GIS

GIS is a computer system for capturing, storing, checking and displaying data related to position on
earth’s surface. Helps with understanding spatial patterns and relationships. It provides with following
four sets of capabilities to handle geo referenced data:
1. Data capture and preparation
a. Data capture is tedious job in GIS. A GIS can be used to emphasize the spatial
relationships among the objects being mapped. If the data to be used are not already
in digital form that is in a form a computer can understand and recognize, various
techniques are available to capture the information. Maps can be digitized, or hand
traced with a computer mouse, to collect the coordinates of the features. Electronic
scanning devices will also convert map lines and points to digits.
2. Data management
a. This phase requires a decision to be made on how best to represent our data, in terms
of soft heir spatial properties and the various attribute values which we need to store.
Data Manipulation includes data verification, attributes data management,
insertion, updating, deleting and retrieval in different forms.
3. Data manipulation and analysis
a. Data analysis can be done, when data has been collected and organized in computer
system.
4. Data presentation
a. After the data manipulation, our data is prepared for producing output. This phase
deals with putting it all together into a format that communicates the result of data
analysis in the best possible way.
5. Application of GIS –
a. A biologist might be interested in the impact of slash-and-burn practices on the
populations of amphibian species in the forests of a mountain range to obtain a better
understanding of long-term threats to those populations;
b. A natural hazard analyst might like to identify the high-risk areas of annual
monsoon-related flooding by investigating rainfall patterns and terrain characteristics;
c. A geological engineer might want to identify the best localities for construct- ing
buildings in an earthquake-prone area by looking at rock formation characteristics;
d. A mining engineer could be interested in determining which prospective copper
mines should be selected for future exploration, taking into account parameters such
as extent, depth and quality of the ore body, among others;
e. A Geoinformatics engineer hired by a telecommunications company may want to
determine the best sites for the company’s relay stations, taking into ac- count various
cost factors such as land prices, undulation of the terrain etc.
f. A forest manager might want to optimize timber production using data on soil and
current tree stand distributions, in the presence of a number of operational constraints,
such as the need to preserve species diversity in the area.
g. A hydrological engineer might want to study a number of water quality parameters
of different sites in a freshwater lake to improve understanding of the current
distribution of Typha reed beds, and why it differs from that of a decade ago.
GI System, GI Science and GI Applications
1. A GIS system is a type of database containing geographic data combined with software tools
for managing, analysing and visualising those data.
a. Commercial programmes -> ESRI, ArcGIS, AutoDesk
 b. Open source -> QGIS, GRASS GIS
2. GI Science is the scientific field that attempts to integrate different disciplines studying the
methods and techniques of handling spatial information. Geographic information science is
the scientific discipline that studies geographic information, including how it represents
phenomena in the real world, how it represents the way humans understand the world, and
how it can be captured, organized and analysed.
3. GIS Application – A clear cut purpose, and these applications can be short lived: the research
is carried out by collecting data, entering data in the GIS< analysing the data, and producing
informative maps. An example is rapid earthquake damage assessment.
Spatial Data: contains positional values, such as (x,y ) co-ordinates.
Key components of spatial data -
1. Quality include positional accuracy (vertical and horizontal)
2. Temporal accuracy (data is up to date)
a. Geographic phenomena are also dynamic so they change over time.
Examples of the kinds of questions involving time include:
i. Where and when did something happen?
ii. How fast did this change occur?
iii. In which order did the changes happens
b. Spatiotemporal data models are ways of organizing representations
of space and time in a GIS. Different concepts of time
i. Discrete and continuous time
ii. Valid time and transaction time
iii. Linear, branching and cycling time
iv. Time granularity
v. Absolute and relative time
3. Attribute accuracy (Labelling of feature)
4. Lineage (history of the data including the sources)
5. Completeness (set presents all related features of reality)
6. Logical consistency (data is logically structured)
Geo-Spatial Data: Used to as a further refinement, which refers to spatial data that is geo referenced.
Spatial data is also known as geo referenced data.
Geo-information – It is a specific type of information resulting from the interpretation of spatial data

Modelling - ‘Modelling’ is a term used in many different ways and which has many different
meanings. A representation of some part of the real world can be considered a model because the
representation will have certain characteristics in common with the real world. Specifically, those
which we have identified in our model design. This then allows us to study and operate on the model
itself instead of the real world in order to test what happens under various conditions, and help us
answer ‘what if’ questions. Models—as representations—come in many different flavours. In the GIS
environment, the most familiar model is that of a map. A map is a miniature representation of some
part of the real world. Paper maps are the most common, but digital maps also exist. Databases are
another important class of models. A database can store a considerable amount of data, and also
provides various functions to operate on the stored data. The collection of stored data represents some
real-world phenomena, so it too is a model. Obviously, here we are especially interested in databases
that store spatial data. Digital models (as in a database or GIS) have enormous advantages over paper
models (such as maps). They are more flexible, and therefore more easily changed for the purpose at
hand. In principle, they allow animations and simulations to be carried out by the computer system.
This has opened up an important toolbox that can help to improve our understanding of the world.
Most maps and databases can be considered static models. At any point in time, they represent a
single state of affairs. Usually, developments or changes in the real world are not easily recognized in
these models. Dynamic models or - process models address precisely this issue. They emphasize
changes that have taken place, are taking place or may take place sometime in the future. Dynamic
models are inherently more complicated than static models, and usually require much more
computation. Simulation models are an important class of dynamic models that allow the simulation
of real-world processes.
Modelling is the process of producing an abstraction of the ‘real world’ so that some part of it
can be more easily handled.
Dynamic Model -> inherently more complicated than static models.
Simulation Models – are an important class of dynamic models that allow the simulation of real-
world processes.
Maps -> Their conception and design has developed into a science with a high degree of
sophistication. A disadvantage of the traditional paper map is that it is generally restricted to 2 D static
representations and is fixed scale.
Databases
A database is a repository for storing large amounts of data. It comes
with a number of useful functions:
1. A database can be used by multiple users at the same time—i.e., it
allows concurrent use,
2. A database offers a number of techniques for storing data and allows
the use of the most efficient one—i.e., it supports storage optimization,
3. A database allows the imposition of rules on the stored data; rules that will be automatically
checked after each update to the data—i.e.
it supports data integrity,
4. A database offers an easy-to-use data manipulation language, which allows the execution of all
sorts of data extraction and data updates—i.e., it has a query facility,
5. A database will try to execute each query in the data manipulation
language in the most efficient way—i.e., it offers query optimization.
Databases can store almost any kind of data in different forms like tables etc.
Spatial Databases and Spatial Analysis
A spatial database is a general-purpose database (usually a relational database) that has been enhanced
to include spatial data that represents objects defined in a geometric space, along with tools for
querying and analyzing such data. The SQL/MM Spatial ISO/IEC standard is a part the SQL/MM
multimedia standard and extends the Simple Features standard with data types that support circular
interpolations. A geodatabase (also geographical database and geospatial database) is a database of
geographic data, such as countries, administrative divisions, cities, and related information. Such
databases can be useful for websites that wish to identify the locations of their visitors for
customization purposes. A geodatabase is not the same thing as a GIS, though both systems share a
number of characteristics. These include the functions listed above for databases in general:
concurrency, storage, integrity, and querying, specifically, but not only, spatial data.

Geographic Field – A field is a geographic phenomenon for which, for every point in the study
area, a value can be determined. Data types and values
1. Nominal Data Values
2. Ordinal Data Values
3. Interval Data Values
4. Ratio Data Values
Topological And spatial Relationships
Boundaries – Where shape and/or size of contiguous areas matter, the notion of boundary comes
into play. This is true for geographic objects but also for the constitutents of a discrete
geographic field.

Regular Tessellations

Irregular Tessellations
UNIT 2
**Explain the various reasons for using DBMS in GIS
1. A DBMS supports the storage and manipulation of very large data sets
a. Storing data in text files or spreadsheet is super inconvenient
2. Guard over data Correctness
a. Does not contain obvious errors
b. Range of possible geographic coordinates, so we can ensure the DBMS checks
them
c. Integrity constraints that can be defined in and automatically checked by a
DBMS
d. More complex integrity constraints are certainly possible, and their definition is
part of the design of database
3. A DBMS supports the concurrent use of the same data for many users
a. Large data sets are built over time, which means that substantial investments are
required to create and manage them, and that probably many people are
involved in the data collection, maintenance and processing
b. DBMS function is called concurrency control
4. A DBMS supports high level, declarative query language
a. Language is the definition of queries
b. A query is a computer program that extracts data from the database that meet
the conditions indicated in the query.
5. A DBMS supports the use of a data model
a. Data model is language with which one can define a database structure and
manipulate the data stored in it
6. DBMS includes data backup and recovery functions to ensure data availability at all
times
a. As potentially many users rely on the availability of the data, the data must be
safeguarded against possible calamities. Regular backups of the data set,
automatic recovery schemes provide an assurance against loss of data
7. Allows the control of data redundancy
a. Storing a fact multiple times give rise to a phenomenon known as data
redundancy.
b. Data redundancy can lead to situations in which stored facts may contradict
each other, causing reduced usefulness of the data.
c. Redundancy, however, is not necessarily always problematic, as long as we
specify where it occurs so that it can be controlled for.
8. Process of linking GIS with DBMS
a. Storing spatial and attribute Data
i. GIS software provides support for spatial data and the Matic or attribute data.
ii. GISs have traditionally stored spatial data and attribute data separately
iii. This required the GIS to provide a link between the spatial data that is
represented with raster’s or vectors, and their non-spatial attribute data.
iv. Geographic information systems are strong because they have built-in
capabilities for analysing, storing, and producing maps that are derived from
their understanding of geographical space.
v. GIS packages themselves can store tabular data, however, they do not always
provide a full-fledged query language to operate on the tables.
 b. External DBMS
i. DBMS serves as a centralised data repository for all users, while each user
runs her/his own GIS software that obtains its data from the DBMS
c. Linking Objects and tables
i. With raster representation, each raster cell stores a characteristic value
ii. With vector representations, our spatial objects, whether they are points, lines
or polygons are automatically given a unique identifier by the system
iii.
Vector data, Raster Data, Polygon Data
1. Vector Data: Vector data represents geographic features using points, lines, and
polygons. These features are defined by their spatial coordinates (X, Y or longitude,
latitude) and are typically used to represent discrete and distinct objects on the Earth's
surface. Examples of vector data include points representing cities, lines representing
roads, and polygons representing land parcels. Vector data stores attributes associated
with each feature, such as population, name, or elevation.
2. Raster Data: Raster data represents geographic features using a grid of cells or pixels.
Each cell has a value that represents a specific attribute or phenomenon. Raster data is
used to represent continuous and continuous-like phenomena, such as elevation,
temperature, or satellite imagery. It is structured as a grid where each cell represents a
small portion of the Earth's surface. The resolution of the raster determines the size and
level of detail of each cell.
3. Polygon: In GIS, a polygon is a type of vector geometry that represents an enclosed area
with a defined boundary. It is defined by a series of interconnected vertices or nodes,
forming a closed shape. Polygons are commonly used to represent areas such as
countries, states, or land parcels. They can have attributes associated with them, making
them useful for spatial analysis and querying.
 4.

Relational Data Model

A data model is a language that allows the definition of: The structures that will be used to store the
base data, The integrity constraints that the stored data has to obey at all moments in time, and
The computer programs used to manipulate the data. For the relational data model, the structures
used to define the database are attributes, tuples, and relations. Computer programs either perform
data extraction from the database without altering it, in which case we call them queries, or they
change the database contents, and we speak of updates or transactions.

Spatial Database functionalities

A spatial database allows users to store, query and manipulate collections of spatial data. spatial
data can be stored in a special database column, known as the geometry column, or feature or shape,
depending on the specific software package. This means GISs can rely fully on DBMS support for
spatial data, making use of a DBMS for data query and storage and also for multi-user support, and
GIS for spatial functionality. Small-scale GIS applications may not require a multi-user capability,
and can be supported by spatial data support from a personal database. A geodatabase allows a
wide variety of users to access large data sets that include both geographic and alphanumeric, and the
management of their relations, guaranteeing their integrity.
UNIT 3
Kriging
1. Kriging is a multistep process, it includes exploratory statistical analysis of the data,
variogram modelling, creating the surface and exploring a variance surface
2. Kriging is most appropriate when you know there is a spatially correlated distance or
direactional bias in the data
3. Kriging predicts the value of a function at a given point by computing a weighted
average of the known values of the function in the neighborhood of the point.
4. The method is closely related to regression analysis
5. It is part of interpolation continuous data
GLONASS
1. GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System) is a global satellite-based navigation
system developed by Russia. It provides precise positioning, navigation, and timing
information to users worldwide. In the context of Geographic Information Systems
(GIS), GLONASS plays a significant role in location-based services, data collection, and
spatial analysis. Here's a summary of GLONASS in respect to GIS:
2. Satellite Navigation: GLONASS, along with other satellite navigation systems like GPS
(Global Positioning System), provides accurate positioning information for GIS
applications. By receiving signals from GLONASS satellites, GIS users can determine
their location with high precision, enabling them to accurately collect and record spatial
data.
3. Data Collection and Mapping: GLONASS enables field data collection in GIS through
GPS/GLONASS receivers. These receivers can capture location information while
collecting attribute data, allowing for the creation of detailed and accurate spatial
datasets. GLONASS enhances the accuracy and reliability of data collection efforts,
leading to more precise and reliable maps.
4. Spatial Analysis: GLONASS enhances the accuracy of spatial analysis in GIS. With
precise positioning information from GLONASS satellites, GIS analysts can perform
spatial queries, overlays, network analysis, and other spatial operations with increased
accuracy. This enables more reliable decision-making, modeling, and planning
processes.
5. Real-Time Tracking and Monitoring: GLONASS provides real-time tracking
capabilities, allowing for the monitoring and tracking of moving objects such as vehicles,
ships, or wildlife. Real-time positioning data from GLONASS can be integrated into GIS
platforms to visualize and analyze the movement patterns and behavior of tracked
entities.
6. Integration with GIS Software: GIS software platforms often provide support for
GLONASS receivers and incorporate GLONASS data into their workflows. GIS users
can import and utilize GLONASS-derived positioning data seamlessly within their GIS
projects. This integration facilitates the integration of GLONASS data with other spatial
data layers and enables comprehensive spatial analysis and visualization.
7. In summary, GLONASS plays a vital role in GIS by providing accurate positioning and
navigation information. It enhances data collection, mapping accuracy, spatial analysis,
and real-time tracking capabilities within GIS applications. The integration of
GLONASS with GIS software enables users to leverage precise positioning data for a
 wide range of GIS tasks, improving the accuracy and reliability of spatial information
and analysis.

Satellite Based Positioning

1. Satellites are the cornerstones of modern positioning and navigation
2. Satellite positioning is ultimately based on the accurate transfer of time.
3. Satellite usually the US Based GPS was synonymous to satellite positing
4. Satellite positioning is currently reffered to as the Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS)
5. Satellite positioning is ultimately based on the accurate transfer of time.
6. Each of the four satellite positioning systems consists of some 20 to 30 satellites, orbiting
at an altitutde of approximately 20k km
7. All of these satellites are equipped with a precise atomic clock, on the basis of which they
transmit a time signal down to Earth, as well as other data that indicates satellite
position
8. In addition to 3D Position, time is also used.
9. To use GNSS Positioning, signals only need to be received
10. Users do not need to reveal their location
11. Applications of SBP
a. Surveying
b. Military operations
c. Engineering
d. Vehicle tracking
e. Flight, ship, car nav
f. Agriculture
g. Mapping
12.
Global Positioning System (GPS):
1. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system
made up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the U.S.
Department of Defense.
2. It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that provides
geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the
Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS
satellites.
3. GPS is operated and maintained by the Department of Defense (DoD).
4. GPS is a system, and it is made up of three parts, satellites, ground stations and
receivers
a. Satellites acts like the stars, invariably send out signals
b. The ground stations make use of the radar to make sure the satellites are where
we think they are
c. A receiver is a device that you might find in your phone or in your car and it
constantly seeks for the signals from the satellites
d. The receiver calculates its distance from four or more satellites, it knows exactly
where you are
2D Geographic Coordination System
A 2D geographic coordinate system is a reference system used to locate points on the Earth's surface
using two-dimensional coordinates, typically represented as longitude and latitude. Here's a summary
with a suitable example:
A 2D geographic coordinate system uses longitude and latitude to specify the position of a point on
the Earth's surface. Longitude measures the east-west position and is represented by angular values
ranging from -180° to +180°. Latitude measures the north-south position and is represented by
angular values ranging from -90° to +90°. The coordinate system is based on a spherical model of the
Earth, where the equator represents 0° latitude.
For example, consider the coordinates of the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France: 48.8584° N (latitude) and
2.2945° E (longitude). These coordinates specify the tower's position relative to the equator (latitude)
and the Prime Meridian (longitude). The positive/negative signs indicate whether the location is north
or south of the equator and east or west of the Prime Meridian, respectively.
Using this coordinate system, various applications can leverage geographic data for mapping,
navigation, and analysis purposes. For instance, GPS devices utilize 2D geographic coordinates to
provide accurate location information and guide users to their desired destinations.
In summary, a 2D geographic coordinate system with longitude and latitude enables the precise
determination of positions on the Earth's surface and serves as a fundamental basis for many
geographical applications.
○ Points: ■ Vector points are simply XY coordinates. ■ Generally, they are latitude and longitude
with a spatial reference frame. ■ When features are too small to be represented as polygons, points are
used. ■ For example, you can’t see city boundary lines on a global scale. In this case, maps often use
points to display cities. ○
Lines: ■ Vector lines connect each vertex with paths. ■ Basically, you’re connecting the dots in a set
order and it becomes a vector line with each dot representing a vertex. ■ Lines usually represent
features that are linear in nature. ■ For example, maps show rivers, roads, and pipelines as vector
lines. Often, busier highways have thicker lines than abandoned roads. ○
Polygons or areas: ■ When you join a set of vertices in a particular order and close it, this is now a
vector polygon feature. ■ When you create a polygon, the first and last coordinate pairs are the same.
■ Cartographers use polygons to show boundaries and they all have an area. ■ For example, a
building footprint has square footage, and agricultural fields have acreage.
Raster data model: ● Raster data is made up of pixels (also referred to as grid cells). ● They are
usually regularly spaced and square but they don’t have to be. ● Rasters often look pixelated because
each pixel has its own value or class. ● Raster data models consist of two categories – ○
Discrete: ■ Discrete rasters have distinct themes or categories. ■ For example, one grid cell
represents a land cover class or a soil type. Principles of Geogrphics Information Systems
94 ■ In other words, each land cover cell is definable and it fills the entire area of the cell. ■ Discrete
data usually consists of integers to represent classes. ■ For example, the value 1 might represent urban
areas, the value 2 represents forest, and so on. ○
Continuous: ■ Continuous rasters (non-discrete) are grid cells with gradually changing data such as
elevation, temperature, or an aerial photograph. ■ A continuous raster surface can be derived from a
fixed registration point. ■ For example, digital elevation models use sea level as a registration point.

UNIT 4
Automatic Classification
User-controlled classifications require a classification table or user interaction. GIS software
can also perform automatic classification, in which a user only specifies the number of classes in
the output data set. The system automatically determines the class break points. Two main
techniques of determining break points are in use.
1. Equal interval technique: The minimum and maximum values vmin and vmax of the classification
parameter are determined and the (constant) interval size for each category is calculated as (vmax −
vmin)/n, where n is the number of classes chosen by the user. This classification is useful in revealing
the distribution patterns as it determines the number of features in each category.
2. Equal frequency technique: This technique is also known as quantile classification. The objective is
to create categories with roughly equal numbers of features per category. The total number of features
is determined first and by the required number of categories, the number of features per category is
calculated. The class break points are then determined by counting off the features in order of
classification parameter value.
Vector Overlay Operators
In the vector domain, overlay is computationally more demanding than in the raster domain. Here we
will only discuss overlays from polygon data layers, but we note that most of the ideas also apply to
overlay operations with point or line data layers.

The standard overlay operator for two layers of polygons is the polygon intersection operator. It is
fundamental, as many other overlay operators proposed in the literature or implemented in systems
can be defined in terms of it. The result of this operator is the collection of all possible polygon
intersections; the attribute table result is a join—in the relational database sense.

Neighbourhood functions
The principle here is to find out the characteristics of the vicinity, here called neighbourhood, of a
location. After all, many suitability questions, for instance, depend not only on what is at the location,
but also on what is near the location.

1. State which target locations are of interest to us, and define their spatial extent,
2. Define how to determine the neighbourhood for each target,
3. Define which characteristic(s) must be computed for each neighbourhood.

Types of neighbourhood functions

1. Proximity computations - In proximity computations, we use geometric distance to

define the neighbourhood of one or more target locations. The most common and useful
technique is buffer zone generation. Another technique based on geometric distance
that we discuss is Thiessen polygon generationBuffer zone generation
a. Thiessen polygon generation - Thiessen polygon partitions make use of
geometric distance for determining neighbourhoods. This is useful if we have a
spatially distributed set of points as target locations, and we want to know for
each location in the study to which target it is closest. This technique will
generate a polygon around each target location that identifies all those locations
that ‘belong to’ that target.
2. Flow computation - Flow computations determine how a phenomenon spreads over the
area, in principle in all directions, though with varying difficulty or resistance. There are
 also cases where a phenomenon does not spread in all directions, but moves or ‘flows’
along a given, least-cost path, determined again by local terrain characteristics.
a. Raster based surface analysis - Continuous fields have a number of
characteristics not shared by discrete fields. Since the field changes continuously,
we can talk about slope angle, slope aspect and concavity/convexity of the slope.
These notions are not applicable to discrete fields.

GIS Based Application based methods

1. The purpose of the model,

2. The methodology underlying the model,
a. It refers to the operational components of the model. Stochastic models use
statistical or probability functions to represent random or semi-random
behaviour of phenomena. In contrast, deterministic models are based upon a
well-defined cause and effect relationship.
3. The scale at which the model works,
a. It refers to whether the components of the model are individual or aggregate in
nature.
4. Its dimensionality - i.e. whether the model includes spatial, temporal or spatial and
temporal dimensions, and
5. Its implementation logic - i.e. the extent to which the model uses existing knowledge
about the implementation context. It is important to note that the categories above are
merely different characteristics of any given application model.

Error Propagation in spatial data processing

Classification of analytical functions of GIS
GIS analysis functions fall into four categories:
1. Retrieval/Classification/Measurement functions
2. Overlay functions
3. Neighbourhood functions and
4. Connectivity functions
• Retrieval functions basically involve a selective search
Classification/Reclassification functions involve two operations:
1. Identifying a set of features as belonging to a group and
2. Defining patterns
Measurement functions measure distances, lengths, perimeters and areas

A selective search is an example of a retrieval function. It involves selection of attributes based on

graphic selection tools used to select areas in the map displayed.

Overlay functions could be:

1. Arithmetic
1. Addition
2. Subtraction
3. Multiplication
4. Division
2. Logical
1. Used to find where specific conditions occur (and, or, >,< etc)
Vector methods are good for sparse data sets while raster methods are easier for grid
calculations

Neighbourhood functions
The basic functions that fall under this domain are:
 1. Average
2. Diversity
3. Minimum/Maximum and
4. Total
The parameters that need to be defined to operate these functions are:
1. Target locations
2. Specification of neighbourhood
3. Function to be performed on neighbourhood elements
4. Search operation is one of the most common neighbourhood functions
5. Neighbourhood function on a vector model is a specialised search function while on a
raster model, polygons are on a separate layer and points and lines are on a separate layer.
6. Theissen polygon operation

UNIT 5
Bertins six cateogries of visual variables
1. Size
2. Value (lightness)
3. Texture
4. Colour
5. Orientation
6. Shape
MAP COSMETICS

1. Each map should have, next to the map image, a title, informing the user about the topic
visualized. A legend is necessary to understand how the topic is depicted.
2. Additional marginal information to be found on a map is a scale indicator, a north arrow
for orientation, the map datum and map projection used and some lineage
information(such as data sources, dates of data collection, methods used etc).
3. Further information can be added that indicates when the map was issued and by whom
(author/ publisher). All this information allows the user to obtain an impression of the
quality of the map and is comparable with metadata describing the contents of a
database or data layer.
4. On paper maps, these elements have to appear next to the map and is comparable with
metadata describing the contents of a database or data layer.
5. Maps presented on screen often go without marginal information, partly because of
space constraints. How-ever on-screen maps are often interactive and clicking on a map
element may reveal additional information from the database. Legends and titles are
often available on demand as well.
6. Text is used to transfer information in addition to the symbols used. This can be done by
the application of the visual variables to the text as well.
7. Common example is the use of colour to differentiate between hydrographic names(in
blue) and other names(in black). The text should also be placed in a proper position with
respect to the object to which it refers.
 8. The design aspect of creating appealing maps also has to be included in the visualization
process. ‘Appealing’ does not only mean having nice colours. One of the keywords here
is ‘contrast’.
9. Contrast will increase the communicative role of the map since it creates a hierarchy in
the map contents, assuming that not all information has equal importance. This design
trick is known as visual hierarchy or the figure ground concept.

MAP DISSEMINATION

1. The map design will not only be influenced by the nature of the data to be mapped or
the intended audience (the ‘what’ and ‘whom’ from “how do I say what to whom and its
effective”), the output medium also plays a role. Traditionally, maps were produced on
paper and many still are.
2. Compared to maps on paper, on-screen maps have to be smaller and therefore their
contents should be carefully selected. This might seem a disadvantage, but presenting
maps on-screen offers very interesting alternatives.
3. A mouse click could also open the link to a database and reveal much more information
than a paper map could ever offer. Links to other than tabular or map data could also be
made available.
4. Maps and multimedia(photography, sound, video, animation) can be integrated. Some of
today’s electronic atlases such as the Encarta world atlas are good examples of how
multimedia elements can be integrated with the map.
5. Pointing to a country on a world map starts the national anthem of the country or shows
its flag. It can be used to explore a country’s language, moving the mouse would start a
short sentence in the region’s dialects.
6. The WWW is nowadays a common medium used to present and disseminate spatial
data. Here maps can play their traditional role, for instance to show the location of
objects or provide insight in to spatial patterns, but because of the nature of the
internet, the map can also function as an interface to additional information.
7. Maps can also be used as ‘previews’ of spatial data products to be acquired through a
spatial data clearing house that is part of a spatial data infrastructure. For that purpose
we can make use of geo-webservices which can provide interactive map views as
intermediate between data and web browser.
8. The WWW also allows for the fully interactive presentation of 3D models. The virtual
reality markup language (VRML). For instance can be used for this purpose. It stores a
true 3D model of the objects not just a series of 3D views.

How to map terrain elevation? Explain.

Terrain elevation can be mapped using different methods. Often, one will have collected an elevation
data set for individual points like peaks, or other characteristic points in the terrain. Obviously, one
can map the individual points and add the height information as text. However, a contour map, in
which the lines connect points of equal elevation, is generally used. To visually improve the
information content of such a map the space between the contour lines can be filled with colour and
value information following a convention, e.g. green for low elevation and brown for high elevation
areas. This technique is known as hypsometric or layer tinting. Even more advanced is the addition of
shaded relief. Interactive functions are required to manipulate the map in three-dimensional space in
order to look behind some objects. These manipulations include panning, zooming, rotating and
scaling. Scaling is needed, particularly along the z-axis, since some maps require small-scale
elevation resolution, while others require large-scale resolution, i.e. vertical exaggeration.

How to distinguish between three temporal cartographic techniques? Explain.

1. Single static map: Specific graphic variables and symbols are used to indi-
cate change or represent an event. Figure 7.20(a) applies the visual variable
value to represent the age of the built-up areas;
2. Series of static maps: A single map in the series represents a ‘snapshot’ in
time. Together, the maps depict a process of change. Change is perceived
by the succession of individual maps depicting the situation in successive
snapshots. It could be said that the temporal sequence is represented by
a spatial sequence, which the user has to follow, to perceive the temporal
variation. The number of images should be limited since it is difficult for
the human eye to follow long series of maps (Figure 7.20(b));
3. Animated map: Change is perceived to happen in a single image by display-
ing several snapshots after each other just like a video cut with successive
frames. The difference with the series of maps is that the variation can be
deduced from real ‘change’ in the image itself, not from a spatial sequence
For the user of a cartographic animation, it is important to have tools available
that allow for interaction while viewing the animation. Seeing the animation
play will often leave users with many questions about what they have seen. Just
replaying the animation is not sufficient to answer questions like “What was the
position of the coastline in the north during the 15th century?”

What is the relationship between Map and GIS?

There is a strong relationship between maps and GIS. More specifically, maps can be used as
input for a GIS.
Where
What
When
As soon as a question contains a “where?” question, a map can often be the most suitable tool to
solve the question and provide the answer. “Where do I find Enschede?” and “Where did ITC’s
students come from?” are both examples. Of course, the answers could be in non-map form like
“in the Netherlands” or“ from all over the world.” These answers could be satisfying, however,
they do not give the full picture. A map would put these answers in a spatial context. It could
show where in the Netherlands Enschede is to be found and where it is located with respect to
Schiphol–Amsterdam airport, where most students arrive. A world map would refine the answer
“from all over the world,” since it reveals that most students arrive from Africa and Asia, and
only a few come from the Americas, Australia and Europe. As soon as the location of geographic
objects (“where?”) is involved, a map becomes useful. However, maps can do more than just
providing information on location. They can also inform about the thematic attributes of the
geographic objects located in the map. An example would be “What is the predominant land use
in southeast Twente?” The answer could, again, just be verbal and state “Urban.” However, such
an answer does not reveal patterns. Maps can answer the “What?” question only in relation to
location. A third type of question that can be answered from maps is related to “When?” For
instance, “When did the Netherlands have its longest coastline?” The answer might be “1600,”
and this will probably be satisfactory to most people. However, it might be interesting to see how
this changed over the years. A set of maps could provide the answer.