) solution.
 302 Mathematics - IA

Thus, the solution set of the equation cos x = k is {2 n π ± α n ∈ Z} , where α is the principal
solution.
7.1.8 General solution of the equation tan x = k (k ∈ R)

 − π π 
Let k ∈ R and α be the principal solution of tan x = k.  observe that α ∈  ,   . If θ
  2 2 
is any solution of tan x = k, then
sin θ sin α
tan θ = k = tan α ⇔ = ⇔ sin θ cos α − cos θ sin α = 0 .
cos θ cos α
⇔ sin (è − α ) = 0 ⇔ è − α = n π where n ∈ Z from 7.1.5(i)
⇔ è = n π + α where n ∈ Z
Hence, the general solution of the equation tan x = k (k ∈ R) is x = n π + α, n ∈ Z,
where α is the principal (or any) solution of tan x = k.
Thus the solution set of the equation tan x = k is {n π + α n ∈ Z } , where α is the principal
solution of tan x = k.
7.1.9 General solution of the equation sec x = k ( k ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ))

As mentioned in 7.1.4 (e), the solution set of sec x = k is nonempty only when k ≥ 1. Now let
 π π 
k ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) and α be the principal solution of cos x =
1
so that α ∈ 0
 2 ,  ∪  , π
k   2 
1
and cos α = and hence sec α = k. Now, for any x ∈ R,
k
1
sec x = k ⇔ cos x = ⇔ x = 2 n π ± α (by 7.1.7)
k
Thus the general solution of the equation sec x = k is 2 n π ± α , n ∈ Z , where α is the
1
principal (or any) solution of cos x = .
k
7.1.10 General solution of the equation cosec x = k (k ∈ (− ∞ , −1 ] ∪ [1, ∞ ))

As mentioned in 7.1.4 ( f ), the solution set is nonempty only when k ≥ 1 . Now let
1
k ∈ ( − ∞ , −1 ] ∪ [1, ∞ ) and α be the principal solution of sin x = . That is,
k
 π   π 1
α ∈  − , 0  ∪  0 ,  and sin α = . Then cosec α = k (note that k ≠ 0). Now, for any x ∈ R,
 2   2 k
 Trigonometric Equations 303

1
cosec x = k ⇔ sin x = ⇔ x = n π + ( − 1) α, n ∈ Z (by 7.1.6)
n

Thus the general solution of the equation cosec x = k is n π + ( − 1) α , n ∈ Z ,

n

1
where α is the principal (or any) solution of sin x = .
k

7.1.11 General solution of the equation cot x = k ( k ∈ R)

As in 7.1.4 (d) the equation cot x = k has a solution for all k ∈ R.

Case (i) : Let k ∈ R {0} and α be the principal solution of cot x = k .

So that α ∈ (0,π ) and cot α = k. Now, for any x ∈ R,

1
cot x = k ⇔ tan x = ⇔ x = nπ + α, n ∈ Z .
k

Case (ii) : Let k = 0 and α be the principal solution of cos x = 0 (i.e. cot x = 0). Then
π
α ∈ (0, π) and cos α = 0. Hence α = . Now, for any x ∈ R,
2
π
cot x = 0 ⇔ cos x = 0 ⇔ x = ( 2 n + 1) , n ∈Z
2
π
⇔ x = nπ + = n π + α, n ∈ Z.
2

Thus, in either case, the general solution of the equation cot x = k is n π + α, n ∈ Z , where α is
the principal (or any) solution of cot x = k.

7.1.12 Note

1. The solution sets of the trigonometric equations discussed above remain unchanged even if we take
any solution in place of α instead of the principal solution.

2. The principal solutions and general solutions of the trigonometric equations given above are summarized
in table 7.1.
 304 Mathematics - IA

Table 7.1
Serial The equation Range of k The interval in which the General Solution
No. f(x) = k principal solution a lies
 π π
1. sin x = k [−1, 1] − 2 , 2  n π + (−1)n α, n ∈ Z
 
2. cos x = k [−1, 1] [0, π] 2n π + α, n ∈ Z
 π π
3. tan x = k R − ,  n π + α, n ∈ Z
 2 2
 π π
4. cosec x = k (−∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞) − 2 , 2  {0} n π + (−1)n α, n ∈ Z
 
π
5. sec x = k (−∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞) [0, π]   2n π + α, n ∈ Z
2 
6. cot x = k R (0, π) n π + α, n ∈ Z
7.1.13 General solution of the equation sin2 x = k (k ∈[0, 1] )
The equation sin2 x = k has a solution if and only if k ∈ [0, 1] . In this case there exists α ∈ R such
that sin 2 α = k . Now
Method (i) : sin 2 x = k ⇔ sin 2 x = sin 2 α ⇔ 1 − 2 sin 2 x = 1 − 2 sin 2 α
⇔ cos 2 x = cos 2α
⇔ 2 x = 2 n π ± 2α , n ∈ Z
⇔ x = n π ± α, n ∈ Z .
Thus, the general solution of the equation sin 2 x = k ( k ∈ [0, 1]) is n π ± α, n ∈ Z (where α
is a solution of sin2 x = k).
Method(ii) : sin 2 x = k = sin 2 α ⇔ sin x = sin α
or sin x = − sin α = sin ( − α ) so that the solution set of sin 2 x = k is the union of the solution sets of
sin x = sin α and sin x = sin ( − α ) . The general solution of sin x = sin α is n π + ( −1) α, n ∈ Z
n

and the general solution of sin x = sin ( −α ) is n π + ( −1) ( − α ) = n π + ( −1)

n +1
α, n ∈ Z .
n

Thus the general solution of sin 2 x = k is n π ± α (where α is a solution).

7.1.14 Note
As above we can prove that the general solutions of the equations
(i) cos 2 x = k is n π ± α, n ∈ Z if k∈ [0, 1] and cos 2 α = k .
(ii) tan 2 x = k is n π ± α, n ∈ Z if k ∈ [0, ∞ ) and tan 2 α = k .
Trigonometric Equations 305

7.2 Simple trigonometric equations - solutions

In this section we solve a more general trigonometric equation.
7.2.1 General solution of the equation a cos x + b sin x = c
when a, b, c ∈ R such that a2 + b2 ≠ 0 and a + c ≠ 0.
Method (i): Given equation is a cos x + b sin x = c
 2 x   x 
 1 − tan 2   2 tan 2 
⇒ a  + b  = c (Q a + c ≠ 0, x ≠ (2n + 1) π )
2 x 2 x
 1 + tan   1 + tan 
 2  2
 x x  x
⇒ a  1 − tan 2  + 2 b tan = c  1 + tan 2 
 2 2  2
x x
⇒ ( a + c ) tan 2 − 2 b tan + (c − a ) = 0 .
2 2
x
This is a quadratic equation in tan , so that
2

x
tan =
(
2 b ± 4 b2 − 4 c 2 − a 2 )
2 2 (a + c )

b ± b2 − c 2 + a 2
=
(a + c )
∴ The given equation has solution if and only if c 2 ≤ a 2 + b 2

 2
i.e., c ∈  − a + b , a + b 
2 2 2
 

If c ∈  − a 2 + b 2 , a 2 + b 2  , then we solve tan = k where

x
  2

b ± b2 + a2 − c2
k= .
a+c

b + b2 + a 2 − c2 b − b2 + a 2 − c2
Let k1 = , k2 = .
a+c a+c
x  π π
If αi is the principal solution of tan = ki , αi lies in the interval  − ,  ,
2  2 2
and the general solution is given by
 306 Mathematics - IA

x
= n π + αi , n ∈Z (i = 1, 2)
2
or x = 2 n π + 2 αi , n ∈ Z (i = 1, 2).
Method (ii): As observed above, the given equation has a real solution if and only if

c ∈ − a 2 + b2 , a 2 + b2  .
 
c
That is c ≤ a 2 + b 2 or c ≤ r where r = a 2 + b 2 ⇒ ≤1 .
r
a b b
Choose β such that cos β = and sin β = ( If a ≠ 0, β is chosen such that tan β =
r r a
π
since the range of tan x is R. If a = 0 then b = ± r . Hence we take β to be ± accordingly). Then
2
a cos x + b sin x = c

⇒ r (cos β cos x + sin β sin x ) = c

c c
⇒ cos ( x − β ) = and ≤ 1.
r r

Hence there exists α∈ [0, π ] such that cos α =

c
. That is, cos ( x − β ) = cos α. Thus x = α + β
r
is the principal solution. Hence x = 2 n π ± α + β , n ∈Z is the general solution.
7.2.2 Note: The above equation can also be solved by choosing a φ ∈R such that a = r sin φ and
π
b = r cos φ . But it is same as second method in which è = − φ.
2

7.2.3 Solved Problems

1
1. Problem: Solve sin x = .
2
Solution
1 π π  π π π
Method 1: sin x = = sin and ∈  − ,  . Thus by 7.1.6, x = is the principal solution
2 4 4  2 2 4
π
and x = n π + ( − 1)
n
, n ∈Z is the general solution. Therefore, the solution
4
 −7 π −5π π 3π ...
set = ... , , , , .
 4 4 4 4 
 Trigonometric Equations 307

1  
Method 2: Put a = 0, b = 1, c = 7.2.1 (Method (ii)). Then   and   . Hence
2 2 4
 
x  2n    , n  Z . It can be observed that here also the solution set
4 2
 7  5  3 ...
= ... , , , , .
 4 4 4 4 
5 1
2. Problem: Solve sin 2 θ  .
4
5 1     
Solution: sin 2θ   sin and   , .
4 10 10  2 2 
 
 2θ  and hence is the principal solution.
10 20
n 
General solution is given by 2 θ  n     1 , n Z or
10
n n 
θ      1 , n Z .
2 20

Note: It is important to note that in the above problem we obtained the principal solution as 2 θ  or
10

θ . Then we get general solution for 2  only (not for since we are solving the equation
20
n  n 
sin 2 θ  k . That means general solution is 2 θ  n     1 , n Z but not θ  n     1 .
10 20
3. Problem: Solve tan 2 θ  3 .

     
Solution: tan 2 θ  3  tan θ   3  tan    and    , .
 3 3  2 2

   are the principal solutions of the given equation. General solution is given by
3

n , n Z .
3
4. Problem: Solve 3cos ec x  4 sin x .
3
Solution: Given that 4sin 2 x  3  sin x   .
2

 Principal solutions are x   .
3

General solution is given by x  n   , n Z .
3
 308 Mathematics - IA

( ) (
5. Problem: If x is acute and sin x + 10 = cos 3 x − 68 , find x in degrees.
0 0
)
Solution: Given that

( ) ( ) (
sin x + 100 = cos 3 x − 680 = sin 900 + 3x − 680 = sin 220 + 3x ) ( )
(
∴ x + 100 = n 1800) + (− 1) (22 + 3x ) n 0

If n = 2k, then x + 10 = 2 k (180 ) + 22 + 3 x

0 0 0

− k (360 ) − 12 0 0

⇒ 2 x = − k (360 ) − 12 ⇒ x =
0 0
( )
= − k 1800 − 60 .
2
This is not valid because for any integer k, x is not acute.

(
If n = 2k + 1, then x + 100 = ( 2k + 1) 1800 − 220 − 3 x )
⇒ 4 x = ( 2 k + 1) 1800 − 320 ⇒ x = ( 2 k + 1) 450 − 80 .
Now, k = 0 ⇒ x = 37 0 , for other integral values of k, x is not acute.

∴ The only solution is x = 37 .

0

6. Problem: Solve cos 3è = sin 2 è .

π 
Solution: cos 3è = sin 2 è = cos  − 2 è 
2 
π 
⇒ 3è = 2 n π ±  − 2 è  , n ∈ Z
2 
π π
⇒ 5è = ( 4 n + 1) or è = ( 4 n − 1) , n ∈Z
2 2
π π
⇒ è = ( 4 n + 1) , n ∈Z or è = ( 4 n − 1) , n ∈Z .
10 2
7. Problem: Solve 7 sin 2 è + 3cos 2 è = 4 .
Solution: Given that 7 sin 2 è + 3cos 2 è = 4

(
⇒ 7 sin 2 è + 3 1 − sin 2 è = 4 )
1
⇒ 4 sin 2 è = 1 ⇒ sin è = ± .
2
π
∴ Principal solutions are è = ± ,
6
π
and the general solution is given by è = n π ± , n ∈Z .
6
 Trigonometric Equations 309

8. Problem: Solve 2 cos 2 è − 3 sin è + 1 = 0 .

Solution: 2 cos 2 è − 3 sin è + 1 = 0
⇒ 2 sin 2 è + 3 sin è − 3 = 0

(
⇒ 2 sin è − 3 ) (sin è + 3 ) = 0
3
⇒ sin è = (since sin è = − 3 cannot happen)
2
π
∴è = is the principal solution and general solution is given by
3
n π
è = n π + ( − 1) , n∈Z.
3
9. Problem: Find all values of x ≠ 0 in ( − π , π ) satisfying the equation

81 + cos x + cos
2 x + ...
= 43 .
Solution: For x ≠ 0, we have cos x < 1 .

1
Then 1 + cos x + cos 2 x + ... = .
1 − cos x
Now, 81 + cos x + cos
2 x + ...
= 43 = 82 ⇒ 1 + cos x + cos 2 x + ... = 2 .
1 1
⇔ = 2 ⇔ cos x =
1 − cos x 2
π −π
⇔ x= or (since x ∈ ( − π , π ) ) .
3 3
10. Problem: Solve tan θ + 3cot θ = 5sec θ .

Solution: First observe that the equation is valid only when cos θ ≠ 0 and sin θ ≠ 0 .
Now tan θ + 3 cot θ = 5sec θ
⇒ sin2 θ + 3cos2 θ = 5 sin θ
⇒ sin2 θ + 3 − 3 sin2 θ = 5 sin θ

⇒ 2 sin2 θ + 5 sin θ − 3 =0

⇒ (2 sin θ − 1) (sin θ + 3) = 0
⇒ sin θ = 1/2 (since sin θ = − 3 has no solution as sin θ ≤ 1 always)
π n π
∴ Principal solution is θ = and general solution is n π + ( − 1) , n ∈Z .
6 6
 310 Mathematics - IA

11. Problem: Solve 1 + sin 2 è = 3sin è cos è .

Solution: Clearly cos è ≠ 0, so we divide both sides by cos 2 θ , and we get
sec 2 è + tan 2 è = 3 tan è .
⇔ 2 tan 2 θ − 3 tan θ + 1 = 0
⇔ ( 2 tan θ − 1) ( tan θ − 1) = 0
1
⇔ tan è = 1 or tan è = .
2
π π
Now tan è = 1 when è = and the general solution is è = n π + , n ∈Z .
4 4
1
Let α be the principal solution of tan è = .
2
Then the general solution is θ = n π + α .
12. Problem: Solve 2 (sin x + cos x ) = 3 .
Solution: On dividing both sides by 2, we get
1 1 3
sin x + cos x =
2 2 2
π π 3
⇒ sin sin x + cos cos x =
4 4 2
 π 3
⇒ cos  x −  =
 4 2
π π 5π
∴ The principal solution is x − = i.e., x = .
4 6 12
π π
The general solution is given by, x −
= 2 n π ± , n ∈Z
4 6
5π π
or x = 2 n π + or x = 2 n π + , n ∈Z .
12 12
13. Problem: Find general solution of θ which satisfies both the equations
1 3
sin θ = − and cos θ = − .
2 2
1 π
Solution: Given sin θ = − = − sin
2 6
 π  π
= sin  π +  = sin  2 π − 
 6  6
7π 11π
= sin = sin .
6 6
 Trigonometric Equations 311

1 7π 11π
Therefore considering only angles in (0, 2π), the only values of θ satisfying sin θ = − are or
2 6 6
.
3 π
cos θ = − = − cos
2 6
 π  π
= cos  π −  or cos  π + 
 6  6
5π 7π
= cos or cos .
6 6
3 5π 7π
∴ Considering only angles in (0, 2π), the only values of θ satisfying cos θ = − are or .
2 6 6
7π
Thus is the only angle which satisfies both the equations.
6
Hence general solution for θ is
7π
θ = 2nπ + , n∈ Z.
6
14. Problem: If θ1 , θ2 are solutions of the equation a cos 2 θ + b sin 2 θ = c , tan θ1 ≠ tan θ2 and
a + c ≠ 0 , then find the values of
(i) tan θ1 + tan θ2 (ii) tan θ1 . tan θ2
Solution: a cos 2 θ + b sin 2 θ = c

 1 − tan 2 è   2 tan è 
⇔ a 2 
+b 2 
=c
 1 + tan è   1 + tan è 

⇔ a − a tan 2 è + 2 b tan è = c + c tan 2 è

⇔ ( a + c ) tan 2 θ − 2b tan θ + (c − a ) = 0 ... (1)

This is a quadratic equation in tan θ . Since θ1 , θ2 are the solutions of the given equation, we get
that tan θ1 , tan θ2 are the solutions of (1) .

2b
∴ tan θ1 + tan θ2 =
a+c

c−a
and tan è1 . tan è 2 = .
c+a
 312 Mathematics - IA

15. Problem: Solve 4 sin x sin 2 x sin 4 x = sin 3 x .

Solution: sin 3x = 2sin x ( 2sin 2 x sin 4 x )

= 2sin x (cos 2 x − cos 6 x )

= 2 cos 2 x sin x − 2 cos 6 x sin x
= sin 3 x − sin x − 2 cos 6 x sin x
⇒ 2 cos 6 x sin x + sin x = 0
⇒ sin x ( 2 cos 6 x + 1) = 0
1
⇒ sin x = 0 or cos 6 x = − .
2
(i) sin x = 0 ⇒ x = 0 is the principal solution and x = n π , n ∈Z is the general solution.
1 2π π
(ii) cos 6 x = − ⇒ 6x = or x = is the principal solution.
2 3 9
2π
The general solution is given by 6 x = 2 n π ± , n∈Z
3
nπ π
x= ± , n∈ Z.
3 9
1
16. Problem: If 0 < θ < π , solve cos θ . cos 2 θ cos 3 θ = .
4
Solution: 1 = 4cos θ cos 2 θ cos3 θ
= 2cos 2 θ ( 2cos3 θ cos θ)

= 2cos 2 θ (cos 4 θ + cos 2 θ )

= 2 cos 4 θ cos 2 θ + 2 cos 2 2 θ

⇒ 2cos 4è cos 2è + cos 4è = 0
⇒ cos 4è ( 2 cos 2è + 1) = 0
1
⇒ cos 4 θ = 0 or cos 2 θ = − .
2
π
(i) cos 4 è = 0 ⇒ 4è = is the principal solution and
2
π
4è = 2 n π ± is the general solution
2
nπ π
so that è = ± , n∈Z is the general solution
2 8
π 3π 5π 7 π
Put n = 0, 1, 2. We get , , , are the solutions that lie in (0, π).
8 8 8 8
 Trigonometric Equations 313

1 2π
(ii) cos 2 è = − ⇒ 2è = is the principal solution and
2 3
2π
2è = 2n π ± , n ∈Z is the general solution
3
π
⇒ è = nπ ± , n ∈ Z is the general solution
3
π 2π
Put n = 0, 1 we get , are the solutions that lie in the interval (0, π). Hence the solutions of the
3 3
π π 3π 5π 2π 7 π
given equation in (0, π) are , , , , , .
8 3 8 8 3 8
17. Problem: Given p ≠ +q, show that the solutions of cos pθ + cos qθ = 0 form two series each of
which is in A.P. Find also the common difference of each A.P.
Solution: cos pθ + cos qθ = 0

 p + q    p − q  
⇒ 2 cos   θ  cos   θ = 0
 2    2  

 p+q  p−q
⇒ cos   θ = 0 or cos  θ =0
 2   2 

 p+q π
∴ cos   θ = 0 = cos
 2  2

 p+q π π
⇔  θ = 2 nπ ± = (4n ± 1)
 2  2 2

(4n ± 1)π
⇔ θ= , n∈Z
(p +q )
The solutions
π π 3π 5π 2π
− , , , , ... form an A.P. with common difference .
p+q p+q p+q p+q ( p + q)
 p−q
Similarly the solutions of cos   θ = 0 are
 2 
π π 3π 5π 2π
− , , , , .... which form another A.P. with common difference .
p−q p−q p−q p−q ( p − q)
 314 Mathematics - IA

18. Problem: Solve sin 2 x − cos 2 x = sin x − cos x .

Solution: (sin 2 x − sin x ) − (cos 2 x − cos x ) = 0
3x x 3x x
⇒ 2 cos sin + 2sin sin = 0
2 2 2 2
x 3x 3x 
⇒ 2sin  cos + sin  =0
2 2 2 
x 3x 3x
⇒ sin = 0 or cos + sin =0
2 2 2
x 3x
⇒ sin = 0 or tan = − 1.
2 2
x x
(i) sin =0 ⇒ = n π , n ∈ Z ⇒ x = 2 n π , n ∈Z .
2 2
3x 3x π
(ii) tan = −1 ⇒ =− is the principal solution and the general solution is
2 2 4
3x π 2 nπ π
= nπ − or x = − , n ∈Z .
2 4 3 6
 π π 
∴ Solution set for the given equation is {2 n π | n ∈ Z } ∪  2 n − | n∈Z  .
 3 6 

Exercise 7(a)
I. 1. Find the principal solutions of the angles in the equations

(i) 2cos2 θ = 1 (ii) 3 sec θ + 2 = 0

(iii) 3tan2 θ = 1
2. Solve the following equations
5 +1
(i) cos 2θ = , θ∈[0, 2π ] (ii) tan 2 θ = 1, θ∈ [ −π, π ]
4
3 3
(iii) sin3θ = , θ∈[−π, π] (iv) cos θ = , θ∈[0, π ]
2
2 4
(v) 2sin 2 θ = sin θ, θ∈ (0, π)
3. Find general solutions of the following equations.
3 1 1 2
(i) sin è = , cos è = − (ii) tan x = − , sec x =
2 2 3 3

(iii) cosec è = − 2, cot è = − 3

 Trigonometric Equations 315

4. (i) If sin (2700 − x) = cos 2920, then find x in (0, 3600).

(ii) If x < 900 and sin (x + 280) = cos (3x − 780), then find x.
5. Find general solutions of the following equations.
1
(i) 2 sin2 θ = 3 cos θ. (ii) sin2 θ − cos θ =
4
(iii) 5 cos2 θ + 7 sin2 θ = 6 (iv) 3 sin4 x + cos4 x = 1
II. 1. Solve the following equations and write general solutions.
(i) 2sin θ − 4 = 5cos θ (ii) 2 + 3 sec x − 4 cos x = 2 3
2

(iii) 2 cos2 θ + 11 sin θ = 7 (iv) 6 tan2 x − 2 cos2 x = cos 2x

(v) 4 cos 2 θ + 3 = 2( 3 + 1) cos θ (vi) 1 + sin 2x = (sin 3x − cos 3x)2
(vii) 2 sin2 x + sin2 2x = 2
2. Solve the following equations
(i) 3 sin θ − cos θ = 2 (ii) cot x + cosec x = 3
(iii) sin x + 3 cos x = 2
3. Solve the following equations
(i) tan θ + sec θ = 3, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
3x x
(ii) cos3 x + cos 2 x = sin + sin ; 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
2 2
π
(iii) cot x − ( 3 + 1) cot x + 3 = 0; 0 < x <
2
2
(iv) sec x ⋅ cos 5 x + 1 = 0; 0 < x < 2π
III. 1. (i) Solve sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x = cos x + cos 2x + cos 3x.

2π 3
(ii) If x + y = and sin x + sin y = find x and y.
3 2
(iii) If sin 3x + sin x + 2 cos x = sin 2x + 2 cos2 x, find the general solution.
(iv) Solve cos 3x − cos 4x = cos 5x − cos 6x.
2. Solve the following equations.
(i) cos 2θ + cos 8θ = cos 5θ (ii) cos θ − cos 7θ = sin 4θ
(iii) sinθ + sin 5θ = sin 3θ, 0 < θ < π.

3. (i) If tan pθ = cot qθ, and( p ≠ − q )show that the solutions are in A.P. with common difference
π
.
p+q
316 Mathematics - IA

(ii) Show that the solutions of cos pθ = sin qθ form two series each of which is an
A.P. Find also the common difference of each A.P. (p ≠ +q)
(iii) Find the number of solutions of the equation tan x + sec x = 2 cos x;
cos x ≠ 0, lying in the intervial (0, π).
(iv) Solve sin 3α = 4 sin α sin(x + α) sin (x − α) where α ≠ nπ, n ∈ Z.
 π 1
4. (i) If tan (π cos θ) = cot (π sin θ), then prove that cos  θ −  = ± .
 4 2 2
(ii) Find the range of θ if cos θ + sin θ is positive.
5. If α, β are the solutions of the equation a cos θ + b sin θ = c, where a, b, c ∈ R
and if a2 + b2 > 0, cos α ≠ cos β and sin α ≠ sin β then show that
2bc 2ac
(i) sin α + sin β = (ii) cos α + cos β =
a + b2
2
a + b2
2

c2 − b2 c2 − a2
(iii) cos α.cos β = (iv) sin α .sin β =
a 2 + b2 a 2 + b2
6. (i) Find the common roots of the equations cos 2x + sin 2x = cot x and 2 cos2x + cos22x = 1.

(ii) Solve the equation 6 − cos x + 7 sin 2 x + cos x = 0 .

1
(iii) If |tan x | = tan x + and x ∈ [0, 2π], find the value of x.
cos x

Key Concepts

 π π
L If k ∈ [−1, 1] , then the principal solution θ of sin x = k lies in  − ,  and the general solution
 2 2
is given by n π + ( −1) è , n∈ Z .
n

L If k ∈ [−1, 1] , then the principal solution θ of sin x = k lies in [0, π ] and the general solution is
given by 2n π ± è , n∈ Z .
 −π π 
L If k ∈ R , then the principal solution θ of tan x = k lies in  ,  and the general solution is
 2 2
given by n π ± è , n∈ Z .

π π
L If k ∈ ( − ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) , then the principal solution θ of cosec x = k lies in [ − , 0) ∪ (0, ]
2 2
and the general solution is given by n π + (−1) n è, n ∈ Z .
 Trigonometric Equations 317

π π
L If k ∈ ( − ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) , then the principal solution è of sec x = k lies in [0, ) ∪ ( , π]
2 2
and the general solution is given by 2 n π ± è , n∈ Z .
L If k ∈ R , then the principal solution θ of cot x = k lies in (0, π) and the general solution is given
by n π + è, n ∈ Z .
L If k ∈ [0, 1] , then the general solution of the equation sin 2 x = k is n π ± α, n ∈ Z
(where sin 2 α = k ).
L If k ∈ [0, 1] , then the general solution of the equation cos 2 x = k is n π ± α, n ∈ Z
(where cos 2 α = k ).
Similarly, we get that the general solutions of the equations tan 2 x = k , cot 2 x = k , sec 2 x = k ,
cosec 2 x = k are of the form n π ± α whenever a solution exists.
L The equation a sin x + b cos x = c ( a, b, c ∈ R and a 2 + b 2 ≠ 0 ) has a solution if and only
if c 2 ≤ a 2 + b 2 .

Historical Note
Brahmagupta (7th century A.D.) is one of the most celebrated mathematicians of ancient India.
He wrote a standard treatise “Brahmasphuta siddhanth” on ancient Indian Astronomy. Brahmagupta
is famous for many contributions to astronomy, trigonometry, algebra and geometry. The simple rule
to help the memory for the sine function, (0, 1, 2, 3, 4) / 4 = sin ( 0, 30, 45, 60, 90 ) is found in
0

the works of Brahmagupta. This shows the level of advancement of trigonometry in those days.
The historian al-Biruni (ca - 1050) in his book Tariq al-Hind states that the Abbasid Caliph al-
Ma’mun had an embassy in India and from India a book was brought to Baghdad which was translated
into Arabic as Sindhind. It is generally presumed that Sindhind is none other than Brahmagupta’s
Brahmasphuta-Siddhanta.
Bhaskaracharya hailed Brahmagupta as “Ganakachakra Chudamani”, precious jewel amidst
the circle of Mathematicians.

Answers
Exercise 7(a)
I. 1. (i) 450, 1350 (ii) 1500 (iii) + π/6

π 9 π 11 π 19π π 3π
2. (i) , , , (ii) ± , ±
10 10 10 10 4 4

5π 4 π π 2 π 7π 8 π π 5π π 5π
(iii) − ,− , , , , (iv) , (v) ,
9 9 9 9 9 9 6 6 6 6
 318 Mathematics - IA

2π π
3. (i) 2nπ + , n ∈Z (ii) 2nπ − , n ∈Z
3 6
π
(iii) 2nπ − , n ∈Z
6
4. (i) 112 , 2480
0
(ii) 80, 350
π π
5. (i) 2 nπ ± , n ∈ Z (ii) 2 n π ± , n∈Z
3 3
π π
(iii) nπ ± , n ∈ Z (iv) nπ or nπ ± , n ∈ Z
4 4
2π π 5π
II. 1. (i) 2 nπ ± , n∈Z (ii) 2nπ ± or 2nπ ± , n ∈Z
3 3 6
π π
(iii) nπ + ( −1) n , n ∈ Z (iv) nπ ± , n ∈Z
6 6
π π nπ π
(v) 2nπ ± or 2nπ ± , n ∈Z (vi) or (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z
3 6 4 4
π π
(vii) (2n + 1) , nπ ± , n ∈ Z
2 4
π π π
2. (i) θ = nπ + (−1) n + , n ∈ Z (ii) 2nπ + , n ∈Z
4 6 3
5π π
(iii) 2nπ + , 2 nπ − , n ∈ Z
12 12
π π 5π 9π 13π π π
3. (i) (ii) , , π, , (iii) ,
6 7 7 7 7 6 4
π π 3π 5π 5π 7π 11π 7 π
(iv) , , , , , , ,
6 4 4 6 4 6 6 4
2 π nπ π
III. 1. (i) 2 nπ ± , + , n∈Z
3 2 8
π π π π
(ii) x = 2nπ + , y = − 2nπ or x = 2nπ + , y = − 2nπ, n ∈ Z
2 6 6 2
π π π π
(iii) (2n + 1) , nπ − , 2nπ + , 2nπ, n ∈Z (iv) (2n + 1) , nπ, n ∈ Z
2 4 2 9
π 2nπ π nπ nπ π π π 2 π 5π
2. (i) (2n + 1) , ± , n ∈Z (ii) or + ( −1) n (iii) , , ,
10 3 9 4 3 18 6 3 3 6
2π π
3. (ii) (iii) 2 (iv) nπ ±
p±q 3

 π 3π 
4. (ii) U  2nπ − 4 , 2nπ + 
4 
n∈Z
π 11π
6. (i) (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z (ii) No solution (iii)
4 6
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 319

“If there be light, then there is darkness; if cold,

heat; if height, depth, if solid, fluid; if hard, soft;
if rough, smooth; if calm, tempest; if prosperity,
adversity; if life, death”
− Pythagoras

Introduction

Let us recall that if A, B are sets and f : A → B is a

bijection, then g : B → A is the inverse of the function f if
g o f = IA (Indentity on A) and f o g = I B .

This function g is unique and it is denoted by f −1.

James Gregory
Equivalently, a function f : A → B has inverse if and (1638 - 1675)
only if f is a bijection. The inverse f −1
: B → A of f is Gregory was professor of
defined by f −1 (x) = y , where f (y) = x. mathematics at St. Andrews and at
Edinburgh. He was equally
We have come across many functions which possess interested in physics and published
a work on optics in which he
inverse and functions which do not possess inverse. All described the reflecting telescope,
now known by his name. In
trigonometric functions possess inverses if we take the domain
mathematics he expanded functions
suitably. In this chapter, we learn about inverse functions of all in infinite series and was one of the
first who distinguished between
trigonometric functions. convergent and divergent series.
 320 Mathematics - IA

8.1 To reduce a trigonometric function into a bijective function

Let us consider the function f : R → [−1, 1] defined by f ( x ) = sin x, for all x ∈ R .

This function f is a surjection, but not an
injection on R since f ( 2 n π + x ) = f ( x ) for all
π/2
n ∈ Z and x ∈ R which means that, for any 1

t ∈ [− 1, 1] , there are infinitely many x ∈ R such −π/2

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
that f ( x ) = t . But, for any t ∈ [−1, 1] , there −1

−π π
exists unique x ∈  ,  such that f ( x ) = t .
 2 2
 −π π 
Also  ,  is a subinterval of Fig. 8.1
 2 2
largest length on which sine function is a bijection
(see Fig. 8.1).

 −π π 
In other words, the function g :  ,  → [−1, 1] defined by g ( x ) = sin x for all
 2 2
−π π
x∈ ,  is a bijection and hence it has inverse. The inverse g −1 of g is a function from [−1, 1] onto
 2 2
 −π π 
 , .
 2 2
We denote this function g by sin and its inverse g−1 by Sin−1 or arc sin.
 −π π 
8.1.1 Definition: The function Sin −1 : [−1, 1] →  ,  defined by
 2 2
 −π π 
Sin −1 x = è ⇔ è ∈  ,  and sin è = x ,
 2 2
for all x ∈ [−1, 1] , is called the ‘inverse sine function’. This function is also denoted by ‘arc sin’.

 −π   π
8.1.2 Note: If x ∈ [ − 1, 0), then Sin x ∈  , 0  and if x ∈ (0, 1] , then Sin -1 x ∈  0 ,  and
-1

 2   2
Sin −1 0 = 0 . We can define the inverse trigonometric functions of cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, cosecant
similarly by taking the domain suitably as given below.
Inverse Trigonometric Functions 321

8.1.3 Definitions
(i) The function Cos −1 : [−1, 1] → [0, π ] is defined for all x ∈ [−1, 1] by
Cos −1 x = è if and only if è ∈ [0, π ] and cos è = x .
 −π π 
(ii) The function Tan −1 : R →  ,  is defined for all x ∈ R by
 2 2
 −π π 
Tan −1 x = è if and only if è ∈  ,  and tan è = x .
 2 2
 π  π 
(iii) The function Sec −1 : ( −∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) →  0,  ∪  , π  is defined for all
 2 2 
π π
x ∈ ( −∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) by Sec −1 x = è if and only if è ∈  0 ,  ∪  , π 
 2 2 
and sec è = x .
 −π   π 
(iv) The function Cosec −1 : ( −∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) →  , 0  ∪  0,  is defined for all
 2   2
x ∈ ( −∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) by Cosec −1 x = è if and only if

 −π   π 
è∈ , 0  ∪  0 ,  and cosec è = x .
 2   2
(v) The function Cot : R → (0, π ) is defined for all x ∈ R by Cot −1 ( x ) = è if
−1

and only if è ∈ (0, π ) and cot è = x .

All the above facts can be understood easily from the following table.
8.1.4 Domains and ranges of the inverse trigonometric functions
Table 8.1
Inverse trigonometric Domain (x) Range (y)
function y = f (x)
 −π π 
y = Sin −1 x [-1, 1]  2 , 2 
y = Cos −1 x [-1, 1] [0, π]
 −π π 
y = Tan −1 x R  , 
 2 2
 −π   π 
y = Cosec −1 x ( −∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )  2 , 0  ∪  0 , 2 
  
 π  π 
y = Sec−1 x ( −∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )  0 , 2  ∪  2 , π 
  
y = Cot −1 x R (0, π)
 322 Mathematics - IA

8.2 Graphs of Inverse trigonometric functions

In Chapter 6, we have given the graphs of all the six trigonometric functions.
Now we draw the graphs of the six inverse trigonometric functions by taking the domain on X-axis
and range on Y-axis.
π
π/2

π/2
−2 −1 0 1 2

−π/2 −2 −1 0 1 2

y = Sin−1 x y = Cos−1 x
Fig. 8.2 Fig. 8.3
Y
Y
π
π/2

π/2

−1 0 1 X
−1 0 1 X
−π/2 −π/2

y = Tan−1 x −π y = Cot−1 x

Fig. 8.4 Fig. 8.5

Y Y

π π/2

π/2
−1 0 1 X
−π/2
−1 0 1 X

y = Sec−1 x y = Cosec−1 x
Fig. 8.6 Fig. 8.7
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 323

8.3 Properties of inverse trigonometric functions

In this section we learn some elementary properties of inverse trigonometric functions defined in 8.1.
These properties will be useful to solve easily many problems on inverse trigonometric functions.
8.3.1 Theorem
1
(i) For x∈ [− 1, 0) ∪ (0, 1], Sin −1 x = Cosec−1 .
x
1
(ii) For x ∈ [− 1, 0) ∪ (0, 1], Cos −1 x = Sec −1 .
x
1
(iii) For x > 0, Tan −1 x = Cot −1 .
x
1
(iv) For x < 0, Tan −1 x = Cot −1 − π .
x
Proof
−π π
(i) Let x∈ [ − 1, 0) ∪ (0, 1] and suppose Sin − 1 x = θ . Then è ∈  , ,
 2 2 
1 1
sin è = x and θ ≠ 0 . Hence cosec θ = = .
sin θ x

1 1
Therefore, θ = Cosec − 1 or Sin −1 x = Cosec −1 .
x x
(ii) We can prove this as above.

(iii) Let x ∈ (0, ∞ ) and suppose Tan −1 x = θ .

 π π
and è ∈  0,  .
1
Then è ∈  0 ,  and tan è = x . Then cot è =
 2 x  2
1
∴ Cot −1 = è = Tan −1 x.
x
 π 
(iv) Now, let x ∈ ( − ∞, 0 ) and Tan -1 x = è . Then è ∈  − , 0  and tan θ = x .
 2 
That is,
π 
è + π ∈  , π and tan ( π + è) = x .
2 
π
Therefore, è + π ∈  , π  and cot è = .
1
2  x
1 1 1 1
∴ Cot −1 = è + π = π + Tan −1 or Tan −1 = Cot −1 − π .
x x x x
 324 Mathematics - IA

8.3.2 Theorem
− π π
(i) For è ∈  ,  , Sin −1 (sin è ) = è ,
 2 2

(
(ii) For x ∈ [−1, 1] , sin Sin x = x .
−1
)
Proof

 π π
(i) Let è ∈  − ,  and write x = sin è . Then x∈[− 1, 1] .
 2 2
Hence Sin −1 x = è . That is Sin −1 (sin è ) = è

(ii) Let x ∈ [−1, 1] and suppose Sin −1 x = è . Then

 π π −1
(
è ∈− ,  and sin è = x . That is, sin Sin x = x . )
 2 2
We can prove similar results for other inverse trigonometric functions also. We state them in the
following theorem without proof.
8.3.3 Theorem

1. If è ∈ [0, π], then Cos −1 (cos è ) = è and if x∈ [−1, 1] then

( )
cos Cos − 1 x = x .

 π π
2. If è ∈  − ,  , then Tan − 1 ( tan è ) = è and if x∈R , then
 2 2

( )
tan Tan −1 x = x .

( )
3. If è∈ (0, π ) , then Cot − 1 (cot è ) = è and if x∈R , then cot Cot −1 x = x .

 π π 
4. If è ∈ 0,  ∪  , π  , then Sec −1 (sec è ) = è and
 2 2 
( )
If x∈( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) , then sec Sec− 1 x = x .

π π
5. If è ∈  − , 0  ∪  0,  , then Cosec −1 (cosec è ) = è and
 2   2
( )
if x∈( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) , then cosec Cosec − 1 x = x .
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 325

In the following we check which of the trigonometric functions are odd or even or neither. In otherwords
we find the formulae for f (−x) where f is an inverse trigonometric function.

8.3.4 Theorem
1. If x∈ [− 1, 1], then Sin −1 ( − x ) = − Sin −1 x .

2. If x∈ [− 1, 1], then Cos −1 ( − x ) = π − Cos −1 x .

3. If x∈R , then Tan −1 ( − x ) = − Tan −1 x .
4. If x∈ R , then Cot −1 ( − x ) = π − Cot −1 x .
5. For x ∈ ( − ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) , Sec −1 ( − x ) = π − Sec−1 x .
6. For x ∈ ( − ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) , Cosec −1 ( − x ) = − Cosec −1 x .
Proof
π π
1. Let x∈ [ − 1, 1] , then − x ∈ [ − 1, 1] . If Sin −1 ( − x ) = θ , then è ∈− , 
 2 2
 π π
and − x = sin θ . So that x = − sin θ = sin ( − θ ) and − θ ∈  − ,  . Hence Sin − 1 x = − θ .
 2 2
Thus θ = − Sin x . Therefore Sin ( − x ) = − Sin x .
−1 −1 −1

2. If x∈ [− 1, 1] , then − x ∈ [− 1, 1] . Let Cos −1 ( − x ) = θ . Then 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and

− x = cos θ . So that x = − cos θ = cos ( π − θ ) and 0 ≤ π − θ ≤ π .

Thus Cos −1 x = π − θ . That is, θ = π − Cos −1 x . Hence
Cos −1 ( − x ) = π − Cos −1 x .
Similarly, we can prove (3) to (6).
8.3.5 Theorem
π
1. If θ∈ [0, π] , then Sin −1 (cos θ ) = − θ.
2
π π π
2. If è ∈− , , then Cos −1 (sin θ ) = − θ .
 2 2  2
π
3. If θ∈ (0, π ) , then Tan −1 (cot θ ) = − θ.
2
 π π π
4. If θ∈  − ,  , then Cot −1 ( tan θ ) = − θ .
 2 2 2
π   π π
5. If θ ∈  − , 0  ∪  0 ,  , then Sec −1 (cosec θ ) = − θ .
 2   2 2
 π π  π
6. If θ∈  0,  ∪  , π  , then Cosec −1 (sec θ ) = − θ .
 2 2  2
 326 Mathematics - IA

Proof
1. Let è ∈ [0, π] . Then − 1 ≤ cos è ≤ 1 . Now

 π  π − π π
Sin −1 (cos è ) = Sin −1  sin  − è   and − è∈  , .
  2   2  2 2
π
Hence Sin −1 (cos è ) = − è , by Theorem 8.3.3(1).
2
π π
2. Let è ∈  − ,  . Then − 1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1 . So that
 2 2
 π  π
Cos −1 (sin è ) = Cos −1  cos  − è   and − è ∈[0, π] .
 2  2
π
Hence Cos −1 (sin è ) = − è , by Theorem 8.3.3 (1).
2
Similarly, we can prove the remaining results.
8.3.6 Theorem
1. Sin −1 x = Cos −1 1 − x 2 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 .

2. Sin−1 x = − Cos−1 1 − x2 if − 1 ≤ x < 0 .

Proof
π
1. Let 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and Sin −1 x = è . Then 0 ≤ è ≤ .
2
Now sin è = x and hence cos è = 1 − x 2 and 0 ≤ 1 − x2 ≤ 1 .
Therefore Cos −1 1 − x 2 = è = Sin −1 x .
π
2. Suppose − 1 ≤ x < 0 and Sin − 1 x = è . Then − ≤ è < 0.
2
So that sin è = x and cos è = 1 − x 2 (since cos è > 0 ). Now
π
cos ( − è ) = 1 − x 2 and 0 < − è ≤ .
2
( )
Hence Cos −1 1 − x 2 = − è = − Sin −1 x . Therefore, Sin −1 x = − Cos −1 1 − x 2 .
We can prove the following theorem as above.
8.3.7 Theorem
 x 
1. Sin −1 x = Tan − 1   if x∈ ( − 1, 1) .
 1 − x2 
 
2. Cos −1 x = Sin −1 1 − x 2 if x∈ [0, 1] .

3. Cos −1 x = π − Sin −1 1 − x 2 if x∈ [ − 1, 0) .
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 327

 x   1 
4. Tan −1 x = Sin −1   = Cos − 1   for x > 0 .
 1 + x2   1 + x2 
   
Now we prove an important theorem.
8.3.8 Theorem
π
1. Cos −1 x + Sin − 1 x = for all x∈[− 1, 1] .
2
−1 −1 π
2. Tan x + Cot x = for all x∈R .
2
π
3. Sec −1 x + Cosec − 1 x = for all x∈ ( − ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) .
2
Proof
π π
1. Let x∈ [−1, 1] and Sin −1 x = è. Then θ ∈  − ,  and sin è = x . Now
 2 2
π  π
x = sin θ = cos  − è  and − è ∈ [0, π] . So that
2  2
π π
Cos −1 x = − è = − Sin −1 x .
2 2
π
Therefore, Cos −1 x + Sin −1 x = for all x∈[−1, 1] .
2
π π
2. Let x∈R and Tan −1 x = è . Then − < è < and tan è = x .
2 2
π  π
Now, x = tan è = cot  − è  and 0 < − è < π .
2  2
π π
Thus Cot −1 x = − è = − Tan −1 x .
2 2
π
Hence Tan −1 x + Cot −1 x = for all x∈R .
2
 π π 
3. Let x∈ (− ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) and Sec −1 x = θ . Then è ∈  0,  ∪  , π  and
 2 2 
sec θ = x . Now
π  π −π   π
x = sec θ = cosec  − è  and − è ∈ , 0  ∪  0,  .
2  2  2   2
π π
Thus Cosec −1 x = − è = − Sec −1 x. Therefore,
2 2
π
Sec −1 x + Cosec −1 x = for all x∈ ( − ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) .
2
 328 Mathematics - IA

8.3.9 Theorem
If x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 and x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1 , then

{
Sin −1 x + Sin −1 y = Sin −1 x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 . }
Proof
Suppose x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 and x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1 . Let Sin −1 x = α and Sin −1 y = β .
 π
Then α, β ∈  0,  and sin α = x, sin β = y . So cos α = 1 − x 2 and
 2
 π
cos β = 1 − y 2 (since cos α, cos β are non negative as α, β ∈ 0,  ).
 2
Now 0 ≤ α + β ≤ π ... (1)
Also cos (α + β ) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β

= 1 − x2 1 − y2 − x y ... (2)
Now x2 + y2 ≤ 1 ⇒ 1 − x2 − y2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 1 − x2 − y 2 + x2 y2 ≥ x2 y 2
(
⇒ 1 − x2 ) (1 − y ) ≥ x y
2 2 2

⇒ (1 − x ) 1 − y ≥ x y
2 2
(since x y ≥ 0 ).
π
Hence from (2), cos (α + β ) ≥ 0 . So 0 ≤ α + β ≤ from (1)
2
Now sin (α + β ) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

= x 1 − y 2 + 1 − x2 y .

Hence (
α + β = Sin −1 x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 )
or Sin −1 x + Sin −1 y = Sin −1 (x 1 − y2 + y 1 − x ). 2

We can prove the following formulae also as above. We state them without proof.
8.3.10 Theorem
1. If −1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1, x y < 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1 , then

(
Sin −1 x + Sin −1 y = Sin −1 x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 . )
2. If 0 < x, y ≤ 1, and x 2 + y 2 > 1 , then

(
Sin −1 x + Sin −1 y = π − Sin −1 x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 . )
3. If − 1 ≤ x, y < 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1 , then

(
Sin −1 x + Sin −1 y = − π − Sin −1 x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 . )
Inverse Trigonometric Functions 329

4. If −1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 and x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1 , then

(
Sin −1 x − Sin −1 y = Sin −1 x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 . )
5. If 0 < x y ≤ 1 and x 2 + y 2 > 1 , then

(
Sin −1 x − Sin −1 y = Sin −1 x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 . )
6. If 0 < x ≤ 1, − 1 ≤ y < 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1 , then

(
Sin −1 x − Sin −1 y = π − Sin −1 x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 . )
7. If − 1 ≤ x < 0, 0 < y ≤ 1 and x 2 + y 2 > 1 , then

(
Sin −1 x − Sin −1 y = − π − Sin −1 x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 . )
8. If − 1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 and x + y ≥ 0 , then

(
Cos −1 x + Cos −1 y = Cos −1 x y − 1 − x 2 1 − y2 ).
9. If − 1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 and x + y < 0 then

(
Cos −1 x + Cos −1 y = 2π − Cos −1 x y − 1 − x 2 1 − y2 . )
10. If − 1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 and x ≤ y then

(
Cos −1 x − Cos −1 y = Cos −1 x y + 1 − x 2 1 − y2 . )
11. If − 1 ≤ y ≤ 0 , 0 < x ≤ 1 and x ≥ y then

(
Cos −1 x − Cos −1 y = − Cos −1 x y − 1 − x 2 1 − y2 . )
Now we derive a formula for Tan −1 x + Tan −1 y in the following.

8.3.11 Theorem
Suppose x > 0 and y > 0

 x+ y 
(i) If x y < 1 , then Tan −1 x + Tan −1 y = Tan −1  .
1 − x y 
 x+ y 
(ii) If x y > 1 , then Tan −1 x + Tan −1 y = π + Tan −1  .
1 − x y 
π
(iii) If x y = 1 , then Tan −1 x + Tan −1 y = .
2
x− y
(iv) Tan −1 x − Tan −1 y = Tan −1 .
1+ xy
 330 Mathematics - IA

Proof: Let α = Tan −1 x and β = Tan −1 y . Then tan α = x and tan β = y . Since x, y are positive,
 π
we get α , β ∈  0,  . Hence 0 < α + β < π .
 2
π
If x y ≠ 1 , then tan α . tan β ≠ 1 , so that α + β ≠ and
2
tan α + tan β x+ y
tan (α + β ) = = ... (1)
1 − tan α tan β 1− xy
x+ y π
(i) Let x y < 1 . Then tan (α + β ) = > 0 , by (1). Hence 0 < α + β < .
1− xy 2
−1  x + y 
∴ from (1) α + β = Tan  .
1 − x y 
x+ y
Therefore Tan −1 x + Tan −1 y = Tan − 1 .
1− xy

(ii) Let xy > 1. Then from (1), tan (α + β ) < 0 . So

π −π
< α + β < π . Thus < α + β − π < 0 and
2 2
x+ y
tan (α + β − π ) = − tan (π − (α + β )) = tan (α + β ) = from (1).
1− xy
x+ y
∴ α + β − π = Tan − 1
1− xy
x+ y
Thus Tan −1 x + Tan −1 y = π + Tan −1 .
1− xy
1
(iii) Let xy = 1. Then y = .
x
1 π
Now Tan −1 x + Tan −1 y = Tan −1 x + Tan −1 = Tan −1 x + Cot −1 x = .
x 2
(iv) Let x > 0 and y > 0. Suppose Tan −1 x = α and Tan −1 y = β .
 π
Then α , β ∈  0,  and tan α = x, tan β = y .
 2
−π π  tan α − tan β x− y
Now α − β ∈ ,  and tan (α − β ) = = .
 2 2 1 + tan α . tan β 1+ xy

Hence, α − β = Tan −1 x − y .
1+ xy
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 331

x− y 
Therefore, Tan −1 x − Tan −1 y = Tan −1  .
1 + x y 
Similar to the results in the above Theorem 8.3.11, we also have the following. We state these results
without proof.

8.3.12 Theorem
x+ y 
(i) If x < 0, y < 0 and x y < 1 , then Tan −1 x + Tan − 1 y = Tan −1  .
1 − x y 
(ii) If x < 0, y < 0 and x y > 1 , then

x+ y 
Tan −1 x + Tan − 1 y = − π + Tan −1  .
 1 − x y 
x− y 
(iii) If x y > − 1 , then Tan −1 x − Tan − 1 y = Tan −1  .
1 +x y 
(iv) If x > 0 , y < 0 and x y < − 1 , then
x− y 
Tan −1 x − Tan − 1 y = π + Tan −1  .
1 + x y 
(v) If x < 0, y > 0 and x y < − 1 , then

x− y 
Tan −1 x − Tan − 1 y = − π + Tan −1  .
1 + x y 
(vi) If x, y , z have same sign and xy + yz + zx < 1

 x + y + z − xyz 
then Tan −1 x + Tan − 1 y + Tan −1 z = Tan − 1  .
1 − x y − y z − z x 
On substituting x = y in the above formulae, we get the following .
8.3.13 Corollary

1. 2 Sin −1 x ( ) − 1 1 
= Sin −1 2 x 1 − x 2 , if x ∈ 
 2
, 
2

(
= π − Sin −1 2 x 1 − x 2 , if x ∈ )
 1
 2

, 1


( 
)
= − π − Sin −1 2 x 1 − x 2 , if x ∈  − 1,

− 1
2
.

2. 2 Cos −1 x ( )
= Cos −1 2 x 2 − 1 , if x∈ [0,1]

( )
= 2 π − Cos −1 2 x 2 − 1 , if x∈ [ − 1, 0] .
332 Mathematics - IA

2x
, if x∈ ( −1, 1)
−1
3. 2 Tan −1 x = Tan
1 − x2
2x
= π + Tan −1 , if x∈ ( 1, ∞ )
1 − x2
 2x 
2  , if x∈ ( − ∞, − 1) .
= − π + Tan −1 
 1 − x 
, if x∈ [−1, 1]
2x
4. 2 Tan −1 x = Sin −1
1 + x2
2x
= π − Sin −1 , if x∈ ( 1, ∞ )
1 + x2

, if x∈ ( − ∞, − 1) .
2x
= − π − Sin −1
1 + x2
 1 − x2 
5. 2 Tan −1
x = Cos  −1
2  , if
x∈ [0, ∞ )
1 + x 
−1  1 − x 
2

2  , if x∈ ( − ∞ , 0] .
= − Cos 
1 + x 

6. 3 Sin −1 x
−1
( )
= Sin 3x − 4 x , if x ∈  , 
3  −1 1 
 2 2

= π − Sin
−1
( )1 
3 x − 4 x3 , if x ∈  ,1
2 

= − π − Sin
−1
( 
)
3x − 4 x3 , if x ∈  − 1,
− 1
.
2 

7. 3 Cos −1 x = Cos
−1
( )
1 
4 x3 − 3x , if x ∈  , 1
2 

( )
= 2 π − Cos −1 4 x3 − 3x , if x ∈  − , 
1 1
 2 2
 −1 
( 
)
= 2 π + Cos −1 4 x3 − 3 x , if x ∈  − 1,
2 
.

−1
 3 x − x3 
−1  −1 1 
8. 3 Tan x = Tan  2  , if x ∈  , 
 1 − 3x   3 3
 3 x − x3   1 
= π + Tan −1  2  , if x ∈  , ∞
 1 − 3 x   3 
 3 x − x3   1 
= − π + Tan −1  2  , if x ∈  − ∞ , − .
 1 − 3 x   3
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 333

8.3.14 Solved Problems

1. Problem: Find the values of the following.

 1  3  1 
(i) Sin −1  −  (ii) Cos −1  −  (iii) Tan −1  
 2  2   3
 2 
(iv) Cot −1 ( − 1) (
(v) Sec −1 − 2 ) (vi) Cosec −1 
 3


Solution
 π  −1 −π  − π π   − 1 − π
(i) sin  −  = and ∈ ,  ⇒ Sin −1   = .
 6 2 6  2 2  2  6
 π π − 3
(ii) cos  π −  = − cos = and
 6 6 2
5π − 3 5π
∈[0, π ] ⇒ Cos −1   = .
6  2  6
π 1 π −π π   1  π
(iii) tan = and ∈ ,  ⇒ Tan −1   = 6 .
6 3 6  2 2  3
3π  π π
(iv) cot = cot  π −  = − cot = − 1 and
4  4 4
3π 3π
∈(0, π ) ⇒ Cot −1 ( − 1) = .
4 4
3π  π π
(v) sec = sec  π −  = − sec = − 2 and
4  4 4
3π  π 3π

∈ , π  ⇒ Sec −1 − 2 =
4 2  4
(. )
π 2 π  π 2 π
(vi) cosec = and ∈  0,  ⇒ Cosec −1 = .
3 3 3  2 3 3
2. Problem: Find the values of the following .
 4π   4π   4π 
(i) Sin −1  sin  (ii) Cos −1  cos  (iii) Tan −1  tan 
 3   3   3 
Solution
 4π    π   π
(i) Sin −1  sin  = Sin −1  sin  π +   = Sin −1  − sin 
 3    3   3
  −π   −π −π  −π π 
= Sin −1  sin   = , since ∈ , .
  3  3 3  2 2
 334 Mathematics - IA

4π   π  π
(ii) Cos −1  cos  = Cos
−1  −1 
 cos  π +   = Cos  − cos 
 3    3   3
 2π  2π 2π
= Cos −1  cos  = , since ∈ (0 , π ) .
 3  3 3

4π   π  π
(iii) Tan −1  tan  = Tan
−1  −1 
 tan  π +   = Tan  tan 
 3    3   3
π π  −π π 
=, since ∈ , .
3 3  2 2
3. Problem: Find the values of the following.
 5  25   − 1 24 
(i) sin  Cos −1  (ii) tan  Sec −1  (iii) cos  Tan 
 13   7   7 
Solution:
 −1 5   − 1 12  12
(i) sin  Cos  = sin  Sin  = .
 13   13  13

 25   24  24
(ii) tan  Sec −1  = tan  Tan −1  = .
 7   7  7

(iii) cos  Tan −1  = cos  Cos −1

24 7  7
 = .
 7   25  25
4. Problem: Find the values of the following.
2  −1 3  π  4 
(i) sin  Tan  (ii) sin  − Sin −1 − 
 4 2  5 
 −1  2  −1  2  
(iii) cos  Cos  −  − Sin   
  3  3 
( ) (
(iv) sec2 Cot −1 3 + cosec2 Tan −1 2 )
Solution
 −1 3   −1 3  3
(i) sin  Tan  = sin  Sin =
 4  5 5
2
 3   3  9
Therefore, sin  Tan −1  = sin  Tan −1   =
2
.
 4   4  25

π  − 4  π −1  4  
(ii) sin  − Sin −1    = sin  + Sin    (since Sin ( − x ) = − Sin x )
−1 −1
2  5  2 5 
 4  3 3
= cos  Sin −1  = cos  Cos −1  = .
 5  5 5
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 335

(iii)  Cos −1  − 2  − Sin −1  2   =  π − Cos −1 2  − Sin −1 2

  3   3   3 3
(since Cos ( − x ) = π − Cos −1 x )
−1

 2 2
= π −  Cos −1 + Sin −1 
 3 3
π π
=π− = .
2 2
  −2 2 π
Hence cos  Cos −1   − Sin −1  = cos = 0 .
  3  3 2
−1
(iv) If Cot 3 = è , then show that cot è = 3 .
2
1 10
Therefore sec 2 è = 1 + tan 2 è = 1 +   = .
3 9
(
That is, sec 2 Cot −1 (3) =
10
9
. )
Again, if Tan −1 2 = α , then tan α = 2 .
1 5
Therefore, cosec α = 1 + cot α = 1 + = .
2 2

4 4
2
(
−1
Thus, cosec Tan 2 = .
5
4
)
( −1
)
Hence sec Cot 3 + cosec Tan 2 =
2 2 −1 10
9
+(5
4
=
85
36
.)
5. Problem: Find the value of Cot −1
1 1.
+ Cot −1  
2 3
1 1
Solution: We know that Cot −1 = Tan −1 2 and Cot −1   = Tan −1 3 .
2 3
By 8.3.11, (ii)
1 1  2 + 3
Cot −1 + Cot −1 = Tan −1 2 + Tan −1 3 = π + Tan −1  
2 3 1− 6 
π 3π
= π + Tan −1 ( −1) = π − = .
4 4
4 7 117
6. Problem: Prove that Sin −1 + Sin −1 = Sin −1 .
5 25 125
Solution
Method (i):
4 −1 7
Let Sin −1 = α and Sin = β.
5 25
π
and α, β ∈  0 , 
4 7
Then sin α = and sin β =
5 25  2
 336 Mathematics - IA

3 24
so that cos α = , cos β = and α + β ∈ (0, π )
5 25
Now cos (α + β ) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β

3 24 4 7 44
= . − . = > 0.
5 25 5 5 125

 π
Hence α + β ∈  0,  . Now,
 2
4 24 3 7
sin (α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β = . + .
5 25 5 25
96 + 21 117
= =
125 125
 117 
∴ α + β = Sin −1  .
 125 
4 7 117
Hence, Sin −1 + Sin −1 = Sin −1 .
5 25 125
Method (ii)

(
We know that Sin −1 x + Sin −1 y = Sin −1 x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 . )
if x > 0, y > 0 and x2 + y 2 < 1

4 7  4 49 7 16 
Therefore, Sin −1 + Sin −1 = Sin −1  1− + 1− 
5 25  5 625 25 25 

 4 24 7 3 − 1  117 
= Sin −1  . +  = Sin  .
 5 25 25 5   125 

7. Problem: If x∈ ( −1, 1) , prove that 2 Tan −1 x = Tan −1

2x
.
1 − x2
π π
Solution: Let x∈ ( −1, 1) and Tan −1 x = α . Then tan α = x and − < α < . Now
4 4

 2x   2 tan α   π π
Tan −1  = Tan −1  = Tan ( tan 2 α ) = 2 α , since 2 α∈ − , 
−1
2  
1 − x   1 − tan α 
2
 2 2

2x
∴ Tan −1 = 2 Tan −1 x.
1− x 2
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 337

4 5  16  π
8. Problem: Prove that Sin −1 + Sin −1 + Sin −1   = .
5 13  65  2
4 5
Solution: Let Sin −1 = A and Sin −1 = B . Then A, B are acute angles
5 13
4 5 3 12
and sin A = , sin B = . Hence cos A = , cos B = . Now,
5 13 5 13
cos ( A + B ) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
3 12 4 5 16
= . − . = .
5 13 5 13 65
16 4 5 16 π  16 
⇒ A + B = C os −1 ⇒ Sin −1 + Sin −1 = Cos −1 = − Sin −1   .
65 5 13 65 2  65 
4 5 16 π
⇒ Sin −1 + Sin −1 + Sin −1 = .
5 13 65 2
41 π
9. Problem: Prove that Cot −1 9 + Cosec −1 = .
4 4
41
Solution: Write Cot −1 9 = α and Cosec −1 = β.
4
41 .
Then cot α = 9 and cosec β =
4
π 1 4
⇒ 0 < α, β < and tan α = , tan β = . Now
2 9 5

1 4 41
+
tan α + tan β
tan (α + β ) = = 9 5 = 45 = 1 .
1 − tan α tan β 1 4 41
1− .
9 5 45
1 4 4 π
Since . = < 1 , we get α + β = .
9 5 45 4
41 π
Hence Cot −1 9 + Cosec −1 = .
4 4
 13   −1 2 
10. Problem: Show that cot  Sin −1  = sin  Tan .
 17   3
 338 Mathematics - IA

13 13
Solution: Let Sin −1 = α . Then sin α =
17 17
2  13  2 .
Hence cot α = . That is cot  Sin −1  =
13  17  13
2 2
Suppose Tan −1 = β . That is tan β = .
3 3
2  2 2 .
So that sin β = . That is sin  Tan −1  =
13  3 13

 13   −1 2 
Hence cot  Sin −1  = sin  Tan .
 17   3
 1 π
11. Problem: Find the value of tan  2 Tan −1   −  .
 5 4

1 π 1
Solution: Let Tan −1 = α . Then 0 < α < and tan α = .
5 2 5
1
2×
2 tan α 5 = 2 × 25 = 5 .
So that tan 2 α = =
1 − tan α 1 − 1
2
5 24 12
25
  1  π 
Now, tan  2 Tan −1   − 
 5 4
π
tan 2 α − tan
 π 4
= tan  2 α −  =
 4  π
1 + tan 2 α . tan
4
5
−1
12 −7 12 −7
= = × =
5 12 17 17 .
1 + .1
12
4 1 π
12. Problem: Prove that Sin −1 + 2 Tan −1 = .
5 3 2
−1 1 π 1
Solution: Let Tan = β . Then 0 < β < , tan β = .
3 2 3
1
2.
2 tan β 3 = 2 × 9 = 3 . Thus π
Now tan 2 β = = 0<2β<
1 − tan β2
1−
1 3 8 4 2
9
4
⇒ cos 2 β = .
5
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 339

4
Thus 2 β = Cos −1 .
5
4 1 4 4 π
Now Sin −1 + 2 Tan −1 = Sin −1 + Cos −1 = .
5 3 5 5 2
 1  1
13. Problem: Prove that cos  2 Tan −1  = sin  4 Tan −1  .
 7  3
1 1
Solution: Let Tan −1 = α and Tan −1 = β .
7 3
1 1 π
Then tan α = and tan β = . Also 0 < α, β <
7 3 2
1
1−
 1 1 − tan α 2
49 = 48 = 24
Now, cos  2 Tan −1  = cos 2 α = = ... (1)
 7 1 + tan α 1 + 1
2
50 25
49
1
2.
1 2 tan β 3 = 2 × 9 = 3.
tan β = ⇒ tan 2 β = =
3 1 − tan β
2
1−
1 3 8 4
9

 1
Now, sin  4 Tan −1  = sin ( 4 β ) = sin ( 2 ( 2 β ))
 3
3
2.
2 tan 2 β 4 = 3 × 16 = 24
= = ... (2)
1 + tan 2 β
2
1+
9 2 25 25
16
 −1 1   −1 1 
Therefore, from (1) and (2), we get cos  2 Tan  = sin  4 Tan .
 7  3

14. Problem: If Sin −1 x + Sin −1 y + Sin −1 z = π , then prove that

( )
x4 + y 4 + z 4 + 4 x2 y 2 z 2 = 2 x2 y 2 + y 2 z 2 + z 2 x2 .

Solution: Let Sin −1 x = α , Sin −1 y = β and Sin −1 z = γ . Then

sin α = x , sin β = y and sin γ = z and α + β + γ = π (given)
Now α + β = π − γ
⇒ cos (α + β ) = cos ( π − γ ) ⇒ cos α cos β − sin α sin β = − cos γ

⇒ 1 − x2 1 − y2 − x y = − 1 − z2

⇒ 1 − x2 1 − y2 = x y − 1 − z2 .
 340 Mathematics - IA

On squaring both sides we get

(1 − x ) (1 − y ) = x
2 2 2
y2 + 1 − z2 − 2 x y 1 − z2

⇒ 1 − x2 − y 2 + x2 y 2 = x2 y 2 + 1 − z 2 − 2 x y 1 − z 2

⇒ 2 x y 1 − z 2 = x2 + y 2 − z 2 .
Again on squaring both sides, we get

( ) ( )
2
4 x2 y 2 1 − z 2 = x2 + y 2 − z 2

⇒ 4 x2 y 2 − 4 x2 y 2 z 2 = x4 + y4 + z 4 + 2 x2 y 2 − 2 y 2 z 2 − 2 x2 z 2
⇒ x4 + y4 + z 4 + 4 x2 y2 z 2 = 2x2 y 2 + 2 y2 z 2 + 2x2 z 2 .
p q
15. Problem: If Cos −1 + Cos −1 = α , then prove that
a b
p2 2 p q q2
− . cos α + = sin 2 α .
a2 ab b2
p q
Solution: Let Cos−1 = A and Cos −1 = B .
a b
p q
Then cos A = , cos B = and A + B = α (given)
a b
Now, cos α = cos ( A + B ) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

p q p2 q2
= . − 1− 2 . 1− 2
a b a b
p2 q2 pq
⇒ 1− 2 . 1− 2 = − cos α
a b ab
On squaring both sides, we get
2
 p2   q2   p q 
 1 − 2  
. 1 − 2 
= − cos α 
 a   b   ab 

p2 q2 p2 q2 p2 q2 2 pq
⇒ 1− 2
− 2
+ 2 2
= 2 2
− cos α + cos 2 α
a b a b a b ab

p2 2 p q q2
⇒ 2
− cos α + 2
= 1 − cos 2 α = sin 2 α .
a a b b
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 341

5 12 π
16. Problem: Solve arc sin   + arc sin = (x > 0).
x x 2
5 12 π
Solution: Given that Sin −1 + Sin −1 = and x > 0
x x 2
5 π 12 12 144
⇒ Sin −1 = − Sin −1 = Cos −1 = Sin −1 1 − 2
x 2 x x x

5 144
⇒ = 1− 2
x x
On squaring both sides we get

25 144
2
= 1 − 2 ⇒ x 2 = 169 ⇒ x = ± 13 ⇒ x = 13 (since x > 0 ).
x x
3x 4x
17. Problem: Solve Sin −1 + Sin −1 = Sin −1 x .
5 5
3x 4x
Solution: Sin −1 + Sin −1 = Sin −1 x
5 5
 3x 4x 
⇒ x = sin  Sin −1 + Sin −1 
 5 5 

3x 16 x 2 4x 9 x2
= 1− + 1−
5 25 5 25

⇒ x = 0 or 25 = 3 25 − 16 x 2 + 4 25 − 9 x 2

x ≠ 0 ⇒ 4 25 − 9 x = 25 − 3 25 − 16 x .
2 2

On squaring both sides, we get

( ) (
16 25 − 9 x 2 = 625 − 150 25 − 16 x 2 + 9 25 − 16 x 2 )
⇒ 400 − 144 x 2 = 625 − 150 25 − 16 x 2 + 225 − 144 x 2

⇒ 150 25 − 16 x 2 = 450

⇒ 25 − 16 x 2 = 3 ⇒ 25 − 16 x 2 = 9

⇒ 16 x 2 = 16 ⇒ x = ± 1 .
Thus, we get x = − 1, 0, 1 . We can verify that all these values of x satisfy the given equation.
 342 Mathematics - IA

π
18. Problem: Solve Sin −1 x + Sin −1 2 x = .
3
π
Solution: Given that Sin −1 x + Sin −1 2 x =
3
π
(
⇒ cos Sin −1 x + Sin −1 2 x = cos ) 3
1
⇒ 1 − x2 1 − 4 x 2 − x .2 x =
2
1
⇒ 1 − x2 1 − 4 x2 = 2 x2 +
2
On squaring both sides, we get
2

(
1 − x2 )( 
) 1
1 − 4 x2 =  2 x2 + 
 2
1
⇒ 1 − 5 x2 + 4 x4 = 4 x4 + 2 x2 +
4
3 3 3
⇒ 7 x2 = ⇒ x2 = ⇒ x=± .
4 28 2 7
3
But x = − does not satisfy the given equation since Sin −1 x and Sin −1 2 x both are
2 7
negative in this case.
3
∴ Only solution is x = .
2 7

{ (
19. Problem: If sin  2 Cos −1 cot 2 Tan −1 x  = 0 , find x.
  )}
{ ( )}
Solution: sin  2 Cos −1 cot 2 Tan −1 x  = 0
 
⇔ 2 Cos {cot ( 2 Tan x )} = 0
−1 −1
or π or 2 π

(Since the range of Cos −1 is [0, π])

{ (
⇔ Cos −1 cot 2 Tan −1 x = 0 or
π
2
or π)}
( )
⇔ cot 2 Tan −1 x = 1 or 0 or − 1

π π 3π
⇔ 2 Tan −1 x = ± or ± or ±
4 2 4
π π 3π
⇔ Tan −1 x = ± or ± or ±
8 4 8

⇔ x=± ( )
2 − 1 or ± 1 or ± ( 2 +1 .)
Inverse Trigonometric Functions 343

 { (
20. Problem: Prove that cos Tan −1 sin Cot −1 x  =
 )} x2 + 1
x2 + 2
.

Solution: Let Cot −1 x = è . Then cot è = x and 0 < è < π .

(
sin Cot −1 x ) = sin è =
1
cosec è
=
1
=
1
(since 0 < è < π )
1 + cot 2 è 1 + x2

 
( (
Now Tan −1 sin Cot −1 x )) = Tan −1 
1
 = α (say)
 1 + x2 
 
1 π
Then tan α = and 0 < α <
1 + x2 2

 { (  )}
cos Tan −1 sin Cot −1 x  = cos α =
1
sec α
=
1
1 + tan 2 α

1 1 + x2
= =
1 2 + x2 .
1+
1 + x2

Exercise 8(a)
I. 1. Evaluate the following.
 3  1 
(i) Sin −1  −  (ii) Cos −1  
 2   2

(
(iii) Sec −1 − 2 ) (iv) Cot −1 − 3 ( )
π  1    5π  
(v) Sin  − Sin −1  −   (vi) Sin −1 Sin  
3  2    6 
 5π 
(vii) Cos −1  Cos 
 4
2. Find the values of
 −1 3   65 
(i) sin  Cos  (ii) tan  cosec −1 
5  63 
 344 Mathematics - IA

 −1 4   33 π 
(iii) sin  2Sin  (iv) Sin −1  sin 
 5  7 
 17 π 
(v) Cos −1  cos 
 6 
3. Simplify each of the following.
−1  sin x 
(i) Tan  (ii) Tan −1 (sec x + tan x )
 1 + cos x 
−1 1 − cos x
(iii) Tan
1 + cos x

(iv) Sin −1 (2 cos 2 θ − 1) + Cos −1 (1 − 2sin 2 θ)

(v) tan  x + 1 + x  ; x ∈ R

−1 2

II. 1. Prove that

3 8 36
(i) Sin −1 + Sin −1 = Cos −1
5 17 85
3 12 33
(ii) Sin −1 + Cos −1 = Cos −1
5 13 65
 −1 −1 41 
(iii) tan Cot 9 + Cosec  =1
 4 

4 3 27
(iv) Cos −1+ Sin −1 = Tan −1
5 34 11
2. Find the values of
 3 12   3 5 
(i) sin  Cos −1 + Cos −1  (ii) tan  Sin −1 + Cos −1 
 5 13   5 34 
 3 5 
(iii) cos  Sin −1 + Sin −1 
 5 13 
3. Prove that
 −1 1   −1 3 
(i) cos  2Tan  = sin  2Tan 
7 4
  5 − 1 
(ii) tan  2Tan −1   = 2
  2  

  1 2  3
(iii) cos 2 Tan −1 + Tan −1   =
  4 9  5
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 345

4. Prove that
1 1 2
(i) Tan −1 + Tan −1 − Tan −1 = 0
7 13 9
1 1 1 π
(ii) Tan −1 + Tan −1 + Tan −1 =
2 5 8 4
3 3 8 π
(iii) Tan −1 + Tan −1 − Tan −1 =
4 5 19 4
1 1 201
(iv) Tan −1 + Tan −1 = Cot −1 + Cot −1 18
7 8 43
5. (i) Show that sec 2 (Tan −1 2) + cosec 2 (Cot −1 2) = 10 .
 4 2
(ii) Find the value of tan  Cos −1 + Tan −1  .
 5 3
π
(iii) If Sin −1 x − Cos −1 x = , then find x.
6
III. 1. Prove that
3 5 323
(i) 2Sin −1 − Cos −1 = Cos −1
5 13 325
4 1 π
(ii) Sin −1 + 2 Tan −1 =
5 3 2
1 1 1 π
(iii) 4 Tan −1 + Tan −1 − Tan −1 =
5 99 70 4
 1 + x2 − 1 − x2 
2. (i) If α = Tan −1   , then prove that x2 = sin 2α.
 1 + x + 1 − x 
2 2

 −1
 1 + x 2 − 1 
(ii) Prove that tan 2Tan   = x.
  x  

 2x −1  1 − x 
2

(iii) Prove that sin Cot −1 + Cos  1 + x   = 1 .
 1 − x 2 2

π 1 −1  a   π 1 −1  a   2b
(iv) Prove that tan  + cos    + tan  − cos    = .
4 2  b 4 2  b a

3. (i) If Cos−1 p + Cos−1q + Cos−1 r = π, then prove that p2 + q2 + r2 + 2pqr = 1.

346 Mathematics - IA

 2p  −1  1 − q   2x 
2
(ii) If Sin −1  2 
− Cos  2 
= Tan −1  2 
then prove that
 1+ p   1+ q   1− x 

p−q
x= .
1 + pq
(iii) If a, b, c are distinct non-zero real numbers having the same sign. prove that
 ab + 1  bc + 1  ca + 1
Cot −1   + Cot −1   + Cot −1  = π or 2π.
 a −b   b−c   c − a 
(iv) If Sin−1 x + Sin−1y + Sin−1 z = π, then prove that

x 1 − x 2 + y 1 − y 2 + z 1 − z 2 = 2 xyz.
(v) (a) If Tan−1 x + Tan−1y + Tan−1 z = π, then prove that x + y + z = xyz.
π
(b) If Tan−1 x + Tan−1y + Tan−1 z = , then prove that xy + yz + zx = 1.
2
4. Solve the following equations for x :
 x −1  x +1 π
(i) Tan −1   + Tan −1  =
 x − 2  x + 2  4
 1   1   2
(ii) Tan −1  + Tan −1  = Tan −1  2 
 2 x + 1  4 x + 1 x 
 2x  −1  1 − x   2x  π
2
(iii) 3Sin −1   − + 2Tan −1  =
 1 − x 2  3
4Cos  
 1+ x 
2
 1+ x 
2

π
(iv) Sin −1 (1 − x) − 2Sin −1 x =
2
5. Solve the following equations.
 1+ x 1  1
(i) Cot −1   = Cot −1   , x > 0 and x ≠ 1
1− x 2  x

 1  1
(ii) Tan  Cos −1  = Sin  Cot −1  ; x ≠ 0
 x  2
x π
(iii) Cos −1x + Sin −1 =
2 6

(iv) Cos −1 ( )
3.x + Cos −1 x =
π
2
  1 
(v) Sin Sin −1   + Cos −1x  = 1
  5 
Inverse Trigonometric Functions 347

Key Concepts

 π π
L If sin θ = x and è ∈  − ,  , then Sin−1 x = θ.
 2 2

L If cos θ = x and è ∈ [0, π ] , then Cos−1 x = θ.

π π
L If tan θ = x and è ∈ (− , ) , then Tan−1 x = θ.
2 2
L If cot θ = x and è ∈ (0, π ) , then Cot−1 x = θ.

π π
L If sce θ = x and è ∈ [0, ) ∪ ( , π ] , then Sce−1 x = θ.
2 2

π π
L If cosec θ = x and è ∈ [− , 0) ∪ (0, ] , then Cosce−1 x = θ.
2 2

1
L If x∈ [ − 1,1] − {0}, then Sin−1 x = Cosec−1 ( ) .
x

1
L If x∈ [ − 1,1] − {0}, then Cos−1 x = Sec−1 ( ) .
x

1
L (i) If x > 0, then Tan−1 x = Cot−1 ( ) and
x

1
(ii) If x < 0, then Tan−1 x = Cot−1 ( ) − π .
x

π π
L If è ∈ [ − , ], then Sin−1 (sin θ) = θ and if x∈ [− 1,1], then
2 2
sin (Sin−1 x) = x.
L If è ∈ [ 0, π ], then Cos−1 (cos θ) = θ and if x ∈ [− 1,1], then
cos (Cos−1 x) = x.

 π π
L If è ∈  − ,  , then Tan−1 (tan θ) = θ and, for any x ∈ R,
 2 2
tan (Tan−1 x) = x.
L If è ∈ (0, π ) , then Cot−1 (cot θ) = θ and, for any x ∈ R, cot (Cot−1 x) = x.
348 Mathematics - IA

π π
L If è ∈[0, ) ∪ ( π ], then Sec−1 (sec θ) = θ and if x∈ ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) , then
2 2
sec ( Sec−1 x ) = x.

π π
L If è ∈[− , 0) ∪ (0, ], then Cosec−1 (cosec θ) = θ and if x∈ ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) , then
2 2
−1
cosec ( Cosec x ) = x .

L If x∈ [− 1,1], then Sin−1 (− x) = − Sin −1 ( x) .

L If x∈ [− 1,1], then Cos−1 ( − x) = π − Cos −1 ( x) .

L For any x∈ R , Tan−1 (− x) = − Tan −1 ( x) .

For any x∈ R , Cot−1 (− x) = π − Cot x .

−1
L

L If x∈ ( − ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) , then Sec −1 (− x) = π − Sec −1 x .

L If x∈ ( − ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) , then Cosec −1 (− x) = − Cosec −1 x .

π
L If è∈ [0, π ], then Sin−1 ( cos θ) = − è.
2

π π π
L If è∈ [− , ], then Cos−1 (sin θ) = − è .
2 2 2

π
L If è∈ (0, π ) , then Tan−1 (cot θ) = − è.
2

 π π π
L If è ∈  − ,  , then Cot −1 (tan è) = − è .
 2 2 2

ð ð π
L If è ∈[ − , 0) ∪ (0, ], then Sec−1 (cosecθ) = − è .
2 2 2

ð ð π
L If è ∈[0, ) ∪ ( , ð], then Cosec−1 (secθ) = − è .
2 2 2

L (i) If 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, then Sin −1 x = Cos −1 ( 1 − x 2 ) .

(ii) If −1 ≤ x < 0, then Sin −1 x = − Cos −1 ( 1 − x 2 ) .

Inverse Trigonometric Functions 349

 x 
(iii) If −1 < x < 1, Sin −1 x = Tan −1  .
 1− x2 
 

 1 − x2 
L (i) If 0 < x ≤ 1, then Cos −1 x = Sin −1 ( )
1 − x 2 = Tan −1 
 x
.

 
(ii) If − 1 ≤ x < 0, then

 1− x2 
Cos −1 x = π − Sin −1 ( )
1 − x 2 = π + Tan −1 
 x
.

 

 x   1 
L If x > 0, then Tan −1 x = Sin −1   = Cos −1  .
 1 + x2   1 + x2 
   
π
L (i) If − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1, then Sin −1 x + Cos − 1 x = .
2
π
(ii) For any x ∈ R , Tan −1 x + Cot −1 x = .
2
π
(iii) If x∈ ( − ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞) , then Sec −1 x + Cosec −1 x = .
2
L (i) If x, y ∈ [0, 1] and x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1, then

Sin −1 x + Sin −1 y = Sin −1 ( x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 ) .

(ii) If x, y∈ [0, 1] and x 2 + y 2 > 1 , then

(
Sin −1 x + Sin −1 y = π − Sin −1 x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 . )
(iii) If x, y∈ [0, 1] , then Sin −1 x + Sin −1 y = Cos −1 ( )
1 − x 2 . 1 − y 2 − xy .

L (
(i) If x, y ∈ [0, 1], Sin −1 x − Sin −1 y = Sin −1 x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 . )
(ii) If 0 ≤ y ≤ x ≤ 1 , then

Sin −1 x − Sin −1 y = Cos −1 ( 1− x 2

)
1 − y 2 + xy .
350 Mathematics - IA

L (i) If x, y ∈ [0, 1], then

(
Cos −1 x + Cos −1 y = Cos −1 xy − 1 − x 2 1− y2 .)
(ii) If x, y ∈ [0, 1] and x 2 + y 2 ≥ 1 , then

( )
Cos −1 x + Cos −1 y = Sin −1 y 1 − x 2 + x 1 − y 2 .

L (i) If 0 ≤ x ≤ y ≤ 1, then

(
Cos −1 x − Cos −1 y = Cos −1 xy + 1 − x 2 . 1 − y 2 . )
(ii) If x, y ∈ [0, 1] , then

(
Cos −1 x − Cos −1 y = Sin −1 y 1 − x 2 − x 1 − y 2 . )
L (i) If x > 0, y > 0 , then

 −1  x + y 
Tan   if xy < 1
  1 − xy 

−1  x + y 
Tan -1 x + Tan −1 y = π + Tan   if xy > 1
  1 − xy 
 π
 if xy = 1
 2
(ii) If x < 0, y < 0 , then

 −1  x + y 
Tan   if xy > 1
  1 − xy 

−1  x + y 
Tan x + Tan y = −π + Tan 
−1 −1
 if xy < 1
  1 − xy 
 π
 − if xy = 1
 2
x− y
L If x . y > 0 then Tan −1 x − Tan −1 y = Tan −1  .
 1 + xy 
L If x, y, z have the same sign and xy + yz + zx < 1, then
x + y + z − xyz
Tan −1 x + Tan −1 y + Tan −1 z = Tan −1  .
 1 − xy − yz − zx 
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 351

Historical Note

x3 x5 ...
−1
The power series of Tan x = x − + − for | x | ≤ 1 is generally known as Gregory
3 5
(1667 AD) series, named after James Gregory of Scotland. Madhava’s rule leads us to the series
tan 3 è tan 5 è ...
è = tan è −
+ which is the same as Gregory series.
3 5
Madhava of Sangama-grama (1350 - 1425 A.D.) was a mathematician - astronomer of India (Kerala).
He was the first to have developed infinite series, and approximations for a range of trigonometric
functions. His discoveries opened the doors to the present mathematical analysis. His contributions to
infinite series, calculus, trigonometry, geometry and algebra are noteworthy.

Answers

Exercise 8(a)

π π 3π
I. 1. (i) − (ii) (iii)
3 4 4

5π π
(iv) (v) 1 (vi)
6 6

3π
(vii)
4

4 63 24
2. (i) (ii) (iii)
5 16 25

2π 5π
(iv) (v)
7 6

x π x | x|
3. (i) (ii) + (iii)
2 4 2 2

π π 1 
(iv) (v)  + tan −1x
2 4 2 
 352 Mathematics - IA

63 27 33
II. 2. (i) (ii) (iii)
65 11 65

17 3
5. (ii) (iii) x =
6 2

1 −2 1
III. 4. (i) ± (ii) 3, (iii) (iv) 0
2 3 3

1 3 1 1
5. (i) (ii) (iii) 1 (iv) (v)
3 5 2 5
 Hyperbolic Functions 353

“Weierstrass was the mathematical conscience par

excellence and he became known as the father of modern
analysis’’

- Howard Eves

Introduction

If we take x = a cos è and y = a sin è (è ∈ R) , then

x 2 + y 2 = a 2 . In other words, for any real value of θ, the
point ( a cos è, a sin è ) lies on the Circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 .
For this reason, the trigonometric functions we have considered
in chapters 6, 7 and 8 are also known as circular functions.

 eè + e − è   eè − e−è 
If we take x = a   and y = b   , (è∈R)
 2   2  Weierstrass
x2 y2 (1815 - 1897)
then we get that 2 − 2 = 1. This is the equation of a
a b Karl Weierstrass was a German
‘hyperbola’ (Hyperbolas will be discussed in the second year mathematician who is often cited
intermediate course). This means that, points on the hyperbola as the “father of modern
analysis”. He was a great
x2 y2
− = 1 are in the form teacher. He brought rigour into
a 2 b2 mathematics. Weierstrassian
rigour became synonymous with
  eè + e − è   eè − e − è 
 a  , b    , (è ∈ R ) . extremely careful reasoning.
  2   2 
 354 Mathematics - IA

Keeping this fact in view, the Hyperbolic functions are introduced. The number e is
defined as
∞
1 1 1 ... 1 .
e =1+ + +
1! 2 ! 3 !
+ ∞ = ∑ n!
n=0

For any x ∈ R , it is known that

∞
x x2 x3 ... xn .
e = 1+
x
+ +
1! 2 ! 3 !
+ ∞ = ∑ n!
n=0

x
 1
The number e is also given by e = lim  1 +  . You will learn the proofs of these results in
x→∞  x
higher classes and you will also learn that e is an irrational number with 2 < e < 3. The approximate
value of e is given by
e ; 2.718281 ...

9.1 Definitions of Hyperbolic functions, graphs

We begin with the formal definitions of hyperbolic functions.

9.1.1(a) Definition
1. The function f : R → R defined by

e x − e− x
f (x) = , for all x ∈ R
2
is called the ‘hyperbolic sine’ function. It is denoted by sinh x . Thus

e x − e− x
sinh x = for all x ∈ R
2

9.1.1(b) Definition
The function f : R → R defined by

e x + e− x
f (x) = , for all x ∈ R
2
is called the ‘hyperbolic cosine’ function. This is denoted by cosh x, so that

e x + e− x
cosh x = for all x ∈ R
2
 Hyperbolic Functions 355

Now we define the other hyperbolic functions like in circular trigonometric functions.

sinh x e x − e− x
3. tanh x = = x , for all x ∈ R .
cosh x e + e− x

cosh x e x + e − x
4. coth x = = , for all x ∈ R {0}
sinh x e x − e − x
1 2
5. sech x = = x , for all x ∈ R
cosh x e + e − x
1 2
6. cosech x = = x
sinh x e − e − x
, for all x ∈ R {0}

The six functions defined above are called “hyperbolic functions”.

9.1.2 Note

From the above definition, we observe the following

e0 + e −0 e0 − e −0
1. cosh 0 = = 1 and sinh 0 = = 0.
2 2
e− x + e x
2. For any x ∈ R , cosh ( − x ) = = cosh x .
2

Hence the function f ( x ) = cosh x ( x ∈ R ) is an even function.

e− x − e x  e x − e− x 
3. For any x ∈ R , sinh (− x) = =−  = − sinh x .
2  2 

Hence the function f ( x ) = sinh x ( x ∈ R ) is an odd function.

4. From (2) and (3) above we get that tanh x, coth x, cosech x are odd functions and sech x is an even
function.
We have proved in earlier chapters the following identities regarding circular trigonometric functions.

cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1, for all x ∈ R

 π 
sec2 x − tan 2 x = 1, for all x ∈ R (2n + 1) n ∈Z
 2 

and cosec 2 x − cot 2 x = 1 , for all x ∈ R {n π | n ∈Z} .

 356 Mathematics - IA

Now we prove the following identities for hyperbolic functions.

9.1.3 Identities
1. cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1 , for all x ∈ R .

2. 1 − tanh 2 x = sech 2 x , for all x ∈ R .

3. coth 2 x − 1 = cosech 2 x , for all x ∈ R {0} .

(e x + e − x ) 2 (e x − e − x ) 2
Proof: 1. cosh x − sinh x = −
2 2

4 4

=
1
4
{(e 2x
) (
+ e −2 x + 2 − e 2 x + e −2 x − 2 )}
1
= . 4 = 1.
4
2. From (1) above, cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1. On dividing both sides by cosh 2 x ,
we get
1 − tanh 2 x = sech 2 x .

3. Again from (1), we have cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1 .

Since x ≠ 0, sinh x ≠ 0 . So, on dividing the above equation both sides by sinh 2 x , we
2

get coth 2 x − 1 = cosech 2 x .

9.1.4 Graphs of hyperbolic functions

(i) The graph of y = sinh x
Y
Let y = sinh x . 4

e x − e− x 1  e2 x − 1 
Then y = =  . 2
2 2  ex 
X
To draw the graph of y = sinh x,
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
the following observations are useful.
For x > 0 , e 2 x > 1 and hence y > 0 . −2

For x = 0 , e 2 x = 1 and hence y = 0 .

−4
For x < 0 , e 2x
< 1 and hence y < 0 .
Fig. 9.1 Graph of y = sinh x
 Hyperbolic Functions 357

1
Also as x → ∞ , e x → ∞ and → 0 . So sinh x → ∞.
ex

1
and as x → − ∞ , e x → 0 and → ∞ . So sinh x → − ∞ .
ex
Further y is increasing with x and is continuous on R. Thus the graph of y = sinh x is as shown in
Fig. 9.1.
(ii) The graph of y = cosh x

(e ) (e )
2 2
e x + e− x
x
− e− x +4 x
− e− x
Let y = cosh x . That is y = = = +1.
2 2 4

Thus y ≥ 1 for all x ∈ R . Also as x → ∞ , Y

we get as above that y → ∞ . Further y is decreasing

on ( −∞ , 0] , increasing on [0, ∞ ) and y is continuous
on R . Since the function y = cosh x is an even 1
function, its graph is symmetric about y-axis. Keeping X
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
these points in view we can draw the graph of y = cosh x
−1
as shown in Fig. 9.2.

(iii) The graph of y = tanh x Fig. 9.2 Graph of y = cosh x

e x − e− x e2 x − 1
Let y = tanh x = = . Observe the
e x + e− x e2 x + 1
following
At x = 0 , tanh x = 0 ; For x > 0, tanh x > 0 and
for x < 0, tanh x < 0 .

1
1−
As x → ∞ , y = (
e2 x → 1 since e2 x → ∞
1 )
1 + 2x
e

As x → − ∞ , y =
e2 x − 1
e 2x
+1
(
→ − 1 since e2 x → 0 )
 358 Mathematics - IA

Further, y is increasing and continuous on R. Now Y

1
we can draw the graph of y = tanh x as shown in
Fig. 9.3.

X
(iv) The graph of y = coth x −1 0 1
Let y = coth x

e x + e− x
= x (for x ≠ 0) .
e − e− x −1

Fig. 9.3 Graph of y = tanh x

e2 x + 1
Then y = 2 x . Observe that
e −1
Y
as x → ∞ , y → 1 and as x → − ∞ , y → −1 . 2
Also if x > 0 , then y > 0 and
1
y → ∞ as x → 0 + (i.e., x > 0 ).

If x < 0 , then y < 0 and

−2 −1 0 1 2 X
y → − ∞ as x → 0 − (i.e., x < 0 ).
−1
Further, y is decreasing and continuous on R.
Now we draw the graph of y = coth x as shown −2
in Fig. 9.4.
As above, we can also draw the graphs of
Fig. 9.4 Graph of y = coth x
y = sech x and y = cosech x as shown below.
Y Y

2 2

1 1

−2 −1 0 1 2 X −2 −1 0 1 2 X

−1 −1

−2 −2

Fig. 9.5 Graph of y = sech x Fig. 9.6 Graph of y = cosech x

 Hyperbolic Functions 359

9.1.5 Domain and Range of hyperbolic functions

From the observations we have made in 9.1.4 and from the graphs, we observe that the domains and
ranges of the hyperbolic functions are as given in the following table.

Table 9.1

Sl.no. Function y = f (x) Domain ( x ) Range ( y )

(i) y = sinh x R R
(ii) y = cosh x R [1, ∞ )
(iii) y = tanh x R (−1, 1)

(iv) y = coth x R {0} (− ∞ , −1) ∪ (1, ∞ )

(v) y = sech x R (0, 1]

(vi) y = cosech x R {0} R {0}

9.2 Definition of Inverse hyperbolic functions and graphs

In this section we define the inverses of hyperbolic functions by taking the domain suitably in
such a way that the functions become bijections.

9.2.1 Definition

1. The function f : R → R defined by f ( x ) = sinh x for all x ∈ R , is a bijection. Thus the

inverse of this function exists and it is denoted by sinh −1 . Thus, if x, y are real numbers then

sinh −1 x = y ⇔ sinh y = x .

2. The function f : [0, ∞ ) → [1, ∞ ) defined by f ( x ) = cosh x , for all x ∈ [0, ∞ ) , is a

bijection. We define cosh −1 : [1, ∞ ) → [0, ∞ ) by

cosh −1 x = y ⇔ cosh y = x for all x ∈ [1, ∞) .

3. The function f : R → ( −1, 1) defined by f ( x ) = tanh x , for all x ∈ R , is a bijection. We

define tanh −1 : ( −1, 1) → R by

tanh −1 x = y ⇔ tanh y = x for all x ∈ (− 1, 1) .

 360 Mathematics - IA

Similarly,
4. coth−1 : R [−1, 1] → R {0} is defined by
coth −1 x = y ⇔ coth y = x for all x ∈ R [−1, 1].
5. sech −1 : ( 0, 1] → [0, ∞ ) is defined by

sech −1 x = y ⇔ sech y = x for all x ∈ (0, 1] .

6. cosech−1 : R {0} → R {0} is defined by
cosech −1 x = y ⇔ cosech y = x for all x ∈ R {0}.

9.2.2 Domain and Range of inverse hyperbolic functions

The domains and ranges of the six inverse hyperbolic functions defined above are given in the following
table.
Sl.no. Inverse hyperbolic Domain ( x ) Range ( y )
function y = f (x)

(i) y = sinh−1 x R R
(ii) y = cosh−1 x [1, ∞ ) [0, ∞ )
(iii) y = tanh−1 x (−1, 1) R
(iv) y = coth−1 x R [−1, 1] R {0}
(v) y = sech−1 x (0, 1] [0, ∞ )
(vi) y = cosech−1 x R {0} R {0}

9.2.3 Graphs of inverse hyperbolic functions

The graphs of the six inverse hyperbolic functions are given below.
Y
Y
2 2

1 1

−2 −1 0 1 2 X −2 −1 0 1 2 X

−1 −1

−2
−2

Fig. 9.7 Graph of y = sinh−1 x Fig. 9.8 Graph of y = cosh−1 x

Hyperbolic Functions 361

Y Y

−1 0 1 X
−2 −1
0 1 2 X

−1

Fig. 9.9 Graph of y = tanh−1 x Fig. 9.10 Graph of y = coth−1 x

Y
Y 2

0 1 X
−2 −1 0 1 2 X

−1

Fig. 9.11 Graph of y = sech−1 x Fig. 9.12 Graph of y = cosech−1 x

9.3 Addition formulas of Hyperbolic functions

In the following we give formulae to evaluate sinh ( x ± y ) , cosh ( x ± y ) , tanh ( x ± y ) ,

sinh 2 x, cosh 2 x and tanh 2x as in trigonometric functions.

9.3.1 Theorem: For x, y ∈ R

(i) sinh ( x + y ) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y

(ii) sinh ( x − y ) = sinh x cosh y − cosh x sinh y

(iii) cosh ( x + y ) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y

(iv) cosh ( x − y ) = cosh x cosh y − sinh x sinh y

 362 Mathematics - IA

Proof : (i) sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y

 e x − e− x   e y + e− y   e x + e− x   e y − e− y 
=    +   
 2  2   2  2 
=
4
{
1 x+y
e + e x − y − e− x + y − e− x − y + e x + y − e x − y + e− x + y − e− x − y }
2 (e x + y − e − x − y ) e( x + y ) − e −( x + y )
= = = sinh ( x + y ) .
4 2

∴ sinh ( x + y ) = sinh x .cosh y + cosh x . sinh y

Since sinh ( − y ) = − sinh y and cosh ( − y ) = cosh ( y ) (see note 9.1.2),

on replacing y by − y in (i) we get
(ii) sinh ( x − y ) = sinh x cosh ( − y ) + cosh y sinh ( − y ) . Therefore

sinh ( x − y ) = sinh x . cosh y − cosh x . sinh y

(iii) cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y

 e x + e− x   e y + e− y   e x − e− x   e y − e− y 
=   +  
 2  2   2  2 
=
4
{
1 x+ y
e + e x − y + e− x + y + e− x − y + e x + y − e x − y − e− x + y + e− x − y }
e( x + y ) + e ( )
− x+ y
1
= .2. e
4
(
x+ y
+e −x− y
= )2
= cosh ( x + y ) . Therefore

cosh ( x + y ) = cosh x . cosh y + sinh x . sinh y

On replacing y by − y in (iii) above, we get

(iv) cosh ( x − y ) = cosh x . cosh ( − y ) + sinh x . sinh ( − y ) . Therefore

cosh ( x − y ) = cosh x . cosh y − sinh x . sinh y.

9.3.2 Corollary: For any x ∈ R ,

(i) sinh 2 x = 2sinh x cosh x = 2 tanh x

1 − tanh 2 x
1 + tanh 2 x
(ii) cosh 2 x = cosh x + sinh x = 2 cosh x − 1 = 1 + 2sinh x =
2 2 2 2

1 − tanh 2 x
 Hyperbolic Functions 363

Proof
(i) On replacing y by x in 9.3.1(i), we get
sinh 2 x = sinh x . cosh x + cosh x sinh x = 2 sinh x cosh x .

Now sinh 2 x = 2sinh x cosh x =

2sinh x cosh x
cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x
(Q cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1) .
On dividing the numerator and denominator in R.H.S. by cosh 2 x, we get
2 tanh x
sinh 2 x =
1 − tanh 2 x
(ii) On replacing y by x in 9.3.1 (iii), we get
cosh 2 x = cosh x cosh x + sinh x . sinh x = cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x .... (1)

Since cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1, we replace sinh 2 x in (1), by cosh 2 x − 1 to get

cosh 2 x = 2 cosh 2 x − 1

Similarly, on replacing cosh 2 x by 1 + sinh 2 x , we get

cosh 2 x = 1 + 2sinh 2 x

cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x
Finally, cosh 2 x = cosh x + sinh x =
2 2

cosh x − sinh x
2 2 (
. Q cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1 )
On dividing the numerator and denominator in R.H.S. by cosh 2 x , we get

1 + tanh 2 x
cosh 2 x =
1 − tanh 2 x

9.3.3 Theorem : For any x, y ∈ R ,

tanh x + tanh y
(i) tanh ( x + y ) =
1 + tanh x tanh y
tanh x − tanh y
(ii) tanh ( x − y ) =
1 − tanh x tanh y
coth x coth y + 1
(iii) coth ( x + y ) = , if x ≠ − y
coth y + coth x
coth x coth y − 1
(iv) coth ( x − y ) = , if x ≠ y
coth y − coth x
 364 Mathematics - IA

Proof : First we prove (i) and (iii). On replacing y by − y, (ii) follows from
(i) and (iv) follows from (iii).

sinh ( x + y ) sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y

(i) tanh ( x + y ) = =
cosh ( x + y ) cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y

(by Theorem 9.3.1)

On dividing both numerator and denominator in R.H.S. by
cosh x cosh y , we get
tanh x + tanh y
tanh ( x + y ) =
1 + tanh x tanh y

cosh ( x + y ) cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y

(iii) coth ( x + y ) = = .
sinh ( x + y ) sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y

On dividing both numerator and denominator by sinh x sinh y, we get

coth x coth y + 1
coth (x + y) = coth y + coth x

On replacing y by x in (i) and (iii) of theorem 9.3.3, we get the following :

9.3.4 Corollary : For any x ∈ R ,

2 tanh x coth 2 x + 1
(i) tanh 2 x = (ii) coth 2 x = , if x ≠ 0.
1 + tanh 2 x 2 coth x

9.3.5 Inverse hyperbolic functions in terms of logarithmic functions

The inverse of the function f ( x ) = e x ( x ∈ R ) is given by f −1 ( x ) = log e x ( x > 0 ) . Since

hyperbolic functions are defined interms of ex , we naturally expect formuale for inverse hyperbolic
functions interms of log e x . Now we derive them in the following

9.3.6 Theorem : For any x ∈ R ,

(
sinh −1 x = log e x + )
x2 + 1 .

Proof : Let x ∈R and y = sinh −1 x . Then

Hyperbolic Functions 365

e y − e− y e2 y −1
x = sinh y = =
2 2 ey

⇒ e2 y − e y ( 2 x ) −1 = 0 .

This is a quadratic equation in e y . So that

2 x ± 4 x2 + 4
e =
y
= x ± x2 +1 .
2

Since e y > 0 for all y∈ R and x < x 2 + 1 , we get e y = x + x2 +1 .

Thus (
y = log e x + x2 +1 .)
Hence (
sinh −1 x = log e x + x2 +1 . )
9.3.7 Theorem : For any x ∈ [1, ∞ ) , cosh −1 x = log e x + x 2 − 1 . ( )
Proof : Let x ∈ [1, ∞ ) and y = cosh −1 x . Then

e y + e− y e2 y + 1
x = cosh y = =
2 2e y

( ) ( )
2
⇒ ey − 2 x ey + 1 = 0 .

This is a quadratic equation in e y . Therefore

2x ± 4 x2 − 4
ey = =x± x2 − 1 .
2
1
But x − x2 − 1 = < 1 , since x > 1 .
x+ x −1
2

Further, e y ≥ 1 since y ≥ 0 .

Therefore, e y = x + x 2 − 1 . That is y = log e x + ( )

x 2 −1 .

Hence, cos h −1 x = log e  x + x 2 −1  .

 
 366 Mathematics - IA

1 + x 
9.3.8 Theorem : For x ∈ ( −1, 1) ,
1
tanh −1 ( x ) = log e   .
2 1 − x 
Proof : Let x ∈ ( −1, 1) and y = tan h x . Then
−1

e y − e− y
x = tanh y = y =
(e )y 2
−1
.
e + e− y (e )y 2
+1
... (1)

Now from (1),

( )
x  e y ( )
+ 1 = e y ( ) (1 − x )
2 2 2
− 1 ⇒ x + 1 = ey
 
1+ x 1 + x  1 + x 
⇒ e2 y = ⇒ 2 y = loge   (note that  >0
1−x  1− x  1 − x 
for x ∈ ( − 1, 1) )
1 1 + x 
⇒ y= loge  
2  1− x 
1 + x 
 for all x ∈ ( − 1, 1) .
1
Hence tanh −1 x = loge 
2  1 − x 
Similarly we can prove the following.
9.3.9 Note
1 x +1 
1. For x >1, coth −1 x =log e  .
2  x −1 
 1 + 1 − x2 
2. For x ∈(0, 1], sech −1 x = log e  .
 x 
 

 1 − 1 + x2 
3. (i) For x ∈ ( − ∞, 0 ) , cosech −1 x = log e  .
 x 
 
 1 + 1 + x2 
(ii) For x ∈ (0, ∞ ) , cosech −1 x = log e  .
 x 
 
9.3.10 Solved Problems
1. Problem: Prove that for any x ∈ R ,
sinh (3 x ) = 3sinh x + 4sinh 3 x .
Solution: sinh 3 x = sinh ( 2 x + x )
 Hyperbolic Functions 367

= sinh 2 x . cosh x + cosh 2 x sinh x

= ( 2sinh x cosh x ) cosh x + (1 + 2 sinh 2 x ) sinh x

= 2 sinh x (1 + sinh 2 x ) + (1 + 2 sinh 2 x ) sinh x (Q cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1)

= 3 sinh x + 4 sinh 3 x .
2. Problem: Prove that, for any x ∈ R ,
3 tanh x + tanh 3 x
tanh 3 x = .
1 + 3 tanh 2 x
tanh 2 x + tanh x
Solution : tanh 3 x = tanh ( 2 x + x ) =
1 + tanh 2 x . tanh x

2 tanh x
+ tanh x
1 + tanh 2 x 2 tanh x + tanh x (1 + tanh 2 x )
=
=
1+
2 tanh x
. tanh x 1 + tanh 2 x + 2 tanh x ( tanh x )
1 + tanh x2

3 tanh x + tanh 3 x
= .
1 + 3 tanh 2 x

5
3. Problem: If cosh x = , find the values of (i) cosh (2x) and (ii) sinh (2x)
2
Solution :
25 23
(i) cosh ( 2 x ) = 2 cosh 2 x − 1 = 2 . −1 = .
4 2
(ii) We know that cosh 2 ( 2 x ) − sinh 2 ( 2 x ) =1
2

Therefore, sinh 2 ( 2 x ) = cosh 2 ( 2 x ) − 1 =   − 1

23
 2 
232 − 22 (25) (21)
= 2
=
2 4
5 21
∴ sinh ( 2 x ) = ± .
2
x θ
4. Problem: If cosh x = sec θ then prove that tanh 2 = tan 2 .
2 2
x cosh x − 1
Solution : tanh 2 =
2 cosh x + 1
 368 Mathematics - IA

sec θ − 1
=
sec θ + 1

1 − cos θ θ
= = tan 2 .
1 + cos θ 2

 −π π   π 
5. Problem: If è ∈  ,  and x = log e  cot  + è   , then prove that
 4 4  4 
(i) cosh x = see 2 è and (ii) sinh x = − tan 2 è .

 π  π 
Solution: x = log e  cot + è  ⇒ e x = cot  + è  and
 4  4 

1 π 
e− x = = tan  + è  .
π  4 
cot  + è 
4 

Now,

e x + e− x 1  π  π 
(i) cosh x = = cot  + è  + tan  + è  
2 2  4  4 

1 1 − tan è 1 + tan è  1  (1 − tan è ) + (1 + tan è ) 

2 2

=  + =  
2 1 + tan è 1 − tan è  2  1 − tan 2 è 

1  2 (1 + tan è )  1 + tan 2 è
2

=   = = sec 2è .
2  1 − tan 2 è  1 − tan 2 è
 

e x − e− x 1  π  π 
(ii) sinh x = = cot  + è  − tan  + è  
2 2 4  4 

1 1 − tan è 1 + tan è  1  (1 − tan è ) − (1 + tan è ) 

2 2

=  − =  
2 1 + tan è 1 − tan è  2  1 − tan 2 è 

1  − 4 tan è   2 tan è 
=  2 
=−  = − tan 2è .
2 1 − tan è   1 − tan è 
2
 Hyperbolic Functions 369

6. Problem: If sinh x = 5, show that x = log e 5 + ( 26 .)

Solution : sinh x = 5

(
⇒ x = sinh −1 (5 ) = log e 5 + 52 + 1 ) (by Theorem 9.3.6)

= loge 5 + ( )
26 .

−1  1  1
7. Problem : Show that tanh   = log e 3 .
2 2
Solution : From Theorem 9.3.8,
1 1+x
tanh −1 x = log e
2 1− x

1
1+
1 1 2 =
1
Therefore, tanh −1   = log e log e 3 .
 
2 2 1−
1 2
2

Exercise 9(a)
3
1. If sinh x = , find cosh ( 2 x ) and sinh ( 2x ) .
4

2. If sinh x = 3 , then show that x = log e 3 + 10 . ( )

tanh x − tanh y
3. Prove that (i) tanh ( x − y ) = .
1 − tanh x tanh y
coth x . coth y − 1
(ii) coth ( x − y ) = .
coth y − coth x

4. Prove that (i) (cosh x − sinh x )n = cosh ( n x ) − sinh ( n x ) , for any n ∈ R .

(ii) (cosh x + sinh x ) = cosh ( n x ) + sinh ( n x ) , for any n ∈ R .

n

tanh x tanh x
5. Prove that + = − 2 cosech x , for x ≠ 0 .
sech x − 1 sech x + 1

cosh x sinh x
6. Prove that + = sinh x + cosh x , for x ≠ 0 .
1 − tanh x 1 − coth x
 370 Mathematics - IA

7. For any x  R , prove that cosh 4 x  sinh 4 x  cosh  2 x  .

   θ 
8. If u  log e  tan     and if cos θ  0, then prove that cosh u  sec θ .
  4 2 

Key Concepts
e x  e x
 sinh x = .
2

e x  e x
cosh x = .
2
sinh x cosh x 1
 tanh x = ; coth x =  ,
cosh x sinh x tanh x
1
if x  0 ; sech x =
cosh x
1
and cosec h x = if x  0 .
sinh x
 cosh2 x  sinh2 x = 1.

1  tanh2 x = sech2 x.

coth2 x  1 = cosech2 x.
 sinh (x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y .

sinh (x  y) = sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y.

 cosh (x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y.

cosh (x  y) = cosh x cosh y  sinh x sinh y.

tanh x  tanh y
 tanh (x + y) = .
1  tanh x tanh y

tanh x  tanh y
tanh (x  y) = .
1  tanh x tanh y
Hyperbolic Functions 371

2 tanh x
L sinh 2 x = 2 sinh x cosh x = .
1 − tanh 2 x
1 + tanh 2 x
L cosh 2x = cos h2x + sinh2x = 2 cosh2x − 1 = 1 + 2 sinh2 x = .
1 − tanh 2 x
2 tan h x
L tanh 2 x = .
1 + tanh 2 x

L sinh 3 x = 3 sinh x + 4 sinh3 x.

cosh 3 x = 4 cosh3 x - 3 cosh x.

3 tanh x + tanh 3 x
tanh 3 x = .
1 + 3 tanh 2 x

L (
sinh -1 x = log e x + )
x 2 + 1 for all x∈R .

(
cosh -1 x = log e x + x2 − 1 ) for all x∈ [1, ∞ ) .

1 1 + x 
tanh -1 x = log e   for all x∈ ( − 1, 1) .
2 1 − x 

1  x + 1
coth -1 x = log e   for all x∈ ( − ∞, − 1) ∪ (1, ∞) .
2  x − 1 

 1 + 1 − x2 
sech -1 x = log e   for all x∈ ( 0,1) .
 x 
 

 1 − 1 + x2 
cosceh −1 x = log e   if x < 0 and
 x 
 

 1 + 1 + x2 
= log e  
 x  if x > 0.
 
372 Mathematics - IA

Historical Note
Weierstrass (1815 - 1897), was a very influential teacher and his meticulously prepared lectures
established a standard for many future mathematicians. He has devised tests for convergence of series
and contributed to the theory of periodic functions, functions of real variables, elliptic functions, hyperbolic
functions, convergence of infinite products and the calculus of variations. He also advanced the theory
of bilinear and quadratic forms. He initiated a remarkable programme known as the “arithmetization of
analysis”, which stressed that all of mathematical analysis can be logically derived from the postulates of
the real number system.

Answers

Exercise 9(a)
17 15
1. ,
8 8
 Properties of Triangles 373

“The mathematical sciences exhibit particularly order,

symmetry and limitation and these are the greatest
forms of the beautiful”
− Aristotle

Introduction

Geometry is a branch of mathematics which

investigates the relations and properties of solids, surfaces
and angles. Trigonometry is based on the study of the
relations between the sides and angles of a triangle. Many
problems whose solutions can’t be found by the methods
of geometry are readily solved with the aid of trigonometry.
Ceva
Hipparchus (140 B.C), a Greek mathematician (1647 - 1736)
established the relationship between the sides and angles of
Giovanni Ceva was an Italian
any triangle. The three most used ratios to solve a right angled mathematician widely known
triangle are the sine, the cosine and the tangent. As the for proving a theorem known
angle changes in magnitude (size), the above ratios of an after him as Ceva’s theorem on
angle change in numerical value. a property of a triangle.
 374 Mathematics - IA

We have so far considered trigonometry as a subject useful to study the trigonometic functions
and their properties in a modern view point. But one of the main aims of learning trigonometry is to
determine the relation between the sides and angles of a given triangle. If the three sides are known,
then the three angles can be determined and the triangle is fixed.
However, if the three angles are known, the sides cannot be fixed and the triangle is not determined.
The purpose of this chapter is to develop the necessary rules and methods for determining the rest of the
sides and angles of a triangle, given one or two sides and / or angles.

10.1 Relation between the sides and angles of a triangle

In triangle ABC, we denote the sides BC, CA and AB (as well as their magnitudes) by the
symbols a, b, c respectively and the angles at the vertices i.e., CAB, ABC, BCA by the symbol A, B,
C respectively. We also denote its area by the symbol ∆ and its perimeter with 2s, which is equal to
a + b + c.
We know from elementary geometry that in any two triangles, if the corresponding angles are
equal, they are similar. Similarly in two right angled triangles, if one of the acute angles in a triangle is
equal to an acute angle of the other, then the two triangles are similar. From this, once the angles of a
triangle are known, by just knowing one side, it is possible to determine the triangle by computing the
rest of the sides in terms of trigonometric functions. Further, if any two sides of a right angled triangle
are known, it is possible to determine the third side using the Pythagoras theorem and thereby fix the
triangle.
In general, to construct a triangle, we need either two angles and a side or all the three sides. If
two sides and the included angle are given (for example a, b, θ ) the third side can be determined using
the cosine rule c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos θ. If all the three sides of a triangle are known, then the cosine
rules can still be used to fix the angles of the triangle. If θ is a right angle, this rule coincides with the
Pythogoras theorem. If one side and two angles are given, the sine rule (which is discussed in the
following section) can be used to solve the triangle. In using the cosine rule, one has to find the square
root and this difficulty can be overcome by using the appropriate tangent law.

10.2 Sine, Cosine and Tangent Rules - Projection Rules

The circle passing through the three vertices A, B, C of ∆ABC is called the
circumcircle. The centre and radius of this circle are called the circumcentre and circum radius respectively.
We know that the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent and the point of their
concurrence is the circumcentre. We denote the circum centre by S and circumradius by R.
 Properties of Triangles 375

The equation form of the law of sines is actually three equations, each of which is based on the
proportionality of two sides of a triangle to the sines of the angles opposite to them. A study of these
equations shows that the following cases of triangles can be solved by means of law of sines: (i) given any two
angles and any side, (ii) given two sides and angle opposite to one of them.
The law of cosines provides relations which solve triangles coming under the cases: (iii) given two
sides and the included angle, (iv) given 3 sides. In case (iv) it is possible to find anyone of the 3 angles using
b2 + c2 − a 2
cos A = .
2 bc
In a triangle ABC, as usual, we denote (the magnitudes of) the sides AB, BC, CA by c, a, b
respectively and the angles BAC, CBA , ACB by simply A, B, C or A , B, C respectively.
a b c A
10.2.1 Theorem: In ∆ABC , = = = 2R ,
sin A sin B sin C
D
where R is the circumradius. R c

Case (i) : A is acute (see Fig. 10.1). S

b

S is the centre of the circumcircle and

R
CD is its diameter.
B a C
Then CS = SD = R and CD = 2R. Join BD.
Fig. 10.1
π
Then DBC = and ∆DBC is a right angled triangle.
2

Then BAC = BDC , (Q angles in the same segment) A

BC a
∴ sin A = sin BAC = sin BDC = = .
CD 2R c b

a
∴ = 2R.
sin A R S R
B C
a
Case (ii) : A is a right angle (see Fig. 10.2).

Then BC = a = 2R = 2R .1 = 2R sin 900

a
∴a = 2R sin A. Hence = 2R.
sin A
Fig. 10.2
 376 Mathematics - IA

Case (iii) : A is obtuse (see Fig. 10.3).

A
DBC is right angle. (Q angle in the semi circle)
In the cyclic quadrilateral BACD, c b
a
B C
BDC = 180 − BAC = 180 − A
0 0

In ÄBDC, sin A = sin (1800 − A ) R

BC a
= sin BDC = = . S
CD 2R
R
a
Hence = 2R . D
sin A
In a similar way, we can prove
b c
= 2R, = 2R Fig. 10.3
sin B sin C
a b c
∴ = = = 2R .
sin A sin B sin C

10.2.2 Note
(i) Theorem (10.2.1) is called the ‘sine rule’ or ‘law of sines’. Also in a right angled triangle,
Hypotenuse = 2 (circum radius) = circum diameter.
(ii) a = 2R sin A, b = 2R sin B, c = 2R sin C.
a b c
(or) sin A = , sin B = , sin C = .
2R 2R 2R
We shall now derive the cosine rule connecting the sides a, b, c of ∆ABC with the cosines of its
angles A, B, C.
10.2.3 Theorem : In Ä ABC , b 2 = c 2 + a 2 − 2 ca cos B
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2 ab cos C
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2 bc cos A
Proof : a2 = (2R sinA)2
= 4R2 [sin (B + C)]2
= 4R2(sin B cos C + cos B sin C)2
= 4R2{sin2 B(1 − sin2 C) + sin2 C (1 − sin2 B) + 2sin B sin C cos B cos C}
= 4R2{sin2 B + sin2 C + 2 sin B sin C (cos B cos C − sin B sin C)}
= 4R2{sin2 B + sin2 C + 2sin B sin C cos (B + C)}
= b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A.
The proofs of the other two results are similar.
 Properties of Triangles 377

Alternative method Y

Take the vertex B of ∆ ABC as origin and

its side BC along X-axis as shown in Fig. 10.4.
Then B = (0, 0) and C = (a, 0).
Angle made by the side AB with X-axis = B A(c cos B, c sin B)

Here AB = c and A = (c cos B, c sin B) c b

b 2 = CA 2 = (c cos B − a ) + (c sin B − 0 )
2 2
B(0, 0) a C(a, 0) X
= c cos B + a − 2 ca cos B + c sin B
2 2 2 2 2
Fig. 10.4
= c (cos B + sin B ) + a − 2 ca cos B
2 2 2 2

∴ b 2 = c 2 + a 2 − 2 ca cos B .
Similarly we can prove that c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2 ab cos C and a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2 bc cos A .

10.2.4 Note
(i) Theorem (10.2.3) is known as the ‘law of cosines’ and the rules in it are called ‘cosine rules’.

b2 + c2 − a 2 c2 + a 2 − b2
(ii) From the cosine rules, we can write cos A = , cos B =
2bc 2ca
a 2 + b2 − c2
and cos C = .
2ab
These rules are used to find the three angles of a triangle when its sides are given.
10.2.5 Theorem: In Ä ABC, a = b cos C + c cos B.
Proof: From the cosine rules, we have
c2 + a 2 − b2 a 2 + b2 − c2
cos B = , cos C =
2 ca 2 ab
 a + b − c2 
2 2
 c2 + a 2 − b2 
∴ b cos C + c cos B = b   + c  
 2 ab   2 ca 
a 2 + b2 − c2 + c2 + a 2 − b2 2a 2
= = = a.
2a 2a
Similarly, we can prove that b = c cos A + a cos C and c = a cos B + b cos A
Note: These three rules are called the ‘projection rules’.

B − C b − c A
10.2.6 Theorem: In Ä ABC, tan  = cot .
 2  b+c 2
Proof : From the sine rule, b = 2R sin B, c = 2R sin C.
 378 Mathematics - IA

b−c 2R (sin B − sin C ) sin B − sin C

Hence = =
b+c 2R (sin B + sin C ) sin B + sin C
 B +C  B − C
2 cos   sin  
 2   2 
=
 B +C  B − C
2sin   cos  
 2   2 
 B +C  B − C
= cot   tan  
 2   2 
A  B −C    B +C  A
tan 
= tan  Qcot  2  = tan 2 
2  2     
B − C b − c A
∴tan  = cot .
 2  b+c 2
C − A c − a
In a similar way, we can prove that tan  = cot B
 2  c + a 2
 A− B a − b C
and tan  = cot .
 2  a+b 2
Note: These three results are called ‘Napier analogy’ or ‘tangent rules’.

10.3 Half angle formulae and area of a triangle

We have learnt in elementary geometry that, if the base b and the altitude h are given, the area of the
1
triangle, denoted by ∆ is equal to bh . However, if the three sides a, b and c are given, then
2
a+b+c
∆ = s ( s − a ) ( s − b ) ( s − c ) where s = . In this section ∆ is obtained in terms of two of its
2
sides and the sine of the angle between them. We also obtain some relations involving half angles, the perim-
eter and the sides of the triangle.
10.3.1 Theorem : In Ä ABC
A ( s − b) ( s − c ) A s (s − a )
(i) sin
2
=
bc (ii ) cos = and
2 bc
A (s − b) (s − c)
(iii ) tan = .
2 s (s − a)
A
Proof: (i) We have 1 − cos A = 2 sin 2 ... (1)
2
b + c2 − a2
2
By cosine rule, 1 − cos A = 1 −
2bc
Properties of Triangles 379

a 2 − (b − c )
2
2bc − b 2 − c 2 + a 2
= =
2bc 2bc
=
( a + b − c ) (a − b + c )
.
2bc
Since a + b + c = 2s, a + b − c = 2s − 2c = 2 ( s − c )

Similarly a − b + c = 2s − 2b = 2 ( s − b )
2 ( s − c ) . 2 ( s − b ) 2 ( s − b )( s − c )
∴ 1 − cos A = =
2bc bc
A 2 (s − b ) . (s − c )
∴ From (1) , 2 sin 2 =
2 bc
A ( s − b )( s − c )  A A 
Q < 90 , sin > 0
0
∴ sin = .
2 bc  2 2 
A
(ii) We have 1 + cos A = 2 cos 2 ... (2)
2
(b + c ) − a 2
2
b2 + c2 − a 2
By cosine rule 1 + cos A = 1 + =
2 bc 2 bc

=
(b + c + a )(b + c − a ) =
2s . 2 ( s − a )
=
2s ( s − a )
2 bc 2bc bc

A 2s ( s − a ) A s (s − a ) A s (s − a )
From (2) , 2 cos
2
= ∴ cos 2 = ⇒ cos = .
2 bc 2 bc 2 bc

A
A
=
sin
2 = (s − b) (s − c ) s (s − a )
(iii) tan , (from results (i) and (ii))
2 cos A bc bc
2
(s − b) (s − c)
= s (s − a ) .

10.3.2 Note: In a similar way, we can prove that

sin
B
=
( s − c )( s − a ) sin
C
=
( s − a )( s − b )
,
2 ca 2 ab

B s (s − b) C s (s − c )
cos = , cos =
2 ca 2 ab
 380 Mathematics - IA

tan
B
=
( s − c )( s − a ) C
=
( s − a )( s − b ) .
, tan
2 s (s − b) 2 s (s − c)
10.3.3 Deductions: The following deductions can be made from Theorem (10.3.1):
A A
=2
(s − b) (s − c ) s (s − a )
(i) sin A = 2sin cos
2 2 bc bc
2
= s ( s − a )( s − b )( s − c ) .
bc
2
(ii) sin B = s ( s − a )( s − b )( s − c ) .
ca
2
(iii) sin C = s ( s − a )( s − b )( s − c ) .
ab
We now find the area of the ∆ ABC denoted by the symbol ∆ , in terms of two of its sides and the
sine of the anlge between them.
10.3.4 Theorem : ∆ = area of ∆ ABC
1 1 1
= bc sin A = ca sin B = ab sin C
2 2 2 A
Proof : In ∆ ABC , from A draw AD perpendicular to BC (Fig.10.5).
1
Then ∆ = ( base ) ( height )
2
b
1 1
= BC . AD = a . AD c
2 2
AD
In ∆ ABD, sin B = .
AB
Hence AD = AB sin B = c sin B
B D a C
1 1
⇒ ∆ = a . (c sin B) = ca sin B .
2 2 Fig. 10.5
1 1
Similarly, we can prove that ∆ = ab sin C and ∆ = bc sin A .
2 2
1 1 1
⇒ ∆= ab sin C = bc sin A = ca sin B ... (1)
2 2 2
1 1
Consequences: ∆ = ab sin C = ( 2R sin A ) ( 2R sin B ) sin C
2 2
= 2R 2 sin A sin B sin C ... (2)
1 1 2
∆ = ab sin C = ab . s ( s − a )( s − b )( s − c )
2 2 ab
= s ( s − a )( s − b )( s − c ) ... (3)
Properties of Triangles 381

1 1 c  c 
∆= ab sin C = ab . , Q = 2R 
2 2 2R  sin C 
abc
= . ... (4)
4R
Formulae (1) - (4) are useful for finding the area of a triangle.

10.3.5 Note
A
(i) tan can also be expressed as
2

tan
A
=
( s − b )( s − c ) × 1 = ( s − b )( s − c ) . ( s − b )( s − c )
2 s (s − a ) s (s − a ) ( s − b )( s − c )
=
(s − b) (s − c ) =
( s − b )( s − c )
s ( s − a )( s − b )( s − c ) ∆

A ∆
⇒ cot = .
2 ( s − b )( s − c )
Similarly, we can deduce that
B ( s − c )( s − a ) B ∆
tan = , hence cot = .
2 ∆ 2 ( s − c )( s − a )
C ( s − a )( s − b ) C ∆
and tan = , hence cot = .
2 ∆ 2 ( s − a )( s − b )
A
(ii) tan can also be expressed in an alternate form
2

tan
A
=
( s − b )( s − c ) × 1 = ( s − b )( s − c ) × s (s − a )
2 s (s − a ) s (s − a ) s (s − a )

s ( s − a ) ( s − b )( s − c ) ∆
= =
s (s − a ) s (s − a )
A s (s − a )
⇒ cot = .
2 ∆
Similarly, we can deduce that
B ∆ B s (s − b)
tan = ⇒ cot =
2 s (s − b ) 2 ∆ ,

C ∆ C s (s − c)
tan = ⇒ cot =
2 s (s − c) 2 ∆ .
 382 Mathematics - IA

 A − B
cos  
a+b  2 
10.3.6 Theorem : In ∆ ABC, = .
c C
sin
2
Proof: From sine rule, we have a = 2R sin A , b = 2R sin B , c = 2R sin C .
a+b 2R (sin A + sin B ) sin A + sin B
Hence = =
c 2R sin C sin C
 A + B  A − B  C  A − B
2sin   cos   sin  900 −  cos  
=  2   2  =  2  2 
C C C C ,
2sin cos sin cos
2 2 2 2
 A + B 1800 − C C
Q A + B + C = 180 0
, = = 900 − 
 2 2 2
A − B
cos  
=  2 
C
sin
2
B − C C − A
cos   cos  
Similarly, we can prove that
b+c
=  2 ; c + a =  2 
.
a A b B
sin sin
2 2
Note:
A − B B − C C − A
sin   sin   sin  
a−b  2 , b−c =  2  and c − a =  2 
= B
.
c C b A b cos
cos cos
2 2 2
10.3.7 Solved Problems
3
1. Problem: In ∆ ABC , if a = 3, b = 4 and sin A = , find angle B.
4
a b
Solution: From sine rule, = .
sin A sin B
3
4.  
=   = 1 ⇒ B = 900 .
b sin A 4
∴ sin B =
a 3
2. Problem: If the lengths of the sides of a triangle are 3, 4, 5, find the circumradius
of the triangle.
Solution: Given that the sides of a triangle are 3, 4, 5.
Now 32 + 42 = 52 . Hence the triangle is right angled and its hypotenuse = 5.
 Properties of Triangles 383

1 5
∴ Circumradius = (hypotenuse) =
2 2
(OR)
c
By using Sine Rule = 2R
sin C
∴ c = 2R Sin C
= 2R sin 900
c = 2R
c 5
R= = .
2 2
3. Problem: If a = 6, b = 5, c = 9, then find angle A.
b 2 + c 2 − a 2 = 25 + 81 − 36 = 70 = 7 .
Solution: From cosine rule, cos A =
2bc 2.5.9 90 9
7
∴ A = Cos −1   .
9
4. Problem: In ∆ ABC, show that Σ (b + c ) cos A = 2s .
Solution: L.H.S. = (b + c ) cos A + (c + a ) cos B + ( a + b ) cos C
= (b cos A + a cos B ) + (c cos B + b cos C ) + ( a cos C + c cos A )
= c + a + b = 2 s. = R.H.S .
5. Problem: If the sides of a triangle are 13, 14, 15, then find the circum diameter.
Solution: Let a = 13, b = 14 , c = 15 . Then 2 s = a + b + c = 13 + 14 + 15 = 42 ,
s = 21, s − a = 8, s − b = 7 , s − c = 6.
∆ = s ( s − a )( s − b )( s − c ) = 21.8.7.6 = 84 .
abc
⇒ = ∆ = 84 ⇒ 4R × 84 = 13 × 14 × 15 .
4R
65
∴ Circum diameter (2R) = .
4
6. Problem: In ∆ ABC , if ( a + b + c ) (b + c − a ) = 3bc , find A.
s (s − a) 3
Solution: 2 s ( 2 s − 2 a ) = 3 bc ⇒ =
bc 4
A 3 A 3
⇒ cos 2 = ⇒ cos = = cos 300.
2 4 2 2
A
∴ = 300 ⇒ A = 600 .
2
 384 Mathematics - IA

B
7. Problem: If a = 4 , b = 5, c = 7 , find cos.
2
Solution: 2 s = a + b + c = 4 + 5 + 7 = 16 ⇒ s = 8, s − b = 3
B s (s − b) 8 (3 ) 6
∴ cos = = = .
2 ca 7 (4) 7
C B
8. Problem: In ∆ ABC, find b cos 2 + c cos 2 .
2 2
C B  s (s − c)  s (s − b) 
Solution: b cos 2 + c cos 2 =b  + c 
2 2  ab   ca 
s (s − c ) s (s − b) s s
= + = [s − c + s − b ] = . a = s.
a a a a
A 5 C 2
9. Problem: If tan = and tan = , determine the relation between a, b, c.
2 6 2 5
A C 5 2 2
Solution: tan . tan = . = .
2 2 6 5 6
( s − b )( s − c ) ( s − b )( s − a ) =
2
s (s − a ) s (s − c)
i.e., .
6
s−b 1
⇒ = ⇒ 3s − 3b = s ⇒ 2 s = 3b .
s 3
⇒ a + b + c = 3b ⇒ a + c = 2b . Hence a, b, c are in A.P.
A b+c
10. Problem: If cot = , find angle B.
2 a
A cos  B − C 
A b+c
cos  
Solution: cot = ⇒ 2 =  2  , (by 10.3.6)
2 a A A
sin sin
2 2
A B−C
⇒ = ⇒ A = B − C ⇒ A + C = B ⇒ A + B + C = 2B
2 2
∴ 2B = 1800 ⇒ B = 900 .
C − A B
11. Problem: If tan   = k cot , find k.
 2  2

C − A c − a B
Solution: Comparing with tan  =  cot (by tangent law),
 2  c + a 2
c−a
we get that k = .
c+a
 Properties of Triangles 385

b 2 − c 2 sin ( B − C )
12. Problem: In ∆ ABC, show that = .
a2 sin ( B + C )
b 2 − c 2 4R (sin B − sin C )
2 2 2

Solution: L.H.S. = =
a2 4R 2 sin 2 A
sin 2 B − sin 2 C sin ( B + C ) sin ( B − C )
= = , Q sin A = sin ( B + C )
sin 2 A sin 2 ( B + C )
sin ( B − C )
= = R.H.S.
sin ( B + C )
abc
13. Problem: Show that a 2 cot A + b 2 cot B + c 2 cot C = .
R
Solution: L.H.S. = a cot A + b cot B + c cot C
2 2 2

cos A cos B cos C

2 2
= 4R sin A . + 4R 2 sin 2 B . + 4R 2 sin 2 C . ,
sin A sin B sin C
(by sine rule)
= 2R 2
( 2 sin A cos A + 2 sin B cos B + 2 sin C cos C )
= 2R (sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C )
2

= 2R 2 ( 4 sin A sin B sin C )

1 abc
= ( 2R sin A ) ( 2 R sin B )( 2 R sin C ) = = R.H.S .
R R
A A
14. Problem: Show that (b − c ) cos 2 + (b + c ) sin 2 = a2 .
2 2

2 2
Solution: L.H.S. = (b 2 + c 2 − 2bc ) cos 2 + (b 2 + c 2 + 2bc ) sin 2
A A
2 2
 A  A
= (b 2 + c 2 )  cos 2 + sin 2  − 2bc  cos 2 − sin 2 
A A
 2 2  2 2
= b + c − 2bc cos A = a .
2 2 2

15. Problem: Prove that a (b cos C − c cos B ) = b 2 − c 2 .

Solution: L.H.S. = ab cos C − ca cos B
 a 2 + b2 − c2   c2 + a 2 − b2 
=  −  , (by cosine rule)
 2   2 
1 2
= a + b2 − c2 − c2 − a 2 + b2  = b 2 − c 2 = R.H.S.
2  
 386 Mathematics - IA

c − b cos A cos B
16. Problem: Show that = .
b − c cos A cos C
Solution: From projection rule, c = a cos B + b cos A and b = c cos A + a cos C .

Now L.H.S. =
( a cos B + b cos A ) − b cos A
(c cos A + a cos C ) − c cos A
a cos B cos B
= = = R.H.S.
a cos C cos C
1 1 3
17. Problem: In ∆ ABC, if + = , show that C = 600 .
a+c b+c a+b+c

1 1 3 b+c+a+c 3
Solution: + = ⇒ =
a+c b+c a+b+c ( a + c )(b + c ) a + b + c
⇒ 3 ( a + c ) (b + c ) = ( a + b + 2c ) ( a + b + c )

( ) (
⇒ 3 ab + ac + bc + c 2 = a 2 + b 2 + 2ab + 3c ( a + b ) + 2c 2 )
⇒ ab = a 2 + b 2 − c 2 = 2ab cos C (from cosine rule)
1
⇒ cos C = ⇒ C = 600.
2

18. Problem: If a = (b − c ) sec è , prove that tan è =

2 bc A
sin .
b−c 2
a
Solution: a = (b − c ) sec è ⇒ sec è =
b−c
a 2 − (b − c )
2
a2
tan è = sec 2 è − 1 =
2
−1=
(b − c ) (b − c )
2 2

=
( a + b − c )( a − b + c )
(b − c )
2

2 (s − c ) 2 (s − b) 4bc ( s − b )( s − c )
= =
(b − c ) (b − c )
2 2
bc

4bc A
= . sin 2
(b − c )
2
2

2 bc A
∴ tan è = sin .
b−c 2
Properties of Triangles 387

 A B C
19. Problem: In ∆ ABC, show that ( a + b + c )  tan + tan  = 2c cot .
 2 2 2
 ∆ ∆ 
( a + b + c )  tan
A B
Solution: L.H.S. = + tan  = 2s  + 
 2 2  s ( s − a ) s ( s − b ) 
 1 1   s−b+s−a 
= 2∆  +  = 2 ∆  
s − a s − b  ( s − a ) ( s − b ) 
 ∆  C
= 2c   = 2c cot = R.H.S.
 ( s − a )( s − b )  2
20. Problem: Show that b 2 sin 2C + c 2 sin 2B = 2bc sin A .
Solution: L.H.S. = b 2 sin 2C + c 2 sin 2B
= 4R 2 sin 2 B ( 2 sin C cos C ) + 4R 2 sin 2 C ( 2 sin B cos B )
= 8R 2 sin B sin C (sin B cos C + cos B sin C )
= 8R 2 sin B sin C sin ( B + C )
= 2 ( 2R sin B) ( 2R sin C) sin A
= 2bc sin A = R.H.S.
a 2 + b2 + c2
21. Problem: Prove that cot A + cot B + cot C = .
4∆
cos A  b2 + c2 − a 2 
Solution: L.H.S. = Σ cot A = ∑ sin A = ∑  2bc sin A  , (by cosine rule)
 
b2 + c 2 − a 2  1 
=∑ 4∆ , Q∆ = 2 bc sin A
1
= b 2 + c 2 − a 2 + c 2 + a 2 − b 2 + a 2 + b 2 − c 2 
4∆  
a 2 + b2 + c2
= = R.H.S .
4∆
A B C ∆
22. Problem: Show that a cos 2 + b cos 2 + c cos 2 =s+ .
2 2 2 R
A 1
. = Σ a cos 2
Solution: L.H.S. = Σ a (1 + cos A )
2 2
1 1 1
= Σ ( a + a cos A ) = ( a + b + c ) + Σ ( 2R sin A cos A )
2 2 2
1 R R
= ( 2s ) + Σ sin 2 A = s + (sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C )
2 2 2
 388 Mathematics - IA

R
= s+ ( 4 sin A sin B sin C )
2
= s+
1
R
( 2R 2 sin A sin B sin C )

∆
= s+
R
(Q ∆ = 2R 2 sin A sin B sin C ) = R.H.S.

23. Problem: In ∆ ABC , if a cos A = b cos B , prove that the triangle is either isosceles or right
angled.
Solution: a cos A = b cos B ⇒ 2R sin A cos A = 2R sin B cos B
⇒ sin 2A = sin 2B = sin (1800 − 2B )
Hence 2A = 2B or 2A = 1800 − 2B .
⇒ A = B or A = (900 − B)
⇒ a = b or (A + B) = 90 0
⇒ a = b or C = 900 .
∴ The triangle is isosceles or right angled.
A B C
24. Problem: If cot : cot : cot = 3 : 5 : 7 , show that a : b : c = 6 : 5 : 4 .
2 2 2
A B C
Solution: cot : cot : cot = 3 : 5 : 7
2 2 2
s (s − a ) s (s − b) s (s − c)
⇒ : : = 3:5:7
∆ ∆ ∆
⇒ (s − a ) : (s − b) : (s − c) = 3 : 5 : 7
s−a s−b s−c
⇒ = = = k (say)
3 5 7
Then s − a = 3k , s − b = 5k , s − c = 7 k
Adding these equations, 3s − ( a + b + c ) = 3k + 5k + 7k = 15 k
⇒ 3s − 2 s = 15k ⇒ s = 15k . Hence a = 12k , b = 10k , c = 8k
∴ a : b : c = 12k : 10k : 8k = 6 : 5 : 4 .
25. Problem:Prove that a3 cos ( B − C ) + b3 cos (C − A ) + c3 cos ( A − B) = 3abc .
Solution: L.H.S. = Σ a3 cos ( B − C ) = Σ a 2 (2R sin A) cos ( B − C )
= R Σ a 2 .  2sin ( B + C ) cos ( B − C ) = R Σ a 2 (sin 2B + sin 2C )

= R Σ a 2 . ( 2 sin B cos B + 2 sin C cos C )

= Σ  a 2 ( 2R sin B ) cos B + a 2 ( 2R sin C ) cos C 
Properties of Triangles 389

= Σ ( a 2b cos B + a 2 c cos C )

= (a b cos B + a c cos C ) + (b c cos C + b a cos A ) +

2 2 2 2

(c a cos A + c b cos B )
2 2

= ab ( a cos B + b cos A ) + bc (b cos C + c cos B ) +

ca (c cos A + a cos C )
= ab (c ) + bc ( a ) + ca (b ) = 3 abc = R.H.S.
26. Problem: If p1 , p2 , p3 are the altitudes of the ∆ABC then, show that
1 1 1 cot A + cot B + cot C
+ 2 + 2 = .
2
p1 p2 p3 ∆

Solution : Since p1 , p2 , p3 are the altitudes of ∆ ABC , we have

1 1 1 2∆ 2∆ 2∆
∆ = ap1 = bp2 = cp3 ⇒ p1 = , p2 = , p3 =
2 2 2 a b c
1 1 1 a 2 + b2 + c2 1
Now 2 + + = = (cot A + cot B + cot C )
p1 2
p2 2
p3 4∆ 2
∆
 a 2 + b2 + c2 
= R.H.S. Q cot A + cot B + cot C = , from problem (21)  .
 4∆ 
27. Problem: The angle of elevation of the top point P of the vertical tower PQ of height h from a
point A is 450 and from a point B is 600, where B is a point at a distance 30 meters from the point A
measured along the line AB which makes an angle 300 with AQ. Find the height of the tower.
P
Solution : In the Fig. 10.6
PQ = h, PAQ = 450 150

BAQ = 300 and PBC = 600 h

Also AB = 30 mts.
600
∴ BAP = APB = 15 . 0 B C
This gives BP = AB = 30 and 450
300
h = PC + CQ = BP sin 600 + AB sin 300 A
D Q
= 15 3 + 15 = 15( 3 + 1) metres. Fig. 10.6
28. Problem: Two trees A and B are on the same side of a river. From a point C in the river the
distances of the trees A and B are 250 m and 300 m respectively. If the angle C is 450, find the distance
C river
between the trees (use 2 = 1.414 ).
Solution: From the triangle ABC, using the cosine rule 450
300 m
AB2 = 2502 + 3002 − 2(250)(300) cos 450 250 m

= 100(625 + 900 − 750 2 ) = 46450

A B
∴ AB = 215.5 m. (approximately). Fig. 10.7
 390 Mathematics - IA

Exercise 10(a)
(Note : All problems in this exercise refer to ∆ ABC )
I. 1. Show that Σ a (sin B − sin C ) = 0 .
If a = 3 + 1 cms., B = 30 , C = 45 , then find c.
0 0
2.
3. If a = 2 cms., b = 3 cms., c = 4 cms, then find cos A.
63
4. If a = 26 cms., b = 30 cms. and cos C = , then find c.
65
5. If the angles are in the ratio 1 : 5 : 6, then find the ratio of its sides.
6. Prove that 2 (bc cos A + ca cos B + ab cos C ) = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 .
a 2 + b2 − c2 tan B
7. Prove that 2 = .
c +a −b2 2
tan C
8. Prove that (b + c ) cos A + ( c + a ) cos B + ( a + b ) cos C = a + b + c .
9. Prove that (b − a cos C ) sin A = a cos A sin C.
10. If 4, 5 are two sides of a triangle and the included angle is 600, find its area.
C B
11. Show that b cos 2 + c cos 2 = s.
2 2
a b c
12. If = = , then show that ∆ABC is equilateral.
cos A cos B cos C
II. 1. Prove that a cos A + b cos B + c cos C = 4R sin A sin B sin C .
2. Prove that Σa3 sin ( B − C ) = 0 .
a sin ( B − C ) b sin (C − A ) c sin ( A − B )
3. Prove that = = .
b2 − c2 c2 − a2 a 2 − b2
sin ( B − C )
4. Prove that Σa 2 = 0.
sin B + sin C
a cos A b cos B c cos C
5. Prove that + = + = + .
bc a ca b ab c
1 + cos ( A − B ) cos C a 2 + b 2
6. Prove that = .
1 + cos ( A − C ) cos B a 2 + c 2
7. If C = 600, then show that
a b b a
(i) b + c + c + a = 1 (ii) + 2 =0
c −a
2 2
c − b2
8. If a : b : c = 7 : 8 : 9 , find cos A : cos B : cos C .
Properties of Triangles 391

9. Show that cos A + cos B + cos C = a + b + c .

2 2 2

a b c 2abc
10. Prove that
A − B A + B
(b − a ) cos C + c (cos B − cos A ) = c sin   cosec  .
 2   2 
C A
11. Express a sin 2 + c sin 2 interms of s, a, b, c.
2 2
B C
12. If b + c = 3a, then find the value of cot cot .
2 2

B+C B−C
13. Prove that (b + c) cos = a cos .
2 2
b 2 − c 2 sin (B − C)
14. In a ∆ABC show that = .
a2 sin (B + C)
A B C s2
III. 1. Prove that (i) cot + cot + cot = .
2 2 2 ∆
A B C bc + ca + ab − s 2
(ii) tan + tan + tan = .
2 2 2 ∆
A B C
cot + cot + cot ( a + b + c)
2

(iii) 2 2 2 = 2 .
cot A + cot B + cot C a + b2 + c2

A − B
2. Show that (i) Σ ( a + b ) tan   = 0.
 2 
b− c A b+c A
(ii) cot + tan = 2 cosec ( B − C ) .
b+c 2 b−c 2

a 2 bc A
3. (i) If sin è = , then show that cos è = cos .
b+c b+c 2

2 bc A
(ii) If a = (b + c ) cos è, then prove that sin è = cos .
b+c 2
(iii) For any angle θ, show that a cos è = b cos (C + è ) + c cos ( B − è ) .

4. If the angles of ∆ ABC are in A.P. and b : c = 3 : 2 , then show that A = 750.

a 2 + b2 sin C
5. If = , prove that ∆ABC is either isosceles or right angled.
a −b
2 2
sin ( A − B )
392 Mathematics - IA

6. If cos A + cos B + cos C = 3 / 2 , then show that the triangle is equilateral.

7. If cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2 C = 1 , then show that ∆ ABC is right angled.
8. If a 2 + b 2 + c 2 = 8R 2 , then prove that the triangle is right angled.
A B C
9. If cot
, cot , cot are in A.P., then prove that a, b, c are in A.P.
2 2 2
A B C
10. If sin 2 , sin 2 , sin 2 are in H.P., then show that a, b, c are in H.P.
2 2 2
 a 2 + b2 
11. If C = 900 then prove that  2 sin(A − B) = 1.
 a − b 2 
2 2
12. Show that a sin 2C + c sin 2A = ∆.
4 4
13. A lamp post is situated at the middle point M of the side AC of a triangular plot ABC with BC = 7m,
CA = 8 m and AB = 9 m. Lamp post subtends an angle 150 at the point B. Find the height of the
lamp post.
14. Two ships leave a port at the same time. One goes 24 km per hour in the direction N450 E and other
travels 32 km per hour in the direction S750 E. Find the distance between the ships at the end of 3
hours.
15. A tree stands vertically on the slant of the hill. From a point A on the ground 35 meters down the hill
from the base of the tree, the angle of elevation of the top of the tree is 600. If the angle of elevation
of the foot of the tree from A is 150, then find the height of the tree.
3 3
16. The upper th portion of a vertical pole subtends an angle Tan −1 at a point in the horizontal plane
4 5
through its foot and at a distance 40 m from the foot. Given that the vertical pole is at a height less
than 100 m from the ground, find its height.
17. AB is a vertical pole with B at the ground level and A at the top. A man finds that the angle of elevation
of the point A from a certain point C on the ground is 600. He moves away from the pole along the
line BC to a point D such that CD = 7 m. From D, the angle of elevation of the point A is 450. Find
the height of the pole.
18. Let an object be placed at some height h cm and let P and Q be two points of observation which are
at a distance 10 cm apart on a line inclined at angle 150 to the horizontal. If the angles of elevation of
the object from P and Q are 300 and 600 respectively then find h.

10.4 Incircle and excircles of a triangle

In this section, the notions of incircle, inradius, excircles and ex-radii are introduced.
The relations between the inradius and exradius of a circle are established.
 Properties of Triangles 393

10.4.1 Definition
The circle that touches the three sides of a triangle ∆ ABC internally is called the ‘incircle’
or ‘inscribed circle’ of the triangle. The centre and radius of this incircle are called incentre and
inradius denoted by I and r respectively.
The point of concurrence of the internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle is the incentre
I of ∆ ABC . I is equidistant from all sides of the triangle.

10.4.2 Theorem : In ∆ ABC ,

(i) Ä = rs
A B C
(ii) r = ( s − a ) tan = ( s − b ) tan = ( s − c ) tan
2 2 2
a b c
(iii) r = = =
B C C A A B
cot + cot cot + cot cot + cot
2 2 2 2 2 2
A B C
(iv) r = 4R sin sin sin , where r is the inradius.
2 2 2
Proof
Let I be the point of concurrence of the internal bisectors of the angles A, B, C of the Ä ABC , so that
I is the incentre. A
Draw I D ⊥ BC, I E ⊥ CA, I F ⊥ AB.
A/2
Then I D = I E = I F = r = inradius.

Draw the incircle passing through D, E, F as shown in Fig. 10.8. F E

r
(i) Ä = Area of Ä ABC I
r
= Area of Ä BIC + Area of Ä CIA + Area of Ä AIB
1 1 1 r
= BC . ID + CA . IE + AB . IF
2 2 2
B/2 C/2
1 1 1
= ar + br + cr B D C
2 2 2
1 1 Fig. 10.8
= r ( a + b + c ) = r ( 2 s ) = rs .
2 2
(ii) The circle passing through D, E, F is the incircle and A is an external point to the circle. AF, AE are the
tangents drawn to the circle from A. Hence the length of the tangents AF and AE are equal. By a
similar argument, BF = BD, CD = CE.

But AF + AE + BF + BD + CE + CD = a + b + c.
394 Mathematics - IA

∴ 2 AF + 2BD + 2CD = 2s i.e., 2AF + 2 ( BD + CD ) = 2s.

Hence AF + BC = s i.e., AF + a = s i.e., AF = s − a .
A
∴ r = ( s − a ) tan
A IF r .
In the right angled Ä AFI, tan = = .
2 AF s − a 2
B C
Similarly, we can prove that r = ( s − b) tan and r = ( s − c ) tan .
2 2
(iii) From the right angled triangles IDB and IDC, we have
B BD C DC B C
cot = and cot = i.e., BD = r cot and DC = r cot
2 r 2 r 2 2
 B C a
∴ a = BD + DC = r  cot + cot  ⇒r= .
 2 2
cot
B
+ cot
C
In a similar way, we can prove that 2 2
b c
r= and r= .
C A A B
cot + cot cot + cot
2 2 2 2
 B C
 cos cos 
 B C 2 + 2
a = r  cot + cot  =r
C
(iv) From (iii),
 2 2  sin
B
sin 
 2 2 
 B C C B
 cos 2 sin 2 + cos 2 sin 2 
⇒ 2R . sin A = r  
B C
 sin sin 
 2 2 
A A   B + C   B C
⇒ 2R . 2sin cos = r sin     sin sin 
2 2   2   2 2
A r  A  B + C 
⇒ 4R sin = ; Q cos = sin  
2 sin B sin C  2  2 
2 2
A B C
⇒ r = 4R sin sin sin .
2 2 2
10.4.3 Note: From Theorem 10.4.2, we have
Ä A
= r = ( s − a ) tan i.e., Ä = s ( s − a ) tan
A
s 2 2

A A (s − b) (s − c)
∴ s ( s − a ) ( s − b ) ( s − c ) = s ( s − a ) tan ∴ tan =
2 2 s (s − a )
 Properties of Triangles 395

Similarly, we can prove that

B (s − c) (s − a) C
=
(s − a ) (s − b)
tan = and tan .
2 s (s − b) 2 s (s − c )

10.4.4 Definition
The circle that touches the side BC (opposite to angle A) internally and the other two sides AB and
AC externally is called the ‘excircle’ or ‘escribed circle’ opposite to the angle A.
A
The centre and radius of this excircle, opposite to the angle
A are called excentre and exradius, denoted by I1 and r1
respectively.
The point of concurrence of the internal bisector of the B X1 C
anlge A and the external bisectors of angles B and C of
r1
∆ABC is the excentre I1 . I1 is equidistant from all sides of Z1
r1
Y1
the triangle (Fig. 10.9). r1
Similarly, we have two more excircles opposite to anlges I1
B and C.
The centres and radii of these excircles are denoted by
I2, I3 and r2 , r3 respectively. The triangle obtained by joining
Fig. 10.9
the excentres I1 , I2 , I3 is called the ‘extriangle’.

10.4.5 Theorem : In ∆ ABC , I1 , I2 , I3 are excentres and r1 , r2 and r3 are exradii of the excircles
opposite to the angles A, B, C respectively, then
Ä Ä Ä
(i) r1 = , r2 = , r3 =
s−a s−b s−c
A B c
(ii) r1 = s tan = ( s − c ) cot = ( s − b ) cot
2 2 2
a b c
(iii) r1 = , r2 = , r3 =
B C C A A B
tan + tan tan + tan tan + tan
2 2 2 2 2 2
A B C A B C
(iv) r1 = 4R sin cos cos , r2 = 4R cos sin cos
2 2 2 2 2 2
A B C
r3 = 4R cos cos sin .
2 2 2
Proof : Let I1 be the point of concurrence of the internal bisector of angle A and external bisectors of angles
B and C of the ∆ABC . Then I1 is an excentre.
 396 Mathematics - IA

Draw I1 X1 ⊥ BC, I1 Y1 ⊥ AC (produced), I1 Z1 ⊥ AB (Produced)

Then I1 X1 = I1 Y1 = I1Z1 = r1 = ex-radius.
Draw the ex-circle passing through X1, Y1, Z1 as shown in Fig. 10.9.
(i) ∆ = area of ∆ ABC = area of ∆ AI1B + area of ∆ AI1C − area of BI1C
1 1 1 1 1 1
= AB . I1Z1 + AC . I1 Y1 − BC . I1X1 = cr1 + br1 − ar1
2 2 2 2 2 2
r1 r ∆
= (c + b − a ) = 1 . 2 ( s − a ) = r1 ( s − a ) . ∴ r1 =
2 2 s −a
∆ ∆
Similarly we can prove that r2 = and r3 = .
s −b s−c
(ii) Since the tangents from any external point to a circle are equal, we have AY1 = AZ1 (See Fig. 10.9).
Similarly BX1 = BZ1 and CX1 = CY1.
But BX1 = BZ1 = AZ1 − AB = AY1 − AB ; X1C = CY1 = AY1 − AC .

Adding BX1 + X1C = 2AY1 − ( AB +AC ) i.e., BC = a = 2AY1 − (c + b )

2AY1 = a + b + c = 2s i.e., AY1 = s = AZ1 .

Then BX1 = s − c and CX1 = s − b .
Now from right angled triangles AI1 Z1 , BI1 Z1 , CI1Y1 , we have

A B C
I1AZ1 = , I1BX1 = 900 − and I1CX1 = 900 − .
2 2 2

A IZ r A
In Ä I1AZ1 , tan = 1 1 = 1 ⇒ r1 = s tan .
2 AZ1 s 2
 B I X
In Ä I1BX1 , tan  900 −  = 1 1
 2  BX1
B r B
⇒ cot = 1 ⇒ r1 = ( s − c ) cot .
2 s−c 2

In Ä I1CX1 ,  C I X
tan  900 −  = 1 1
 2  CX1
C r C
⇒ cot = 1 ⇒ r1 = ( s − b ) cot .
2 s−b 2
A B C
∴ r1 = s tan = ( s − c ) cot = ( s − b ) cot .
2 2 2
 Properties of Triangles 397

Similarly we can prove that

B C A
r2 = s tan = ( s − a ) cot = ( s − c ) cot
2 2 2
C A B
and r3 = s tan = ( s − b ) cot = ( s − a ) cot .
2 2 2
 B  BX1
(iii) From ∆ I1BX1 , cot  900 −  = , (from (ii))
 2  I1X1
B BX1 B
⇒ tan = ⇒ BX1 = r1 tan .
2 r1 2
 C  CX1
⇒ tan
C CX1
= ⇒ CX1 = r1 tan
C
In Ä I1CX1 , cot  900 −  =
 2  I1X1 2 r1 2

 B C a
a = BC = BX1 + X1C = r1  tan + tan  . ∴ r1 =
 2 2 B
+ tan
tan
C
2 2
b c
Similarly, we can prove that r2 = and r3 = .
C A A B
tan + tan tan + tan
2 2 2 2
 B C
 sin sin
 B C
(iv) From (iii), a = r1  tan + tan  = r1  2 + 2 
 2 2 B C
 cos cos 
 2 2
 B C B C  B C
⇒ 2R sin A = r1  sin cos + cos sin   cos cos 
 2 2 2 2  2 2
A A   B + C   B C
⇒ 2R . 2 sin cos = r1 sin     cos cos 
2 2   2   2 2
A r1  A  B + C 
⇒ 4R sin = , Q cos 2 = sin  2  
2 cos B cos C   
2 2
A B C
⇒ r1 = 4R sin cos cos .
2 2 2
A B C
Similarly, we can prove that r2 = 4R cos sin cos and
2 2 2
A B C
r3 = 4R cos cos sin .
2 2 2
10.4.6 Solved Problems
1 1 1 1
+
1. Problem: In ∆ ABC, prove that + = .
r1 r2 r3 r
1 1 1 s−a s−b s−c
Solution: L.H.S. = + + = + +
r1 r2 r3 ∆ ∆ ∆
 398 Mathematics - IA

3s − ( a + b + c ) 3s − 2 s s 1
= = = = = R.H.S .
∆ ∆ ∆ r
2. Problem: Show that r r1 r2 r3 = ∆ .
2

∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
Solution: L.H.S. = r r1 r2 r3 = . . . .
s s−a s−b s−c
Ä4
= 2 = Ä 2 = R.H.S.
Ä
3. Problem: In an equilateral triangle, find the value of r / R.
A B C
4R sin sin sin 3
1
Solution: r = 2 2 2 = 4 sin 3 300
= 4  = .
1
(QA = B = C = 600 ) .
R R  
2 2
4. Problem: The perimeter of ∆ ABC is 12 cm. and its inradius is 1 cm. Then find the area of the
triangle .
Solution: Given that 2s = 12 cm. and r = 1 cm. Then Ä = rs = (1) . (6 ) = 6 sq.cm.

5. Problem: Show that r r1 = ( s − b ) ( s − c ) .

 B  B
Solution: L.H.S. = r r1 = ( s − b ) tan  ( s − c ) cot 
 2  2
= ( s − b ) ( s − c ) = R.H.S .

a cos A + b cos B + c cos C

6. Problem: Express in terms of R and r.
a+b+c
2R sin A cos A + 2R sin B cos B + 2R sin C cos C
Solution:
a+b+c
R (sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C ) R ( 4 sin A . sin B . sin C )
= =
2s 2s
2R 2 sin A sin B sin C  Ä  1 r
= = . = .
sR s R R
7. Problem: In ∆ ABC , ∆ = 6 sq. cm. and s = 1.5 cm., find r.
∆ 6
Solution: r = = = 4 cm .
s 1 .5
A
8. Problem: Show that r r1 cot = ∆ .
2
A ∆ A A
Solution: r r1 cot =  s tan  cot = ∆.
2 s 2 2
Properties of Triangles 399

9. Problem: If a = 13, b = 14 , c = 15 , find r1 .

Solution: 2s = a + b + c = 42 ⇒ s = 21 . Then s − a = 8, s − b = 7 , s − c = 6
∆ 2 = 21 × 8 × 7 × 6 ⇒ ∆ = 7 × 12 = 84 sq.units
∆ 84
∴ r1 = = = 10.5 units.
s−a 8
10. Problem: If r r2 = r1 r3 , then find B.
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
Solution: r r2 = r1 r3 ⇒ . = .
s s−b s−a s−c

( s − a )( s − c ) = s ( s − b ) ⇒ (
s − c )( s − a ) B
⇒ = 1 ⇒ tan 2 = 1.
s (s − b) 2
B B
⇒ tan = 1 ⇒ = 450 ⇒ B = 900 .
2 2
11. Problem: In a ∆ ABC, show that the sides a, b, c are in A.P. if and only if r1 , r2 , r3 are in H.P.
1 1 1
Solution: r1 , r2 , r3 are in H.P. ⇔ , , are in A.P.
r1 r2 r3
s−a s−b s−c
⇔ , , are in A.P. ⇔ s − a, s − b, s − c are in A.P.
∆ ∆ ∆
⇔ − a, − b, − c are in A.P. ⇔ a, b, c are in A.P.
12. Problem: If A = 900, show that 2 ( r + R ) = b + c .
A
Solution: L.H.S. = 2r + 2R = 2 ( s − a ) tan + 2R.1
2
= 2 ( s − a ) tan 450 + 2R sin A (Q A = 900 )
= ( 2 s − 2a ) . 1 + a
= b + c = R.H.S.
13. Problem: If ( r2 − r1 ) ( r3 − r1 ) = 2 r2 r3 , show that A = 900.

Solution: ( r2 − r1 ) ( r3 − r1 ) = 2 r2 r3
 ∆ ∆   ∆ ∆  ∆ ∆
⇒  −   − =2 .
 ( s − b ) ( s − a )   ( s − c ) ( s − a )  (s − b) (s − c )
s−a−s+b s−a−s+c 2∆ 2
⇒ ∆  .∆   =
 ( s − b )( s − a )   ( s − c )( s − a )  ( s − b )( s − c )
⇒ (b − a )(c − a ) = 2 ( s − a )2
 400 Mathematics - IA

2
b + c − a
⇒ (b − a )(c − a ) = 2  
 2 
( )
⇒ 2 bc − ca − ab + a = b + c 2 + a 2 + 2bc − 2ca − 2ab
2 2

⇒ 2a 2 = b 2 + c 2 + a 2 ⇒ b2 + c2 = a 2
Hence ∆ ABC is right angled and A = 900.

r1 ( r2 + r3 )
14. Problem: Prove that = a.
r1 r2 + r2 r3 + r3 r1
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
Solution: r1 r2 + r2 r3 + r3 r1 = . + . + .
s−a s−b s−b s−c s−c s−a
s − c + s − a + s − b ∆ 2 ( 3s − 2 s ) s ∆2s2
= ∆2   = = = s2
 ( s − a )( s − b )( s − c )  s ( s − a )( s − b )( s − c ) ∆ 2

∆  ∆ ∆  ∆2  s − c + s − b 
and r1 ( r2 + r3 ) = + =  
s − a  s − b s − c  s − a  ( s − b )( s − c ) 
s .∆2a s .∆2a
= = = as
s ( s − a )( s − b )( s − c ) ∆2
r1 ( r2 + r3 ) as
Hence = = a.
r1 r2 + r2 r3 + r3 r1 s2
1 1 1 1 a 2 + b2 + c 2
15. Problem: Show that + + + = .
r 2 r12 r22 r32 ∆2
1 1 1 1
Solution: L.H.S. = 2
+ 2 + 2 + 2
r r1 r2 r3
(s − a ) (s − b) (s − c )
2 2 2
s2
= + + +
∆2 ∆2 ∆2 ∆2
1  s 2 + ( s − a )2 + ( s − b )2 + ( s − c )2 
=
∆2  
1
=  s 2 + s 2 − 2as + a 2 + s 2 − 2bs + b 2 + s 2 − 2cs + s 2 
∆2  
1
=  4s 2 − 2s (a + b + c ) + a 2 + b2 + c 2 
∆2  

1 a 2 + b2 + c2
=  4 s 2 − 2 s ( 2 s ) +
∆2   ∆2
a 2 + b2 + c2
= = R.H.S .
∆2
 Properties of Triangles 401

B − C
16. Problem: Prove that Σ ( r + r1 ) tan   = 0.
 2 
A B C A B C
Solution: r + r1 = 4R sin sin sin + 4R sin cos cos
2 2 2 2 2 2
A  B C B C
= 4R sin sin 2 sin 2 + cos 2 cos 2 
2
A B − C
= 4R sin cos  .
2  2 
 B − C 
 sin  
B − C A B − C  2 
⇒ ( r + r1 ) tan   = 4R sin cos   
 2  2  2   cos  B − C  
  
 2  
B + C B − C
= 4R cos   sin  
 2   2 
= 2R (sin B − sin C ) = b − c.

 B −C 
Hence Σ ( r + r1 ) tan   = Σ (b − c ) = 0.
 2 
r r r 1 1
17. Problem: Show that 1 + 2 + 3 = − .
bc ca ab r 2R
r1 r r 1
Solution: L.H.S. = + 2 + 3 = [ar1 + br2 + cr3 ]
bc ca ab abc
1  A s A
=  Σ a . s tan  = Σ 2R sin A tan
abc  2 abc 2
  A 
 sin  
s A A  2
= Σ  2R . 2 sin cos .  
abc  2 A
2  cos  
  2  
Rs  2 A  s  1 − cosA   abc 
= 4 Σ  sin = Σ  , Q ∆ = 
abc  2 ∆  2   4R 
1
= (1 − cos A + 1 − cos B + 1 − cos C ) (Q r = ∆ / s )
2r
1
= 3 − (cos A + cos B + cos C )
2r 
1   A B C 
= 3 − 1 + 4 sin 2 sin 2 sin 2  
2r   
 402 Mathematics - IA

  A B C 
1   4R sin 2 sin 2 sin 2  
= 2 −  
2r   R 
   
1  r 1 1
=  2 − = − = R.H.S.
2r  R  r 2R
18. Problem:If r : R : r1 = 2 : 5 : 12 ,then prove that the triangle is right angled at A.
Solution: If r : R : r1 = 2 : 5 : 12 , then r = 2k , R = 5k , and r1 = 12k for some k.

r1 − r = 12k − 2k = 10k = 2 (5k ) = 2R

A  B C B C
⇒ 4R sin  cos 2 cos 2 − sin 2 sin 2  = 2R
2
A B + C
⇒ 2 sin cos   =1
2  2 

A 1  B + C A
⇒ sin 2 = , Q cos  2  = sin 2 
2 2    
A 1 A
⇒ sin = = sin 450 ⇒ = 450 ⇒ A = 900 .
2 2 2
Hence the triangle is right angled at A.
19. Problem: Show that r + r3 + r1 − r2 = 4R cos B .

C  A B A B  = 4R sin C cos  A − B 
Solution: r + r3 = 4R sin  sin sin + cos cos  .
2 2 2 2 2  2  2 

C  A B A B
r1 − r2 = 4R cos sin 2 cos 2 − cos 2 sin 2 
2

C A − B
= 4R cos sin  .
2  2 
 C A − B C  A − B 
∴ r + r3 + r1 − r2 = 4R sin cos   + cos sin  
 2  2  2  2 
C A B
= 4R sin  + − 
2 2 2
 B B
= 4R sin  900 − −  = 4R cos B .
 2 2
 Properties of Triangles 403

20. Problem: If A , A1 , A2 , A3 are the areas of incircle and excircles of a triangle respectively, then
1 1 1 1
prove that + + = .
A1 A2 A3 A
Solution: If r, r1 , r2 , r3 are the inradius and exradii of the circles whose areas are
A, A1, A2, A3 respectively, then A = π r 2 , A1 = π r12 , A 2 = π r22 , A3 = π r32 .
A = π . r, A1 = π . r1 , A 2 = π . r2 , A3 = π . r3 .
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∴ + + =  + +  =   = .
A1 A2 A3 π  r1 r2 r3  π r A
C A B
21. Problem: Show that ( r1 + r2 ) sec = ( r2 + r3 ) sec 2 = ( r3 + r1 ) sec 2 .
2

2 2 2
C  A B A B
Solution: r1 + r2 = 4R cos sin 2 cos 2 + cos 2 sin 2 
2
C A + B 2 C
= 4R cos sin   = 4R cos
2  2  2
C
⇒ ( r1 + r2 ) sec 2 = 4R .
2
2 A B
Similarly, we can show that ( r2 + r3 ) sec = ( r3 + r1 ) sec 2 = 4R .
2 2
C A B
∴ ( r1 + r2 ) sec 2 = ( r2 + r3 ) sec 2 = ( r3 + r1 ) sec 2 .
2 2 2
22. Problem: In Ä ABC, if AD, BE, CF are the perpendiculars drawn from the vertices A, B, C to
the opposite sides, show that
1
+
1
+
1
=
1 ( abc )2
(i) and (ii) AD . BE . CF = .
AD BE CF r 8R3
Solution: Since AD ⊥ BC, (see Fig. 10.10),
1 2∆ 2∆
∆= BC . AD ⇒ AD = = .
2 BC a
2∆ 2∆ A
Similarly we get that BE = and CF = .
b c
1 1 1 a b c 2s s 1
Now (i) + + = + + = = = .
AD BE CF 2∆ 2∆ 2∆ 2∆ ∆ r
2 ∆ 2 ∆ 2 ∆ 8∆ 3
(ii) AD . BE . CF = . . =
a b c abc
( abc )
3 2
8  abc 
=   = . B D C
abc  4R  8R 3 Fig. 10.10
 404 Mathematics - IA

23. Problem: In Ä ABC, if r1 = 8, r2 = 12 , r3 = 24 , find a, b, c.

∆ ∆
Solution: r1 = 8 ⇒ =8 ⇒s−a=
s−a 8
∆ ∆
r2 = 12 ⇒ = 12 ⇒ s − b = .
s−b 12
∆ ∆
r3 = 24 ⇒ = 24 ⇒ s − c = .
s−c 24
1 ∆
Adding, 3s − ( a + b + c ) = ∆  +
1 1 1 
+  ⇒ 3s − 2 s = ∆  4  ⇒ s = 4 .
 8 12 24   
∆ ∆
Now r = = = 4.
s ∆
 
4
But ∆ 2 = r r1 r2 r3 = 4 × 8 × 12 × 24 = (8 × 12 ) ⇒ ∆ = 96 sq. units.
2

∆ 96 ∆ 96
and s= = = 24 . Hence a = s − = 24 − = 24 − 12 = 12 .
r 4 r1 8
96 96
Similarly b = 24 − = 24 − 8 = 16 ; c = 24 − = 24 − 4 = 20 .
12 24
ab − r1 r2 bc − r2 r3 ca − r3 r1
24. Problem: Show that = = .
r3 r1 r2

( 2R sin A ) ( 2R sin B ) −  4R sin

A B C  A B C
Solution: ab − r1 r2 = cos cos   4R cos sin cos 
 2 2 2  2 2 2
 C  A A  B B
= 4R 2 sin A sin B − 4R 2  cos 2   2 sin cos   2 sin cos 
 2 2 2 2 2
C
= 4R 2 sin A sin B − 4R 2 cos 2 sin A sin B
2
 C C.
= 4R 2 sin A sin B  1 − cos 2  = 4R 2 sin A sin B sin 2
 2 2

 A A  B B C
4R 2  2sin cos   2 sin cos  sin 2
Now ab − r1 r2 =  2 2 2 2 2
.
r3 A B C
4R cos cos sin
2 2 2
A B C
= 4R sin sin sin = r .
2 2 2
bc − r2 r3 ca − r3r1
Similarly we can show that = = r.
r1 r2
 Properties of Triangles 405

Exercise 10(b)

(Note: All problems in this exercise have reference to ∆ ABC )

I. 1. Express Σ r1 cot A interms of s.

2

2. Show that Σa cot A = 2 ( R + r ) .

3. In ∆ ABC , prove that r1 + r2 + r3 − r = 4R .

4. In ∆ ABC , prove that r + r1 + r2 − r3 = 4R cos C .

5. If r + r1 + r2 = r3, then show that C = 900.
II. 1. Prove that 4 ( r1 r2 + r2 r3 + r3 r1 ) = ( a + b + c )2 .

    
2. Prove that  1 − 1   1 − 1   1 − 1  = abc = 4R .
 r r1   r r2  r r3  ∆
3
r 2s2
3. Prove that r ( r1 + r2 + r3 ) = ab + bc + ca − s 2 .
r1 3
4. Show that Σ = .
( s − b )( s − c ) r
C C
5. Show that ( r1 + r2 ) tan = ( r3 − r ) cot = c.
2 2
A B C
6. Show that r1 r2 r3 = r 3 cot 2 cot 2 cot 2 .
2 2 2
r
III. 1. Show that cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 + .
R

A B C r
2. Show that cos 2 + cos 2 + cos 2 = 2 + .
2 2 2 2R
A B C r
3. Show that sin 2 + sin 2 + sin 2 = 1 − .
2 2 2 2R

r r1 4R − r1 − r2
4. Show that (i) a = ( r2 + r3 ) (ii) ∆ = r1 r2 .
r2 r3 r1 + r2

(
5. Prove that r12 + r22 + r32 + r 2 = 16 R 2 − a 2 + b 2 + c 2 . )
6. If p1 , p2 , p3 are altitudes drawn from vertices A, B, C to the opposite sides of a triangle respectively,
then show that
406 Mathematics - IA

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(i)    (ii)   
p1 p2 p3 r p1 p2 p3 r3
2
 abc  8 3
(iii) p1 p2 p3  
8R3 abc
65 21
7. If a  13, b  14 , c  15 , show that R  , r  4 , r1  , r2  12 and r3  14 .
8 2
8. If r1  2 , r2  3, r3  6 and r  1 , Prove that a  3, b  4 and c  5 .

Key Concepts

a b c
 Law of sines or sine rule : In  ABC,   = 2R
sin A sin B sin C

 Cosine rule or Law of cosines : In  ABC, b 2  c 2  a 2  2ca cos B ;

c 2  a 2  b 2  2ab cos C ; a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc cos A

BC bc A
 Napier analogy or tangent rules : In  ABC, tan  cot
2 bc 2
CA ca B AB ab C
tan  cot ; tan  cot
2 ca 2 2 ab 2

 Half - angle formulae: In  ABC,

sin
A

 s  b  s  c  , cos A 
s  s  a
and
2 bc 2 bc

tan
A

 s  b  s  c  and similar expressions for
2 s  s  a
B C B C
sin , sin ; cos , cos , and tan B , tan C .
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
  = Area of the triangle ABC  bc sin A  ca sin B  ab sin C
2 2 2
abc
 s  s  a  s  b  s  c   .
4R
Properties of Triangles 407

L In ∆ ABC,
 A − B B − C  C−A
cos   cos   cos  
a+b  2 ; b + c =  2 ; c + a =  2 .
=
c C a A b B
sin sin sin
2 2 2
L The circle that touches the three sides of a ∆ ABC internally is called the incircle or inscribed
circle of the triangle. The centre and radius of this incircle are called incentre and inradius, denoted
by I and r respectively.
L The point of concurrence of the internal bisectors of a triangle is called the incentre I of
∆ ABC.
L The circle that touches the sides BC internally and the other two sides AB and AC externally, is
called the excircle or escribed circle opposite to angle A.
L The centre and radius of the circle opposite to angle A are called excentre and exradius denoted
by I1 and r1 respectively. Similarly r2, r3 and I2, I3.

In ∆ ABC, ∆, r = ∆ ,r = ∆ ,r = ∆
L r=
s−a s−b s−c
1 2 3
s
A B C A B C
r = 4R sin sin sin ; r1 = 4R sin cos cos ;
2 2 2 2 2 2
A B C A B C
r2 = 4R cos sin cos ; r3 = 4R cos cos sin .
2 2 2 2 2 2

Historical Note
Triangles have been used in decorative pattern from the earliest times. Some of the first geometrical
discoveries related to the properties of triangles, like the one about right angled triangle, are traditionally
ascribed to Pythagoras. But the sulbasutra period has given us, in India, several interesting properties
of triangles, centuries before Pythagoras. Like Ceva’s theorem, many theorems deal with properties
of triangles.
But the systematic approach to Geometry in general and properties of triangles in particular can
be traced to Greek period and to Euclid’s Elements. The Greeks insisted that geometric fact must be
established, not by empirical procedures, as was the practice in many earlier cultures, but by deductive
reasoning and geometrical conclusions must be arrived at by logical demonstration rather than by trial
and error experimentation.
In short, the Greeks transformed the empirical geometry of the ancient Egyptians, Babylonians
and Indians, into what we might call, deductive or demonstrative geometry.
 408 Mathematics - IA

Answers
Exercise 10(a)

I. 2. 2 cms. 3. 7/8 4. 8

5. 3 −1 : 3 +1 : 2 2 10. 5 3 sq. units

II. 8. 14 : 11 : 6 11. (s − b) 12. 2

III. 13. 7(2 − 3) m 14. 86.4 km(approx.) 15. 35 2 m

7 3
16. 40 m 17. ( 3 + 1) 18. 5 2
2

Exercise10(b)

I. 1. 3 s
 Appendix

+ Sets
+ Relations
+ Sequences and Series
+ Mathematical Reasoning

No Question is to be set in the IPE,

Mathematics - IA from the topics mentioned above
 Sets 409

Chapter 1
5AJI
Introduction

Set theory owes its origin to the German mathematician George Cantor (1845 - 1918) who developed
this theory while he was working on trigonometric series. The concept of a set is fundamental for the
development of abstract algebra. Knowledge of sets is heavily required in the study of several branches of
mathematics like Analysis, Probability, Number Theory, Discrete Mathematics, Graph Theory etc.

1.1 Set
A set is a well defined collection of objects. By well definedness we mean that it is possible to decide
whether a given object does belong to the given collection or not.
Obejcts of a set are called elements.

1.2 Examples
The following collections constitute a set :
1. The vowels in the English alphabet : a, e, i, o, u constitute a set.
2. All natural numbers which are divisors of 36.
3. All prime numbers.
4. All the rivers flowing in India.
5. All rational numbers.
Note: Elements of a set are represented generally by lower case letters a, b, c, p, q, r , ... and sets by upper
case (capital) letters A, B, C, L, M, N, .... .
 410 Mathematics - IA

1.3 Representation of a set

There are two methods of representing a set. They are
(i) Roster or tabular form, and
(ii) Set builder form
In the Roster form, elements of the set are listed in a row, seperated by commas and enclosed within
a brace { }. For example the set of all divisors of 36 is represented in the roster form as : {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9,
12, 18, 36}. Though it is customary to list the elements in an order, ordering of elements has no importance
or relevance in the listing. Similarly all elements in the listing are taken to be distinct.
In the Set builder form, a common property or a characteristic property that is possessed by all the
elements in the well defined collection is used to describe that set. A general element, say x is chosen to
represent the set, followed by a colon (:) or a vertical line (|) which is then followed by the characteristic
property satisfied by all those elements and enclose the whole description in braces. For example :
Q : {x | x is a rational number}.
In the above description, the braces stand for ‘the set of all’ and the vertical line for ‘such that’. We
read it as “Q is the set of all x such that x is a rational number”.

1.4 Classification (Types) of sets

1. Empty set or null set

There is a unique set that does not have any element in it. This set having no elements is called the null
set or empty set. It is usually denoted by φ or { }.
Example : A = {x : x2 = 16 and x is an odd integer} is an empty set, because x2 = 16 is not satisfied
by any odd integer.
If A is not the empty set, then we say that A is a non-empty set.
2. Finite and Infinite sets
From the examples (1, 2), we understand that the number of elements in the set may be finite or infinite.
A set is said to be finite if it consists of definite number of elements. Otherwise it is infinite.
3. Equality of sets
If A and B are two sets such that every member of A is a member of B and every member of B is a
member of A, then we say that A and B are equal and write A = B. For example,
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 1}. Then A = B.
4. Subset and Superset
If A and B are any two sets, we say that A is a subset of B or B is a superset of A if x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B
and we write A ⊆ B . If B contains all the elements of A and at least one element which is not in A i.e.,
 Sets 411

A ⊆ B and A ≠ B, then we say that A is a proper subset of B and we write A ⊂ B or B ⊃ A. Every

non-empty set has two improper subsets namely the empty set and the set itself.
Example : The set Q of rational numbers is a proper subset of the set of real numbers R.
5. Power set of a set : If A is any set, then the set of all subsets of A is called the power set of A and is
denoted by ρ(A) or 2(A).
Example : Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then
ρ(A) = {φ, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {1, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}.
6. Universal set : It is customary that the superset A, taken here to define the complement, is called the
Universal set and is denoted by U. The complement of a set S in the universal set U consists of all
elements of U which are not the elements of S. It is denoted by S′ = U S. Observe here that
(A′)′ = A for any subset A of the universal set U.
7. Disjoint sets : If two sets A and B are such that they do not have any elements in common, i.e.,
A ∩ B = φ, then A and B are said to be disjoint sets.
Example : Let A = {x | x is a vowel in English alphabet}, and
B = {y | y is a consonant in English alphabet}.
Then A ∩ B = φ and hence A, B are disjoint sets.

1.5 Venn Diagram

Sets, relationships between sets and operations on sets can be more conveniently represented by
diagrams, known as ‘Venn diagrams’, named after the English logician John Venn (1834-1883). In these
diagrams, a universal set is represented by a rectangle and all its subsets by small circles, inside the universal
set.
Examples
1. The union of two sets A and B i.e., A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B} can be represented by the
shaded portion in the following Venn diagram.

U A∪ B

A B

2. The intersection of two sets A and B i.e., A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B} can be represented by the
shaded portion in the following Venn diagram.
 412 Mathematics - IA

A B

A∩ B
3. The difference of the sets A and B i.e., A B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∉ B} can be represented by the
shaded portion of the following Venn diagram.
U A B

A B
4. Similarly B A = {x | x ∈ B and x ∉ A} is shown by the shaded portion of the following Venn
diagram.
U A B

B A
Note: From these Venn diagrams we observe that the sets A ∩ B, A B and B A are mutually disjoint i.e.,
the intersection of any two of them is the empty set φ.

1.6 Operations on sets

Let A and B be any two sets. Then we define the following operations on these sets.
1. The union of A and B, denoted by A ∪ B is defined as A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
2. The intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩ B is defined as A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
3. The difference of the sets A and B, denoted by A B is defined as A B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∉ B }.
A B is also referred to as the complement of B with respect to A.
4. The symmetric difference of A and B, denoted by A ∆ B, is defined as A ∆ B = (A B) ∪ (B A).

1.7 Example
Let A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}, B = {2, 6, 8, 12, 15, 18}.
Then A ∪ B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18}
A ∩ B = {2, 6, 8, 12}
Sets 413

A B = {4, 10}
A ∆ B = {4, 10} ∪ {15, 18} = {4, 10, 15, 18}.

1.8 Complement of a set

Let A be any set and B ⊂ A. The complement of B in A, denoted by B′ is defined as the set
B′ = { x ∈ A : x ∉ B }
we observe that B′ = A B, since B ⊂ A.
Example : Let A = {x | x is an alphabet in English}, and
B = {y | y is a vowel in the English alphabet}.
Then B′ in A is : {z | z is a consonant in the English alphabet}.

1.9 Some Properties of operations on sets

1. Let A, B, C be three sets. The following properties, satisfied by the operations of union,
intersection and complement of sets, can be verified either from their definition or by the Venn
diagrams.
(i) A ∪ A = A A ∩A=A Idempotent Laws
(ii) A ∪ B = B ∪ A A ∩ B=B ∩ A Commutative Laws
(iii) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) Associative Laws
(iv) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) Distributive laws
(v) If A, B are subsets of U, then
(A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′ (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′ De’Morgan’s Laws
(vi) A (B ∪ C) = (A B) ∩ (A C) A (B ∩ C)=(A B) ∪ (A C)
(vii) A ∪ A′ = U A ∩ A′ = φ
(viii) (A′)′ = A, U′ = φ, φ′ = U

2. The following properties can also be verified from definitions.

If A and B are two sets, then
(i) A ⊂ B ⇔ A ∪ B = B ⇔ A ∩ B = A .
(ii) A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A ⇔ A = B .
(iii) A B = A (A ∩ B) = (A ∪ B) B.
(iv) A (A B) = A ∩ B.
(v) (A B) ∪ (A ∩ B) = A.
(vi) (A B) ∪ (B A) ∪ (A ∩ B) = A ∪ B.
414 Mathematics - IA

(vii) (A B) ∪ (B A) = (A ∪ B) (A ∩ B).
(viii) If B and C are subsets of A, then
B C = B ∩ C′ , B C′ = B ∩ C.
3. The following properties follow from the symmetric difference of sets.
If A, B, C are three sets, then
(i) A ∆ φ = A (ii) A ∆ A = φ
(iii) A ∆ B = A ∆ C ⇒ B = C (iv) A ∆ B = B ∆ A
(v) A ∆ (B ∆ C) = (A ∆ B) ∆ C.
We shall now establish the result (v) :
we have from 2(vii) that A ∆ B = (A ∪ B) ∩ ( A′ ∪ B′ ).

⇒ (A ∆ B )′ = (A ∩ B) ∪ ( A′ ∩ B′ ), by De’Morgan’s laws.
Hence (A ∆ B) ∆ C = {(A ∆ B) ∪ C} ∩ { (A ∆ B)′ ∪ C′ }

= [(A ∪ B) ∩ (A′ ∪ B′) ∪ C] ∩ [(A ∩ B) ∪ (A′ ∩ B′) ∪ C′]

= (A ∪ B ∪ C) ∩ (A′ ∪ B′ ∪ C) ∩ [{A ∪ (A′ ∩ B′)} ∪ C′] ∩

[{B ∪ (A′ ∩ B′)} ∪ C′]

= (A ∪ B ∪ C) ∩ (A′ ∪ B′ ∪ C) ∩ (A ∪ B′ ∪ C′) ∩ (A′ ∪ B ∪ C′) .

Since the expression on the right of the above equation is unchanged by the interchange of A and C, we
have
(A ∆ B) ∆ C = (C ∆ B) ∆ A = A ∆ (C ∆ B) = A ∆ (B ∆ C).

1.10 Cardinal number of a set

1.10.1 Definition
If A is a finite set, then the number of distinct elements of the set A is called the cardinal
number of that set and is denoted by n(A).

The following properties can be verified in terms of the cardinal number of sets.
Let A, B, C be finite sets. Then
(i) n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B), if A and B are disjoint sets
(ii) n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(B ∩ C) − n(C ∩ A) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C).
(iii) n(A B) = n(A) n(A ∩ B).
 Relations 415

Chapter 2
Relations

Introduction

The word relation connotes a recognizable connection between two elements or entities. If a relation
R is associated between two sets A and B, then we talk of a relation from A to B. If a ∈ A and b ∈ B, then
if a is related to b, we write a R b and the ordered pair (a, b) ∈ R.

2.1 Cartesian Product of sets

2.1.1 Definition

Let A and B be two non-empty sets. Then the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) where
x ∈ A and y ∈ B is called the cartesian product of A and B and is denoted by A × B.

We write A × B = {(x, y) | x ∈ A and y ∈ B}.

Example : Let A = {a, b, c}, B = {p, q}.

Then A × B = {(a, p), (b, p), (c, p), (a, q), (b, q), (c, q)}

and B × A = {(p, a), (p, b), (p, c), (q, a), (q, b), (q, c)}.
 416 Mathematics - IA

2.1.2 Observations

(i) A × B ≠ B × A, since for any distinct x and y, (x, y) ≠ (y, x).

(ii) A × B = B × A ⇔ A = B.

(iii) If n(A) = p and n(B) = q, then n(A × B) = pq.

2.2 Relation on sets

2.2.1 Definition : Relation

A relation R from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B is defined as a subset of the
cartesian product of A and B. i.e., R ⊆ A × B .
If R is a relation from A to B and if (a, b) ∈ R, then we also write aRb.

2.2.2Definition : Domain and Range of a relation

If A and B are two sets and if R is a relation from A to B, then
(i) {x ∈ A | (x, y) ∈ R for some y ∈ B}is called the domain of R.
(ii) {y ∈ B | (x, y) ∈ R for some x ∈ A}is called the range of R.

2.2.3 Types of relations : Let A be a set and R be a relation on A.

Then (i) For any set A, a relation from A to A is called a binary relation on A.
(ii) For all a ∈ A, if (a, a) ∈ R, then R is called a reflexive relation on A.
(iii) For any a, b ∈ A, if (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R then R is called a symmetric
relation on A.
(iv) For any a, b, c ∈ A if (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R, then R is called a
transitive relation on A.
2.2.4 Definition : Equivalence relation
Any relation R on a non-empty set A which is reflexive, symmetric and transitive is
called an equivalence relation on A.

2.2.5 Note : (i) A consequence of an equivalence relation on a set is that, it separates into the
elements of that set into a union of pairwise disjoint subsets whose collection is called the partition
of the set. Each disjoint subset is called an equivalence class.
 Sequences and Series 417

Chapter 3
Sequences and Series
Introduction
‘Sequences and Series’ play a significant role in Mathematics. We will learn about
convergence and divergence of sequences and series through various mathematical tests or
procedures in higher classes. However in this chapter, we recollect some basic concepts and
properties of sequences and series which are in A.P and G.P.

3.1 Definition

A sequence is a function from the set of natural numbers N into R.

Suppose f : N → A. Then, the function f is written as { f (1), f (2), f (3), ... }.
Therefore { f (n) : n ∈ N} is the range of the sequence.
{ f (n)} denotes the elements of the sequence and the elements are usually written as {an}. an is
called the nth (general) term of the sequence {an}.
● The following are examples of sequences.
(i) 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, .....
general term = 2n, where n is a positive integer.
(ii) 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, .....
general term = 3n.
(iii) 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ..... is the sequence of prime numbers.
 418 Mathematics - IA

3.2 Series

An expression of the form

a 1 + a 2 + .... + a n + ...
where a 1 , a 2 , ...., a n , ... are real numbers is called a series or an infinite series.
In higher mathematics, we attach a real number s called the sum of the series, in some
cases. This s is related to the sequence {sn} where
sn = a 1 + a 2 + .... + a n .
However, in this chapter we confine only to finite series, i.e., a 1 + a 2 + .... + a n (sum of
a finite number of real numbers).
∞
● The infinite series a 1 + a 2 + .... + a n + ... is also denoted by ∑ an .
n =1
n
and the finite series a 1 + a 2 + .... + a n is denoted by ∑a
k =1
k
.
● There are various types of sequences. Prominent among them are (i) Arithmetic
sequence and (ii) Geometric sequence.
● Arithmetic series or Arithmetic progression and Geometric series or Geometric
Progression arise from these sequences.
3.2.1 Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)
Definition
A sequence (progression), in which every term except the first term differs by the
same fixed quantity, called the common difference (c.d.), from its preceding term, is
called an “Arithmetic Progression” (simply A.P).
If ‘a’ is the first term and ‘d’ is the common difference (fixed quantity), then the general
form of A.P. is a, a + d, a + 2d, .......
we write T1 = a
T 2 = a + d = a + (2 − 1)d
T 3 = a + 2d = a + (3 − 1)d
M
T n = a + (n − 1)d.
T n is called the n th term with ‘a’ as the first term and ‘d’ as the common difference.
● If S n denotes the sum of the first n terms of the sequence 1, 2, 3, ..., then
n(n + 1)
Sn = .
2
 Sequences and Series 419

● If S n denotes the sum of the first n terms of the A.P., then, we have
n
Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d ]
2
n
= [a + a + (n − 1)d ]
2

= [T1 + Tn ] .
n
2

3.2.2 Properties of A.P.

1. If a constant ‘k’ is added to each term of A.P., with common difference ‘d’, then the
resulting sequence also will be in A.P., with common difference (d + k).
2. If every term is multiplied by a constant ‘k’, then the resulting sequence will also be in
A.P., with the first term ‘ka’ and common difference ‘kd’.

3.2.3 Arithmetic Mean (A.M.)

Definition

a1 + a2 + a3 + .... + an
If a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , ..., a n are n real numbers, then is called the
n
arithmetic mean of a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , ..., a n .

We observe that the arithmetic mean of three consecutive terms of an A.P., is the middle
term. In other words, if a, b, c are three consecutive terms of an A.P., then b is the A.M. of
c+a
a, b, c and b = .
2
Write b = a + d and c = a + 2d.
a + b + c a + ( a + d ) + ( a + 2d )
Then A.M. = = = a + d.
3 3
c+a
Therefore, if a, c are real numbers, then b = is the A.M. of a and c and a, b, c are
2
in A.P.
● Let a, b be any two real numbers and n be a positive integer.
Suppose, there exist n numbers a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , ..., a n such that a, a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , ..., a n , b are in
A.P. Then a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , ..., a n are called n arithmetic means between a and b.
b−a
Given a, b and n, let d = .
n +1
Write a k = a + kd, where k = 1, 2, 3, ..., n.
 420 Mathematics - IA

b−a
Then a, a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , ..., a n , b are in A.P. with common difference equal to .
n +1
Thus, given a, b and n, there always exist n arithmetic means between a and b.

n
We observe that a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + ... + a n = ( a + b) and
2
( n + 1 − k ) a + kb .
ak =
n +1

The following observations are useful in solving problems.

● 3 consecutive members of A.P. can be written as a − d, a, a + d.

● 4 consecutive members of A.P. can be written as a − 3d, a − d, a + d, a + 3d.

● 5 consecutive members of A.P. can be written as a − 2d, a − d, a, a + d, a + 2d.

3.2.4 Geometric Progression (G.P.)

Definition

A sequence in which each term except the first term bears a constant ratio to its preceding
term is called a Geometric Progression (G.P.). The constant ratio is called the common ratio.

If ‘a’ is the first term and ‘r’ is the common ratio, then the general form of G.P. is a, ar, ar2, ar3 .....
T1 = a = a . r1−1

T2 = ar = a . r2−1

T3 = ar2 = a . r3−1

M
Tn = a . rn−1 is the general term of G.P.

a (r n − 1)
● The sum to n terms of a G.P. is denoted as Sn and Sn = , if r ≠ 1 .
r −1
● If r = 1, then Sn = a + a + a + ... (n terms) = na
● If |r | < 1, the sum to ∞ , S∞ of the infinite geometric series a, ar, ar2, ..., is given by
a
S∞ = .
1− r
Sequences and Series 421

3.2.5 Geometric Mean (G.M.)

Definition
If a and b are any two positive numbers, then ab is the Geometric Mean (G.M.) of
a and b, since a, ab , b are in G.P.

● If a, g1, g2, g3 , ...., gn, b are in G.P., then g1, g2, g3, ...., gn are called n geometric means
between a and b.
1

Given a, b and n, let r =   .

b n +1
 a
k
Write gk = a . r , where k = 1, 2, 3, ..., n, then a, g1, g2, g3, ...., gn, b are in G.P. with
1

common ratio equal to   .

b n +1
 a
Thus, given a, b and n, there always exist n geometric means between a and b.
Also, it can be observed that g1 g2 g3 ... gn = (ab) n / 2 .

3.2.6 Properties
1. If each term of a G.P. is multiplied (or divided) by a non-zero constant k, then the resulting sequence
forms a G.P. with the same common ratio as the initial G.P. This implies that if a, ar, ar2, ... are in
G.P. then ka, kar, kar2, .... also are in G.P.
2. The reciprocals of the terms of a G.P. also are in G.P.
3. If each term of a G.P. is raised to the power ‘k’, then the resulting sequence is in G.P. with common
ratio rk.
As in the case of A.P., the following observations are useful.
a
4. 3 consecutive members of a G.P. : , a, ar .
r
a a 3
5. 4 consecutive members of a G.P. : 3 , , ar , ar .
r r
a a
6. 5 consecutive members of a G.P. : 2 , , a, ar , ar 2 .
r r
3.2.7 Relationship between AM and GM
Let A and G denote the AM and GM respectively between two given positive real numbers
a+b
‘a’ and ‘b’. Then we have A = and G = ab . Let us consider
2
 422 Mathematics - IA

a+b
A−G = − ab
2
a + b − 2 ab
=
2
( a − b )2
=
2
> 0. .... (1)
This implies that A > G.
Therefore A.M. of two positive numbers is > their G.M.

( a − b )2
From (1) we observe that A = G ⇔ A − G = 0 ⇔ = 0 ⇔ a=b.
2

a1 + ... + an
More generally, let a1, a2, ..., an be n positive numbers. Let A = = arithmetic mean and
n
G = (a1 a2 .... an)1/n = geometric mean of a1, a2, ..., an. Then it can be shown that A > G with equality iff
a1 = a2 = .... = an.

3.2.8 Sum to n terms of some standard series

Notation : In the begining we mentioned that for any n numbers a1, a2, ..., an .
n
a1 + a2 + ... + an = ∑ ak . At times we denote the sum a1 + a2 + .... + an by Σan there by implying
k =1

that the sum is considered for the terms a1, a2, ... , an .
Thus when n is understood to be given and
n
ak = 1, Σ1 = ∑1 = 1 + 1 + ..... + 1 (n terms) = n.
k =1

n
n( n + 1)
ak = k, Σn = ∑k = 1 + 2 + ..... + n =
2
.
k =1

n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
ak = k2, Σn2 = ∑ k = 12 + 22 + .....+ n2 =
2
.
k =1 6
2
 n(n + 1) 
n
ak = k , Σn = ∑ k = 13 + 23 + ..... + n3 = 
3 3 3
 2 
.
k =1
Mathematical Reasoning 423

Chapter 4
Mathematical Reasoning
Introduction

Logic is the subject (discipline) that deals with the methods of reasoning and it provides the rules
for determining whether an argument made in favour of truth/falsehood of a certain statement is valid
or not. Logic is the basis of mathematical reasoning.
We communicate our ideas or thoughts in one or more than one sentence. These sentences are
as follows.
(i) Declarative sentence
A sentence that makes a declaration is called a declarative sentence.
1. It is a boundary.
2. Hyderabad is the capital of Andhra Pradesh state.

3. 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + ... + n2 = n(n + l)/2.

are some examples of declarative sentences.
(ii) Imperative sentence
A sentence that expresses a command or request is called an imperative sentence.
1. Close the door.
2. Stop talking.
3. Please give me your pen.
are some examples of imperative sentences.
 424 Mathematics - IA

(iii) Interrogative sentence (question type)

A sentence in the form of a question is called an interrogative sentence.
1. Are you honest in your duty?
2. Where are you going?
3. What are you doing?
are some examples of interrogative sentences.
(iv) Exclamatory sentence
A sentence used to say something loudly and suddenly because of surprise is called an
exclamatory sentence.
1. How wonderful it is!
2. How beautiful it is!
3. How dangerous it is!
are some examples of exclamatory sentences.

4.1 Definition (Statement)

A declarative sentence is called a statement if it is either true or false but not both.
1. Example: “The sum of two natural numbers is a natural number” is a statement because it is a
declarative sentence and it is true.
2. Example: “5 + 6 > 13” is also a statement because it is a declarative sentence and the sentence
is false.
4.1.1 Note
A statement may be pertaining to mathematics such as 1 + 2 = 3 or non-mathematical themes.
For example, “The sun rises in the east”.
4.1.2 Note
A statement is also called as a proposition.
4.1.3 Definition (Truth value)
The truth and falsity of a statement is called its truth value.
4.1.4 Notation
(i) If a statement is true then its truth value is denoted by T, otherwise its truth value is denoted
by F.
(ii) The statements are denoted by p, q, r, s, .....
For example, p : the sum of 2 and 3 is 5.
Mathematical Reasoning 425

4.1.5 Example
Consider the following sentences.
I. 1. The sum of 1 and 2 is 3.
2. The square of an odd integer is odd.
3. A ball thrown in the open ground will fall on to it.
II. 4. 16 can be written as the sum of two even prime numbers.
5. 3 = 4.
6. The sum of all angles of a triangle is 3600 .
III. 7. n is a prime.
8. x + 1 = 6.
9. x + y = 8.
IV. 10. How long this river is!
11. Tomorrow is Friday.
12. Man will reach Mars by 2020.
13. e is a special number.
Here (1),(2),(3) are statements whose truth value is T and (4),(5),(6) are also statements but their
truth value is F. Now (10) is not a statement because it is not a declarative sentence. The declarative
sentence (11) has truth value T when it is considered on Thursday otherwise its truth value is F.
Therefore (11) is not a statement. The sentence (12) is a statement. The truth value of (12) could be
determined only in the year 2020 or earlier if a man reaches Mars before that date. The sentence (13)
is not a statement as the word “special” is undefined.
The sentences (7), (8) and (9) are not statements. However, they become statements once a
numerical value is assigned to n, x and, x and y respectively. For example if n = 6 then (7) is false
and if n = 11 then (7) is true. The sentence (8) is true for only x = 5 and for all other values of x it
is false. The sentence (9) has truth value T if x = 5, y = 3 and has truth value F if x = l, y = 3.
The sentences of the type (7), (8) and (9) are called predicates which we will discuss later. The
symbols which need to be given values from a given set (it is known as Universe) in order to obtain
a statement are called free variables. The predicates in one free variable, two free variables, three free
variables respectively are denoted in the form P(x), P(x, y), P(x, y, z). For example, P(n) : n is prime,
n ∈ N (set of natural numbers is the universe), Q(x): x +1 = 6, x ∈ Z (set of integers is the universe)
S(x, y) : x + y = 6, x, y ∈ R (set of real numbers is the universe).
 426 Mathematics - IA

4.1.6 The law of the excluded middle, the law of contradiction

In mathematical reasoning, we are not going to be preoccupied with the actual truth value of a
statement. We shall be interested only in the fact that it has a truth value. Therefore, we ignore the
sentences like (10) to (13). Mathematical theories are constructed starting with some fundamental
assumptions called axioms.
For example, the natural numbers are generated by Peano’s axioms in number theory and later
the whole numbers, integers, rational, irrational and real numbers are defined. Further addition,
subtraction etc.. are defined. Likewise, for definiteness we have the following two assumptions for the
statements (or propositions) .
1. For every statement (or proposition) p, either p is true or its negation (See 4.2.1) is true;
There is no third possibility. This is known as the law of the excluded middle.
2. For every statement (or proposition) p, that p is true and p is not true are mutually exclusive.
It is known as the law of contradiction.
With these assumptions, sentences of ambiguous nature are eliminated from our discussion. The
theory of mathematical reasoning is developed by defining certain terms involving the statements. This ..
we learn in the next section.

4.2 Negation, Conjunction and Disjunction

In case of number theory, after defining the real numbers we go to operators like + (addition),
− (subtraction ), × ( multiplication) etc.,. Likewise, we have logical operators or connectives for
combining or modifying the statements. In this section we learn negation, conjunction and
disjunction and learn if ... then, if and only if in the next section. The negation modifies a
statement and others combine the statements. The statements are combined by means of and, or, if..
then, and if and only if. The statements are modified by the word not. Now we proceed to give
the definitions of these.

4.2.1 Definition (Negation)

The denial of a statement p is called the negation of p and it is denoted by ~p read

as not p.

Example : Let p : Mumbai is a city. Then ~p: Mumbai is not a city.

Note that ~p can also be stated as “It is false that Mumbai is a city” or “It is not the case that Mumbai
is a city”
 Mathematical Reasoning 427

4.2.2 Definition (Simple statement)

A statement is said to be a simple statement if it cannot be split into two or more
sentences.
For example, “Einstein is a genius” is a simple statement as it cannot be split into two or more
sentences.
While expressing various ideas, we use two (or more) statements one for each idea and combine
them by connecting words like ‘and’, ‘or’ etc.
1. Example: Let p : I had reached Mumbai and travelled by train to reach my house. This statement
p includes two simple statements.
q : I had reached Mumbai.
r : I travelled by train to reach my house.
2. Example: Let p : all primes are either even or odd.
This statement p includes two simple statements.
q : All prime numbers are odd
r : All prime numbers are even.
..
4.2.3 Definition (Compound Statement)
A compound statement is a statement which is made up of two or more simple
statements which are called components of the given statement.
The words (phrases) connecting the components are called connectives.

4.2.4 Definition (Propositional function)

A propositional function is a function whose variables are statements such as
p, q, r, s, ..... for example, if p, q are statements “p and q” is a propositional function
of p and q. It is denoted by P( p, q).

4.2.5 Definition (Truth table)

A table showing all possible truth values of the components of a propositional function
P and its truth values is called the truth table.
For example, the truth table of ~p is as follows.
Truth table of ~p
p ~p
T F
F T
Here ~p is a propositional function of p. It may be expressed as P(p): ~p.
 428 Mathematics - IA

4.2.6 Definition (Equivalent statements)

Two statements are said to be equivalent if the two statements have the same truth
values. In case the statements are propositional functions, they are equivalent if they have
the same truth table. If two propositional functions P and Q are equivalent we denote it
as P ≡ Q.
For example p and ~(~p) are equivalent statements i.e., p ≡ ~( ~p). It can be verified by
construction of the truth table.
Truth table of ~( ~p)
p ~p ~(~p)
T F T
F T F

Note that the truth values of p and ~(~p) are the same.

4.2.7 Definition (Conjunction)

If p, q are statements then p and q is a statement and it is called as conjunction
of p and q. It is denoted by p ∧ q .
We read p ∧ q as p and q. The conjunction of p and q has truth value T only when both
p and q have truth values T. The truth table of p ∧ q is shown in the following table.
Truth table of p ∧ q
p q p ∧ q

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

p ∧ q ∧ r is said to be conjunction of the statements p, q and r and this can be extended to a finite
number of statements.

We can consider p ∧ q as a propositional function of p and q i.e., P(p, q) : p ∧ q.

4.2.8 Example

Let P : 0 is less than every positive number and every negative number.
Mathematical Reasoning 429

Let the components of the statement P be

q : 0 is less than every positive number
r : 0 is less than every negative number.
We know that q is true and r is false. Therefore, the truth value of P is false.

4.2.9 Example
Let P: Through two given points only one straight line can be drawn and through three non-
collinear points only one circle can be drawn.
Let the components of P be
q : Through two given points only one straight line can be drawn
r : Through three non-collinear points only one circle can be drawn.
The statements q and r are true, therefore the truth value of P is T.

4.2.10 Example
Let p : Mixture of spirit and water can be separated by chemical methods.
Here, p is not a compound statement. The statement p does not have two statements. The word
“and” used in p, is not a connective. It tells only about the contents in the single word mixture. Note
the difference between the literal use of the word and in contrast with its usage as conjunction.

4.2.11 Definition (Disjunction)

If p and q are any two statements then p or q is defined as disjunction of p and q and
is denoted by p ∨ q. p ∨ q has truth value T whenever atleast one of p, q has truth
value T. The truth table of p ∨ q is shown in the following table.

Truth table of p ∨ q
p q p ∨ q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

p ∨ q ∨ r is the disjunction of the statements p, q and r. Note that, the disjunction is defined in
the inclusive sense i.e., disjunction connective is inclusion or.
There are two types of ‘or’ which we use in our every day life.
 430 Mathematics - IA

4.2.12 Example

Let p : A cup of coffee or tea is available with snacks in a restaurant. From the above statement
we understand that there is a choice between coffee and tea. One can have coffee with snacks or tea
with snacks but can not have both coffee and tea. ‘or’ used in such contexts, is called exclusive ‘or’.

4.2.13 Example
Let p : A student who has taken Biology or Chemistry at degree level can apply for P.G. course
in Microbiology.
We understand from this statement that a student who has taken either Biology and / or
Chemistry can apply for the said course. So, a student who has taken both the subjects can apply
for the said course. Or used in such contexts is called inclusive ‘or’.

4.2.14 Example
Let p : 50 is a multiple of 7 or 8. Let its components be
q : 50 is a multiple of 7
r : 50 is a multiple of 8 .
Then p ≡ q ∨ r. We know that both q and r are false. Therefore p is false.

4.2.15 Example
Let p : Two distinct points in space determine a line or a plane.
Let its component be
q : two points in space determine a line.
r : two points in space determine a plane.
Then p ≡ q ∨ r. We know that q is true but r is false. Since either of q and r is true the truth value
of p is T.

4.2.16 Example

Let p : The college is closed if it is a holiday or a Sunday.

Let its components be
q : The college is closed if it is a holiday.
r : The college is closed if it is a Sunday.
The truth value of p is T since both q and r are true.
Mathematical Reasoning 431

4.3 Implication - conditional and bi-conditional

We come across, in everyday life, sentences like “if I had gone to the railway station in time
then I would not have missed the train”, “if x is a real number then x2 > 0 and “If a number is
divisible by 49 then it is divisible by 7.

4.3.1 Definition : Implication

Let p and q be any two statements. “If p then q” is called an implication and
it is denoted by p → q.

We define p → q as a statement and it is false only when p is true and q is false.

The truth table of p → q is shown in the following table.
Truth table of p → q
p q p →q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

4.3.2 Note
1. Implication is also called conditional.
2. For the implication p → q, p is called premise or hypothesis or an antecedent and q is called
as conclusion or consequent.
3. The truth value of the implication is defined. Therefore, the truth value of an implication depends
only on the truth values of p and q but not any relation between antecedent and consequent
of the implication. For example, if Andhra Pradesh is in America then 5 + 6 = 17. The truth
value of this implication is T. The reason is, the statement “Andhra Pradesh is in America” has
truth value F and the statement “5 + 6 = 17” has the truth value F.
Of course, there are rules for testing the validity of the conclusions which you learn in higher
classes.
4. In our everyday language, it is customary to have some sort of relation between antecedent and
consequent of an implication. For example, “if I get a ticket then I shall see the movie”. In this
implication, the consequent (see the movie) refers to the antecedent (get a ticket). But this is not
 432 Mathematics - IA

the case in our defined implication. i.e., The statements p and q of an implication p → q need
not have any relationship.
Therefore, there may or may not be a relation between the antecedent and consequent as per
the definition of an implication. For example, if Einstein is a genius then 5 + 6 = 3. This
statement does not make sense to us in our conventional language. However, according to our
definition of implication (conditional), this statement is considered as an implication.
5. The statements, “if p then q” and “p implies q” are not the same in the reasoning. But, in
Mathematics they are used interchangeably.
1. Example : If ABC is a triangle then sum of its angles is 1800.
2. Example : If the sky is overcast then the Sun is not visible.

4.3.3 Definitions

Let p and q be any two statements

(i) q → p is called the converse of p → q.
(ii) ~p → ~q is called opposite of p → q.
(iii) ~q → ~p is called contrapositive of p → q.

3. Example: Consider the implication “if a number is divisible by 36 then it is divisible by 6”. Let

p : A number is divisible by 36.

q : A number is divisible by 6.

Then the given implication is p → q. The converse statement of it is q → p. i.e., if a number

is divisible by 6 then it is divisible by 36.

4. Example : If x = a is a root of f(x) = 0 then (x − a) is a factor of f (x).

The opposite of it is if x = a is not a root of f (x) = 0 then (x − a) is not a factor of f (x).

5. Example: Consider the implication “if a number is divisible by 25 then it is divisible by 5”. Let
p : A number is divisible by 25.
q : A number is divisible by 5.

Then the given implication is p → q. Its contrapositive statement is ~q → ~p i.e., “if a number
is not divisible by 5 then it is not divisible by 25”.
Mathematical Reasoning 433

4.3.4 Definition (Biconditional)

Let p and q be any two statements. The biconditional is defined as a conjunction of
p → q and q → p and it is denoted by p ↔ q. i.e.,
p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p). Further, p ↔ q is also stated as “p if and only if
q” or “p is a necessary and sufficient condition for q” and vice-versa. The truth table of
p ↔ q is given below.
Truth table of p ↔ q
p q p → q q → p p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
Note that p ↔ q is true only when p and q have the same truth values.
6. Example: Let p: A number (three or more digits) in which the number formated by the digits in
the last two places (unit place and tens place) is divisible by 4 and q : the number is divisible by 4.
Then p → q means if a number in which the part formed by the last two digits is divisible by 4, then
the number is divisible by 4 and (q → p ) means if the number is divisible by 4 then the number in
the last two places of the given number is divisible by 4. The conjunction of these two statements may
be stated as “a number is divisible by 4 if and only if the number formed by the digits in the last two
places is divisible by 4”. In symbols p ↔ q.

4.4 Quantifiers

The phrases like “there exists” denoted by ∃ , and “for all” denoted by ∀ are called quantifiers.
The symbol ∃ is also called existential quantifier and ∀ is called Universal quantifier. ∀ is also
used in lieu of the phrase “for every”.

4.4.1 Definition: Open statement

Let U be a set. Suppose a predicate p(x) is true or false for each x ∈ U. Such p(x) is
called as an open statement on U. Then the set U is called the Universe of discourse or
the Universe of the open statement p.

For example, p(x) : x is a prime and the universe U is the set of all positive integers i.e., A
declarative sentence is an open statement if (i) it contains one or more variables (ii) when the variables
are assigned values from a set (it is the universe) then it has truth value T or F.
 434 Mathematics - IA

The following are examples of open statements:

1. p(x) : x + 2 is an even number, where the universe is the set all natural numbers.
2. p (x, y) : x < y, where x and y are members of the set of all real numbers.

4.4.2 Notation
(i) “ ∀ x, p(x)” is used in the sense that p(x) is true for every x belonging to the universe of p.
(ii) “ ∃ x, p(x)” is used in the sense that p(x) is true for atleast one x belonging to the universe of p.

4.4.3 Note
Negation of quantified statements
1. ~ [ ∀ x, p(x)] ≡ ∃ x, ~p(x)

2. ~ [ ∃ x, p(x)] ≡ ∀ x, ~p(x)

3. ~ [ ∀ x, ~p(x)] ≡ ∃ x, p(x)
4. ~ [ ∃ x, ~p(x)] ≡ ∀ x, p(x)

4.5 Validating Statements

Methods of proof of an implication p → q

I. Trivial proof of p → q.
In this method of trivial proof of p → q, it is enough to show that the truth value of q is true
i.e., the implication p → q is true when q is true (regardless of the truth value of p).
1. Example: Let p(a, b) : a, b are non-zero integers such that a > b .
q(a, b) : a0 > b0 and the universe U is the set of all non-zero integers.
Then q is true. Therefore, the implication p(a, b) → q(a, b) is true (by trivial method of proof).
II. Vacuous proof of p → q.
In this method p is shown to be false so that the implication p → q is true.
2. Example: To show that φ ⊆ A, we have to show that
If ∀ x, x ∈ φ then x ∈ A .... (1)
Let p(x) : x ∈ φ and q(x) : x ∈ A.
Then we have to show ∀ x, p(x) ⇒ q(x). p(x) is false, since the null set has no elements
in it. Therefore (1) is true by the method of vacuous proof. Hence, φ ⊆ A.
Mathematical Reasoning 435

III. Direct Method of proof of an implication p → q

In this method, assuming p is true, q is shown to be true so that p → q is true.
3. Example: Suppose we have to show that the implication “if n is odd then n2 is odd” is true for
any integer n using the direct method. Let p(n): n is odd and q(n): n2 is odd. Here the universe
U is the set of all integers. Assume that p is true. Then n is odd. Therefore there exists some integer
k such that n = 2k + 1.
Now, n2 = (2k + 1)2
= 4k2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1 = 2m + 1,
where m = 2k2 + 2k. Thus n2 = 2m+1.
Hence n2 is odd.
Therefore, the given implication is true.
IV. Contrapositive (Indirect) of method of) proof of an implication p → q.
In this method assuming that q is false, the conclusion p is shown to be false.
The logic involved in it is, the implication p → q and ~q → ~p are equivalent
i.e., p → q ≡ ~q → ~p. It is called contrapositive law.
It can be shown by constructing the truth table of these two implications which are given below.
Let P(p, q) : p → q and Q(p, q): ~q → ~p.

p q ~p ~q P : p→q Q:~q → ~p

T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

The truth values of P(p, q) and Q(p, q) are the same. Therefore they are equivalent.
4. Example: Suppose we have to show that the implication “if (3n + 2 ) is odd then n is odd” where
n is any integer, by contrapositive method. Let p(n) : (3n + 2) is odd, q(n): n is odd and the universe
U is the set of all integers. Suppose that q(n) is false. Then n is not odd. It means n is an even number.
(As an integer n is either even or odd). Since n is even there exists an integer k such that n = 2k.
3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 2(3k + 1). Therefore 3n + 2 is an even number. Hence p(n) is false. By
contrapositive law, the given implication is true.
 436 Mathematics - IA

V. Contradiction method of proof of an implication p → q

In this method we assume that p is true and q is false and arrive at a contradiction.

This argument leads to p ∧ (~q) is false. Hence ~(p ∧ (~q) )is true i.e., (~p ) ∨ q is true.
But we have (~p) ∨ q ≡ p → q. Hence the implication p → q is true.

In case of a simple statement p, to show that p is true by the method of contradiction we will
assume that p is false and arrive a contradiction to a fact or to the contents of the statement p. This
leads to conclude that our assumption is wrong. Hence the given statement is true.

VI. Method of proof by counter example

To disprove the statement: ∀ x, p(x), it is enough to provide a counter example i.e., to show
that ∀ x, p(x) is false it is sufficient to exhibit a specific value v in the universe such that p(v) is false.
The value v is called counter example to the assertion ∀ x, p(x).

The argument is as follows:

∀ x, p(x) ≡ p(a) ∧ p(b) ∧ p(c) ∧ p(d) ..... (a, b, c etc. are in the Universe) ∀ x, p(x)
is true if and only if p(a), p(b), p(c), .... are all true. If any one of p(a), p(b), p(c), ... is false then
∀ x, p(x) is false.

So, to disprove ∀ x, p(x) we can use the method of proof by a counter example. For example
to disprove the statement “all primes are odd numbers” we can find a counter example “2 (which is
prime but not odd)”. Here the universe U is set of all positive integers.

4.5.1 Note

To prove p ↔ q is true, we have to prove p → q and q → p are true. We may choose any
method of proof given above to prove p → q or q → p.

4.5.2 Note

If we show that p(x) is true for any arbitrary element of the universe U then p(x) is true for all
x ∈ U. Similarly, if we show that p(x, y) is true for any arbitrary elements of x and y ∈ U then
p(x, y) is true for all x, y ∈ U.
 437

Reference Books

❈ Mathematics, Text Book for Class XI; National Council of Educational Research
and Training(NCERT); New Delhi; 2006.

❈ Mathematics, Text Book for Class XII, Part - I; National Council of Educational
Research and Training (NCERT); New Delhi; 2006.

❈ Mathematics, Text Book for Class XII, Part - II; National Council of Educational
Research and Training (NCERT); New Delhi; 2007.

❈ Intermediate First Year; Mathematics, Paper I - A, Telugu Akademi; Hyderabad;

2008.

❈ Matrices - Schaum’s Outline Series; Frank Ayres; Mc. Graw Hill Education (India)
Ltd., 2007.

❈ College Algebra - Schaum’s Outline series;Murray R. Spiegel and Robert E Moyer;

McGraw - Hill Education (India) Ltd.; 2007.

❈ Vector Analysis -Schaum’s outline series; Murrary R. Spiegel; McGraw - Hill Education
(India) Ltd.; 2007.

❈ Elementary Vector Analysis; C.E. Weatherburn; G. Bell & Sons Ltd., London; 1966.

❈ Trigonometry - Schaum’s outline series; Robert E. Moyer; McGraw -Hill Education

(India) Ltd.; 2007.

❈ Plane Trigonometry (Metric edition); S.L. Loney; SBD Publishers & Distributors,
New Delhi; 2001.

❈ Elementary Trigonometry; H.S. Hall & S.R. Knight; Macmillan & Co., London; 1962.
438 Mathematics - IA

BOARD OF INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION

Syllabus in Mathematics Paper - IA
To be effective from the academic year 2012-13

Name of Topic and Sub Topics No. of Periods

ALGEBRA
1. Functions 16
1.1 Types of functions - Definitions
1.2 Inverse functions and Theorems
1.3 Domain, Range, Inverse of real valued functions

2. Mathematical Induction 08
2.1 Principle of Mathematical Induction & Theorems
2.2 Applications of Mathematical Induction
2.3 Problems on divisibility
3. Matrices 28
3.1 Types of matrices
3.2 Scalar multiple of a matrix and multiplication of matrices
3.3 Transpose of a matrix
3.4 Determinants
3.5 Adjoint and Inverse of a matrix
3.6 Consistency and inconsistency of Equations - Rank of a matrix
3.7 Solution of simultaneous linear equations

VECTOR ALGEBRA
4. Addition of Vectors 18
4.1 Vectors as a triad of real numbers
4.2 Classification of vectors
4.3 Addition of vectors
Syllabus 439

4.4 Scalar multiplication

4.5 Angle between two non zero vectors
4.6 Linear combination of vectors
4.7 Component of a vector in three dimensions
4.8 Vector equations of line and plane including their Cartesian equivalent forms

5. Product of Vectors 28
5.1 Scalar product - Geometrical Interpretations - Orthogonal projections
5.2 Properities of dot product
5.3 Expression of dot product in i, j, k system - Angle between two vectors
5.4 Geometrical Vector methods
5.5 Vector equations of plane in normal form.
5.6 Angle between two planes
5.7 Vector product of two vectors and properties
5.8 Vector product in i, j, k system.
5.9 Vector Areas
5.10 Scalar Triple product
5.11 Vector equations of plane in different forms, skew lines, shortest distance
and their Cartesian equivalents. Plane through the line of intersection of
two planes, condition for coplanarity of two lines, perpendicular distance
of a point from a plane, Angle between line and a plane. Cartesian
equivalents of all these results.
5.12 Vector Triple product - Results.

TRIGONOMETRY
6. Trigonometric Ratios up to Transformations 20
6.1 Graphs and Periodicity of Trigonometric functions
6.2 Trigonometric ratios and Compound angles
440 Mathematics - IA

6.3 Trigonometric ratios of multiple and sub multiple angles

6.4 Transformations - Sum and Product rules

7. Trigonometric Equations 05
7.1 General solution of Trigonometric Equations
7.2 Simple Trigonometric Equations - Solutions

8. Inverse Triogonometric Functions 07

8.1 To reduce a Trigonometric function into a bijection
8.2 Graphs of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
8.3 Properities of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

9. Hyperbolic Functions 04
9.1 Definition of Hyperbolic Function - Graphs
9.2 Definition of inverse Hyperbolic Functions - Graphs
9.3 Addition formulas of Hyperbolic Functions

10. Properities of Triangles 16

10.1 Relation between sides and angles of a Triangle
10.2 Sine, Cosine, Tangent and Projection rules
10.3 Half angle formulae and areas of a triangle
10.4 In-circle and Ex-circle of a Triangle
Total 150

Additional Reading Material for Mathematics - IA

The following topics are there in the Common Core Syllabus which is covered in previous curriculum
(IX and X classes) and which is not included in A.P. Intermediate syllabus. For the benefit of students
writing competitive examination based on Common Core Syllabus, we are giving the material briefly
on the following topics. No question is to be set in the IPE, Mathematics - IA from this syllabus.
1. Sets
Introduction
Sets and their representations
Syllabus 441

The empty set

Finite and infinite sets
Equal sets
Sub sets
Power sets
Universal sets
Venn Diagram
Operations on sets
Complement of a set
Practical problems on union and intersection of two sets

2. Relations
Introduction
Cartesian Product of sets
Relations

3. Sequences and Series

Introduction
Sequences
Series
Arithmetic Progressions (A.P.)
Geometric Progressions (G.P.)
Relationship between A.M. and G.M.
Sum and upto n terms of special series

4. Mathematical Reasoning
Introduction
Statement
New statements from old
Special words / phrases
Implications
Validating Statements
 442 Mathematics - IA

BOARD OF INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION A.P. : HYDERABAD

MODEL QUESTION PAPER w.e.f. 2012-13
MATHEMATICS - IA
(English Version)
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 75

Note : The Question Paper consists of three sections A, B and C

Section - A 10 × 2 = 20 Marks
I. Very Short Answer Questions
(i) Answer All questions
(ii) Each Question carries two marks

 π π π π
1. If A = 0, , , ,  and f : A → B is a surjection defined by f (x) = cos x then find B.
 6 4 3 2
1
2. Find the domain of the real-valued function f (x) = .
log(2 − x)

3. A certain bookshop has 10 dozen chemistry books, 8 dozen physics books, 10 dozen economics
books. Their selling prices are Rs. 80, Rs. 60 and Rs. 40 each respectively. Find the total amount the
bookshop will receive by selling all the books, using matrix algebra.

 2 −4 
4. If A =   , then find A + A′ and A A′ .
 −5 3 

5. Show that the points whose position vectors are −2a + 3b + 5c , a + 2b + 3c , 7a − c are collinear when
a , b , c are non-coplanar vectors.

6. Let a = 2 i + 4 j − 5k , b = i + j + k and c = j + 2k . Find unit vector in the opposite direction of

a +b +c .

7. If a = i + 2 j − 3k and b = 3i − 2 j + 2k then show that a + b and a − b are perpendicular to each

other.

8. Prove that cos90 + sin 90 = cot 360 .

0 0

cos9 − sin 9
Model Question Paper 443

9. Find the period of the function defined by f (x) = tan (x + 4x + 9x + .... + n 2x).

10. If sinh x = 3 then show that x = log e (3 + 10) .

Section - B 5 × 4 = 20 Marks
II. Short Answer Questions
(i) Answer any Five questions.
(ii) Each Question carries Four marks.

bc b + c 1
11. Show that ca c + a 1 = (a − b)(b − c)(c − a) .
ab a + b 1

12. Let A B C D E F be regular hexagon with centre ‘O’. Show that

AB + AC + AD + AE + AF = 3AD = 6AO.

13. If a = i − 2 j − 3k , b = 2 i + j − k and c = i + 3 j − 2k find a × (b × c ) .

π
14. If A is not an integral multiple of , prove that
2
(i) tan A + cot A = 2 cosec 2A
(ii) cot A − tan A = 2 cot 2A

15. Solve : 2cos 2 θ − 3 sin θ + 1 = 0.

 1  1
16. Prove that cos  2 tan −1  = sin  4 tan −1  .
 7  3

 B − C b − c A
17. In a ∆ABC prove that tan   = cot .
 2  b+c 2

Section - C 5 × 7 = 35 Marks
III. Long Answer Questions
(i) Answer any Five questions.
(ii) Each Question carries Seven marks.
18. Let f : A → B, g : B → C be bijections. Then prove that (gof )−1 = f −1og−1.
1 1 1 n
19. By using mathematical induction show that ∀n ∈ N , + + + .... upto n terms = .
1.4 4.7 7.10 3n + 1
444 Mathematics - IA

 1 −2 3
20. If A =  0 −1 4 then find ( A′ )−1.
 
 −2 2 1 

21. Solve the following equations by Gauss-Jordan method 3x + 4y + 5z = 18, 2x − y + 8z = 13 and

5x − 2y + 7z = 20.

22. If A = (1, −2, −1), B = (4, 0, −3), C = (1, 2, −1) and D = (2, −4, −5), find the distance between
AB and CD .

A B C A B C
23. If A, B, C are angles of a triangle, then prove that sin 2 + sin 2 − sin 2 = 1− 2cos cos sin .
2 2 2 2 2 2

24. In a ∆ABC, if a = 13, b = 14, c = 15, find R, r, r1, r2 and r3.

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