Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Department of Mechanical Engineering
B.M.S. College of Engineering, Bangalore -19
Fluid Mechanics Laboratory Manual

List of Experiments
Part A
1. Calibration of V- Notch.
2. Calibration of Venturimeter.
3. Calibration of Orifice Meter.
4. Estimation of friction in pipes.
Part B
1. Calibration of Pitot tube.
2. Estimation of Pressure distribution of symmetric airfoil.
3. Estimation of Pressure distribution of Cambered airfoil.
4. Estimation of Pressure distribution on cylinder.
5. Estimation of Pressure distribution on sphere.
6. Flow visualization on airfoil, cylinder and sphere.

Fluid Flow Measurements

Introduction:
As the fluid flow relative to the objects either internally or externally,
properties like pressure, velocity, mass flow rate or discharge are of primarily
important. Measurements of fluid flow means measuring properties like rate
of flow (or discharge) through a pipe or through an open channel. Also
measuring velocity, pressure and temperature when the fluid is flowing in
relative to an object either internally or externally. The rate of a fluid through
a pipe is measured by instruments like Venturimeter, Orifice meter, Pitot-tube
etc., whereas through an open channel the rate of flow is measured by
notches and wires. Pressure in the fluid is measure by manometer, barometer
etc. In this lab we are interested in learning how we measure mass flow rate
or volume flow rate, velocity and pressure using pitot tubes and manometers.
Mass Flow rate meters or Discharge measuring instruments:
Venturimeter:
A Venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid flowing
through a pipe. It consists of three parts:
 A short converging part

 Throat
 Diverging part.
It is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation.
Expression for rate of flow through Venturimeter:
Consider a Venturimeter fitted in a horizontal pipe through which a fluid is
flowing (say water), as shown in figure below
Venturimeter with Pressure tapings

Let d1= diameter at inlet or at section (1)
P1= pressure at section (1)
v1 = velocity of fluid at section (1),
π 2
a= area at section (1) = d , and d2, p2, v2, a2, are corresponding values
4 1
at section (2). Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections (1) and (2), we get
2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2
+ + Z 1= + + Z2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
As pipe is horizontal, hence
2 2 2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 P 1−P2 V 2 V 1
+ = + Or = −
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g ρg 2g 2g
P 1−P2
But is the difference of pressure heads at section 1 and 2 and it is equal
ρg
P −P2
to h or 1 =h
ρg
P 1−P2
Substituting the value of in the above equation, we get
ρg
2 2
V 2 −V 1
h= ----- (1)
2g
Now applying continuity equation between section 1 and 2
a1−v2
a 1 v1 =a2 v 2 Or v 1=
a1
Substituting this value of v 1 in equation (1)
( ) [ ] [ ]
2
a2 v 2
2
V a1 V 2 a 2 V 2 a 2−a 2
h= 2 − = 2 1− 22 = 2 1 2 2
2g 2g 2g a1 2g a1
2
2 a1
v =2 gh
2 2 2
a1 −a 2
√
2
a1 a1
v 2= 2 gh = √2 gh
2
a1 −a2
2
√ a1 −a 2
2 2
Since Discharge is given by , Q=a2 v 2

a1 a1a2
Q=a2 × √ 2 gh= × √ 2 gh--- (2)
√a 1
2
−a2
2
√a 1
2
−a2
2
Equating (2) gives the discharge under ideal conditions and is called,
theoretical discharge. Actual discharge will be less than theoretical discharge.
a1 a2
Qact =c d × × √ 2 gh --- (3)
√a 1
2
−a2
2
where c d is co−efficient of venturimeter and its value is less than 1.
Value of ‘h’ given by differential U-tube manometer

Case I. Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which is heavier than
the liquid flowing through the pipe.
Let shspecific gravity of heavier liquid
so Specific gravity of liquid flowing through pipe.
X= Difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube Then
h=
[]sh
sh
--- (4)
Case II. If the differential manometer contains a liquid which is lighter than
the liquid flowing through the pipe, the valve of h is given by
[ ]
h= 1−
sl
so
--- (5)
Where sl specific gravity of lighter liquid in U tube
so Specific gravity of fluid flowing through the pipe
X= Difference of the heavier liquid columns in U-tube

Case III. Inclined Venturimeter with Differential U-tube manometer.

The above two cases are given for a horizontal Venturimeter. This case is
related to incline Venturimeter having different U-tube manometer. Let the
differential manometer. Let the differential manometer contains heavier liquid
then h is given as
h= ( ρgP +Z )−( ρgP + Z )=x [ ss −1] ----- (6)

1
1
2
2
h
Case IV. Similarly, for inclined Venturimeter in which differential manometer

contains a liquid which is lighter than the liquid flowing through the pip, the
value of k is given as
h= ( P1
ρg )(
+Z 1 −
P2
ρg ) [
+ Z2 =x 1−
sh
so ] ----- (7)
Orifice meter or Orifice plate

It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a liquid through a pipe. It
is a cheaper device as compared to Venturimeter. It also works on the same
principal as that of Venturimeter. It consists of a flat circular plate which has
a circular sharp edged hole called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe.
The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times the diameter if the pipe.
Through it may vary from 0.4 to 0. 8 times the pipe diameter.
A differential manometer is connected at section (1), which is at a distance of
about 1.5 to 2.0 times the pipe diameter upstream from the orifice plate, and
at section (2), which is at a distance of about half the diameter of the orifice
on the downstream side from the orifice plate.
Figure
Let P1= pressure at section (1), v1 = velocity at section (1), a= area of pipe at
section (1) and p2, v2, a2, are corresponding values at section (2). Applying
Bernoulli’s equation at sections (1) and (2). Applying Bernoulli’s Principle we
get
2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2
+ + Z 1= + + Z2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
( )( )
2 2
P1 P2 V2 V1
Or + Z1 − +Z 2 = −
ρg ρg 2 g 2g
But Differential head = h = ( P1

ρg
P
)(
+ Z 1 − 2 +Z 2
ρg )
2 2
V2 V1
h= − Or 2 gh=V 22−V 12
2g 2 g
V 2= √ 2 gh+V 1 --- (i)

2
Or
Now section (2) is at the vena contracta and a 2 represents the area at the vena
a2
contracta. If a 0 is the area of orifice then, we have C c = Where C c= Co-
ao
efficient of contraction a 2=a o ×C c
a2 aoC c
By continuity equation, we have a 1 v1 =a2 v 2 Or v 1= v 2= v
a1 a1 2
Substituting the values of v 1 in equation (i), we get
√
2 2 2
ao C c v 2
v 2= 2 gh+ 2
a1
( ) [ () ]
2 2
2 a 2 2 a 2
Or v =2 gh+ o C c v 2 (¿)v 2 × 1− o C c =2 gh
2
a1 a1
v 2= √2 gh
√ 1−
( )
ao 2 2
a1
Cc
ao C c √ 2 gh
Q=v 2 × a2=v 2 × a o C c a 2=a o C c
The discharge
√ 1− ( )
ao 2 2 --- (iv)
a1
Cc
√ ( )
2
ao
1−
a1
The above expression is simplified by using C d=C c
√ ( )
2
ao 2
1− Cc
a1
Hence we get C c =C d
√ ( )
1−
ao 2 2
a1
Cc
√()
2
ao
1−
a1
Substituting this value of C cin equation (iv). We get
Q=ao ×C d
√ ( )
1−
ao 2 2
a1
Cc
×
√ 2 gh
√() √ ( )
2 2
ao ao 2
1− 1− Cc
a1 a1
Cd ao √2 gh Cd ao a1 √2 gh
=
√ √a 2
−a o2
( )
2
ao 1
1−
a1
Where C d=Co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter.

The co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter is much smaller than that for a
Venturimeter.
Pitot-Tube
It is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a
pipe or a channel. It is based on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a
point becomes zero, the pressure there is increased due to the conversion of
the kinetic energy into pressure energy. In its simplest form, the Pitot-tube
consists of a glass tube, bent at right angle as shown in figure (a).
Figure
The lower end, which is bent through 90 is directed in the upstream direction
as shown in Figure 3. the liquid rises up in the tube to the conversion of
kinetic energy in to pressure energy. The velocity is determined by measuring
the raise of liquid in the tube.
Consider two points (1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that (2) is
just at the inlet of the Pitot-tube and point (1) is far away from the tube.
Let P1= intensity of pressure at point (1)
v1 = velocity of flow at (1)
P2= pressure at section (2)
V2 = velocity at point (1), which is zero
H= depth of tube in the liquid
h= rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface.
Applying Bernoulli’s equations at point (1) and (2), we get
2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2
+ + Z 1= + + Z2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
But Z1 =Z 2 as points (1) and (2) are on the same line and v2 =0.
P1 P
= pressure head at (1) = H and 2 = pressure head at (2) = (h+H)
g g
Substituting these values, we get
2
V1
H+ =( h+ H )
2g
2
V1
h+
2g
v 1=√ 2 gh
This is theoretical velocity. Actual velocity is given by ( v 1 )act =C v √ 2 gh
, Where C v = Co-efficient of Pitot-tube

Velocity of flow in a pipe by Pitot-tube.
For finding the velocity at any point in a pipe by Pitot-tube, the following
arrangements are adopted:
1. Pitot-tube along with a vertical piezometer tube as shown in Fig. (b).

2. Pitot-tube connected with piezometer tube as shown in Fig. (c).
3. Pitot-tube and vertical piezometer tube connected with a different U-
tube manometer as shown in Fig. (d).
4. Pitot-static tube, which consists of two circular concentric tubes one the
other with some annular space in between as shown in Fig. (e). The
outlet of these two tubes are connected to
5. the different manometer where the difference of pressure head ‘h’ is
measured by knowing the Difference of the levels of the manometer
liquid say x. then h=x

Sg
So [ ]
−1
Darcy-Equation for loss of head due to friction in pipes

Consider a a uniform pipe, having steady flow as shown in fig below. Let 1-1
and 2-2 are two sections of pipe.
Let P1 = pressure intensity at section 1-1,
v1 = velocity of flow at section 1-1,
L = length of the pipe between section 1-1 and 2-2,
D = diameter of pipe,
F’ = frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit velocity,
Hf = loss of head due to friction,
And p2, V2 = are values of pressure intensity and velocity at section 2-2.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between sections 1-1 and 2-2,

Total head at 1-1 = Total head at 2-2 + loss of head due to friction between 1-
1 and 2-2
2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2
Or + + Z1 = + + Z 2 +h f But z 1=z 2as pipe is horizontal V 1=V 2 as diameter of
g 2g g 2g
pipe is same at the two sections.
P1 P2
= +h … (i)
ρg ρg f
But hf is the head lost due to friction and hence intensity of pressure will be
reduced in the direction of flow by frictional resistance.
Now frictional resistance = frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit
velocity × wetted area × velocity2
or F1 = f’×dL×V2 [wetted area= d × L velocity = V=V1 = V2]
= f’×P×L×V2 [ d = Perimeter = P] … (ii)
The force acting in the fluid between sections 1-1 and 2-2 are:
1. Pressure force 1-1 = p1 × A
Where A= Area of pipe

2. Pressure at section 2-2 = p2 × A
3. Frictional force F1 as shown in figure above.
Resolving all forces in the horizontal direction, we have

p1 A− p2 A−F 1=0
or ( p1− p 2) A=F1=f ' × P × L× V 2 [ From (ii), F1 f’PLV2]

' 2
f × P × L ×V
Or p1− p2=
A
But from equation (i), p1− p2=g h f
Equating the value of ( p1− p 2) , we get

' 2
f × P × L ×V
g hf =
A
f' p 2
or hf = × × L× V … (iii)
g A
P Wettedperimeter d 4
= = =
In equation (iii), A Area ❑ d d
2
4
2
f' p 2 4lv
 h f = × × L× V =
g A d
f' f
Putting × , where f is known as co-efficient of friction.
g 2
2 2
4. f ' Lv 4 f .l . v
Equating (iv), becomes as hf = . =
g d d ×2 g
…..(1)
Equating (1) is known as Darcy-Weisbach equation. This equation is commonly
used for finding loss of head due to friction in pipes.
Sometimes equation (1) is written as
❑ 2
f . l. v
hf = …. (2)
d ×2 g
Then f ❑ is known as friction factor.
Co-efficient of friction (f) which is function of Reynold number is given by
16
f= for Re <2000 ( viscousflow )
Re
0.079
1/ 4 for Re varying from 4000 to10
6
Re
L = length of pipe
V = mean velocity of flow,
d = diameter of pipe.
Chezy’s Equation for Loss of Head Due to Friction in Pipe

❑ 2
f . l. v
hf = … (1)
d ×2 g
Where hf = loss of head due to friction,
P = wetted perimeter of pipe,
A = area of cross-section of pipe,
L = length of pipe,
V = mean velocity of flow,
and Hf = loss of head due to friction.
Now the ratio of

A
( Areaofflow
P Perimeter ( we tted ) )
is called hydraulic radius and is denoted
by m.
❑ d2
 Hydraulic mean depth, m= A = 4 = d
P d 4
A P 1
Substituting =m∨ = in equation (1), we get
P A m
f
❑
2 2 g 1 g hf
h f = × L ×V ∨ V =h f × ×m× = ×m ×
g f' L f' L
 V=
√ g
f'
h
×m × f =
L √ √
g
f'
h
m f
L
… (2)
g h
Let =C , where C is a constant known as Chezy’s constant and f =i, where I
f' L
is loss of head per unit length of pipe.
g h
Substituting the values of and f in equation (2), we get
f' L
V =C √ mi … (3)
Equation (3) is known as Chezy’s formula. Thus the loss of head due to friction
in pipe from Chezy’s formula can be obtained if the velocity of flow through
pipe and also the value of C is known. The value of m for pipe is always equal
to d/4.
Discharge over a Triangular Notch or Weir

The expression for the discharge over a triangular notch or weir is the
same. It is derived as:
Let H = head of water above the V-notch
 = angle of notch
Consider a horizontal strip of water of thickness ‘dh’ at a depth of h from
the free surface of water as shown in figure below.
From fig (b), we have

θ AC AC
tan = =
2 OC ( H−h )
θ
 AC= ( H −h ) tan
2
θ
Width if strip AB=2 AC =2 ( H−h ) tan
2
θ
 Area of strip 2 ( H−h ) tan ×dh
2
The theoretical velocity of water through strip √ 2 gh

 Discharge, dQ, through the strip is
theoretical
dQ=C d × Areaofstrip ×Velocity
θ
C d ×2 ( H−h ) tan ×dh × √ 2 gh
2
θ
2 Cd ( H −h ) tan × dh × √ 2 gh × gh
2
H
θ
 Total discharge, Q is Q=∫ 2 C d ( H−h ) tan ×dh × √ 2 gh× gh
0 2
H
θ
2 Cd × tan × √ 2 g∫ ( H−h ) h dh
1 /2
2 0
H
θ
2 ×C d × tan × √ 2 g ∫ ( H h −h ) dh
1 /2 3/ 2
2 0
[ ]
H
θ H h3 /2 h5 /2
2 ×C d × tan × √ 2 g −
2 3 /2 5 /2 0
θ
2
2
3 [ 2
2 ×C d × tan × √ 2 g H . H 3/ 2− H 5 /2
5 ]
[ ]
5 5
θ 2 2
2 ×C d × tan × √ 2 g H 2 − H 2
2 3 5
θ
2 ×C d × tan × √ 2 g
2 15[
4 5 /2
H
]
8 θ
C × tan × √ 2 g × H
5/2
----- (1)
15 d 2
For a right-angled V-notch, if C d=0.6

θ
θ=90 ,  tan =1
°
2
8
× 0.6 ×1 × √2 ×9.81 × H
5 /2
Discharge Q=
15
5 /2
1.417 H ----- (2)
Experiment 1: Calibration of V-notch

Aim: to determine the coefficient of discharge cd of a given notch
Apparatus used: V-notch, Pin gauge, stop clock.
Theory:
A notch is a device used for measuring rate of flow of a liquid through a
small channel or a tank. Notch can be defined as in opening in the side of a
tank or a small channel in such that the liquid surface in the tank or channel is
below the top edge of the opening. The sheet of water flowing through a notch
is called nappe. The bottom edge of a notch over which the water flows is
known as sill.
Classification of notches:
1. According to the shape of the opening
a. Rectangular notch
b. Triangular notch
c. Stepped notch
2. According to the effect of the side of the nappe
a. Notch with end contraction
b. Notch without end contraction or suppressed notch.
V-notch or triangular notch is a device having triangular shape opening

and is preferred for measuring low discharge accurately.
Procedure:
1. Before starting the experiment note down the measuring tank
dimensions and angle of V-notch.
2. Allow the water to flow up to crest level and note down their initial level
of water by adjusting a pin gauge.
3. Now allow the water to flow over the V-notch by opening the discharge
valve, wait up to flow should be steady state condition.
4. Start the stop clock immediately, allow the water to flow for 60sec or
any fixed time interval
5. Note down the final water level in the water collecting tank and also
note down the head over notch.
6. Repeat the above procedure for different head over notches by
increasing discharge.
7. Calculate the co-efficient of the discharge using the formula.
Tabular Column:
Sl. Head over V-notch ×10- Tank reading Time Qact Log Log K from Co-
No. 2
m(Hv) ×10-2m in m3/s Hv Qact graph efficient
sec of
discharge
Cd
IR FR Diff. IR FR Diff.
Observations:
Angle of V-notch =
Water tank dimensions
Area =l×b= Water flow time = t=
Calculations:
1. HV Head over V-notch
2. Tank Reading
l ×b × d 3
3. Actual discharge Qact = m /s
t
4. log Hv =
5. log Qact =(log Q act−logk)/log H v
k
C d=
6. Co-efficient of discharge = 8
15 √
2 gtan
θ
2
Result: the co-efficient of discharge of a given V-notch is

cd=__________________________
Experiment 2 : Calibration of Venturimeter

Aim: to determine the coefficient of discharge cd of a given Venturimeter.
Apparatus used: Venturimeter, U-tube manometer (Hg), stop clock, V-notch
and hook gauge.
Theory:
A Venturemeter is a device used used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid
flowing through a pipe. It is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s theorem. It
consists of three parts they are Convergent cone, throat, Divergent cone.
Convergent cone has a total inclined angle of 21I and length approximately
equal to 2.7 ( )
D
d
the length of the throat is equal to ‘d’ diameter. Divergent
cone has a total inclined angle of throat 6.
Procedure:
1. Before starting the experiment note down the inlet and throat diameter
and also crest level of V-notch.
2. Release the air trapped in the manometer tube by opening the air
valves.
3. Using the control valve allow the water to flow through Venturimeter at
the uniform rate.
4. Note down the manometer reading on both the limbs and convert into
meter for water.
5. Note down the final reading of V-notch and calculate the discharge
using the formula Qact = 1.417× Hv5 / 2 m3 /s
6. Calculate the theoretical discharge Q th using formula
a1a2
Qth = √2 gh m3 / s
√ a1 −a 2
2 2
7. Finally calculate the coefficient of discharge of a Venturimeter using the

Q act
formula cd =
Qth
Tabular Column:
Head over Qact (m3/s) Qth (m3/s) Co-

Sl. Mercury Manometer V-notch reading ×10 m -2
Venturimete ×10-3 ×10-3 efficient
No reading ×10-2m r of
h=13.6×x(m discharge
of H2O) Q act
cd=
Qth
IR FR Diff
(h1) (h2) (n) IR FR Diff
Observation:
1. d1 = diameter of pipe =
2. d2 = diameter of throat =
3. a1 = area of pipe =
4. a2 = area of throat =
Calculations:
1. Head over Venturimeter Manometer reading x=( h1−h2 )

H=13.6 × x m of H2O
2. Head over V-notch, IR = , FR = , Diff =

5/ 2 3
3. Actual discharge = Q act =1.417 × H v m /s
a1a2
4. Theoretical dischargeQ th = √2 gh m3 / s
√a
−a1
2
2
2
Q act
5. Co-efficient of discharge = cd =
Qth
Result:
The co-efficient of discharge of a Venturimeter is determined and tabulated
and The co-efficient of discharge of a Venturimeter is found to be cd=________
Experiment 3: Calibration of Orifice meter

Aim: To determine the co-efficient of discharge of a given Orifice meter
Apparatus used: Orifice fixed with a pipe of known diameter, Manometer, V-
notch.
Theory: Orifice is a simple device to measure the flow in a pipe by reducing
the flow passage in one section. The pressure difference between 2 sections is
created. The measurement of pressure between 2 sections enables us to
determine the discharge which is taking place in the pipe.
Procedure:
1. Before starting the experiment, note down the diameter of orifice and
initial reading of V-notch.
2. Allow the water to flow through orifice and maintain the head over
orifice is constant.
3. Before this, note down the initial reading of head over orifice.
4. Once the head reaches constant note down the final reading of head
over V-notch is noted.
5. Finally calculate the co-efficient of discharge of orifice using the formula
Qact
C d=
Q thr
6. Repeat the experiment for different head over orifice and discharges
and calculate cd.
Tabular Column:
Manometer Reading V-notch reading Hv h=13.6 Qact Qth Q act From Graph
(n) ×10-2 m Gate ×10-2 m mm of m3/s m3/s cd=
Sl. Valve H2 O ×10-3 ×10-3 Qth
No open
LC RL Diff. IR FR Diff. N K Cd
Observation:
1. d1 = diameter of pipe =
2. d2 = diameter of throat =
3. length of the channel l=
4. width of channel =
5. length of pipe lp=
6. V-notch=
Calculations
2 2
d d
1. Area of pipe a 1= 1 , a2= 2
4 4
2. Manometer reading Diff=Rl-LL
3. V-notch reading Diff=FR-IR
4. Actual discharge = Qact =1.417 × H v 5/ 2 m3 /s
a1a2
5. Theoretical discharge = Q th = √2 gh m3 / s
√ a1 −a 2
2 2
Result: From the graph co-efficient of discharge = C d=____________

Introduction to Wind Tunnel Experiments

Wind tunnels are devices which provides air stream under controlled
conditions so that models of interest can be tested for parameters like
pressure, velocity, Lift, Drag etc. Wind- tunnels are generally classified as
 Low speed tunnels

 High speed tunnels
 Specific purpose tunnels.
Objective of Wind Tunnel Experiments
The primary objective of this experiment is to familiarize the student with the
measurement of static and stagnation pressures, and (indirectly) velocity, in a
subsonic wind tunnel. Static taps and stagnation (Pitot) probes will be used to
measure pressures on the surface of a 2-D symmetric airfoil, cambered airfoil,
on circular cylinder and on a sphere. In addition, this lab demonstrates some
techniques used in flow visualization, smoke visualization (in a suction type
wind tunnel). Students should gain experience in observing flows and draw
conclusions about the flow fields.
The Aerodynamic Problems
Pressure distribution on Airfoil Surface - When a 2-D airfoil is placed in a
uniform subsonic free stream, the flow velocity near the airfoil is modified
and, as evidenced by the Bernoulli equation, so is the local static pressure.
The resulting chord wise pressure distribution on the surface of the airfoil
may be calculated by various methods using an inviscid fluid model.
At moderate angles of attack, the flow accelerates over the upper surface of
the airfoil, the surface static pressure is less than free stream over most of the
[ p− p∞ ]
C p=
( )
chord, and the pressure coefficient (defined as 1 2 ) distribution on the
ρv
2
airfoil upper surface has mostly negative values. Normally, there is a large
suction peak (large negative value of C p ) very near the leading edge on the
upper surface, followed by a region of increasing static pressure (adverse
pressure gradient) from there to the trailing edge. On the lower surface of the
airfoil, there is a stagnation point near the leading edge, where C p=1.0, and
the flow accelerates thereafter. When the two pressure coefficient
distributions are plotted versus chord wise location,
x
c ()
, the area between the
two curves is a measure of the normal force coefficient on the airfoil and
hence of the airfoil lift coefficient.
Visualization of Flow around Bodies
Aerodynamics is a difficult science because the medium with which the
aerodynamicist works (air) is not visible under normal conditions. Valuable
insights into the physical features or behavior of an air flow can be achieved if
the entire flow field or certain regions, e.g., streamlines (or streaklines or
pathlines) could be seen by the eye or by a recording device. If the flow could
be made visible by some kind of flow visualization technique, then it would be
possible to observe flow phenomena which are essentially inviscid (e.g.,
vortical flows, flows distant from surfaces) as well as those phenomena which
are dominated by the effects of viscosity (e.g., flow separation and wakes
behind bodies).
Flow visualization in air may be broadly divided into surface flow visualization
and off-the-surface visualization. Surface flow visualization methods include
tufts, fluorescent dye, oil or special clay mixtures that are applied to the
surface of a model.
Visual inspection of such tufts and coatings as a function of time, or after
some time, will give valuable information on such things as the state of the
boundary layer (laminar or turbulent), transition, regions of separated flow
and the like. It must be remembered in such visualization that what is
observed on the surface is not always indicative of what is happening away
from the surface.
The second type of visualization is off the surface and involves the use of such
tracers as smoke particles, oil droplets or helium-filled soap bubbles. The
visualization medium must faithfully follow the flow pattern or it is not
conveying the correct information. Smoke particles and oil droplets are very
small and are light enough such that they will often follow the motion of the
flow; soap bubbles are small and can be filled with helium to make them
neutrally buoyant.
Each of these methods requires appropriate lighting and some device for
recording the image, such as the human eye or a camera. If the flow-field is
illuminated in a plane by appropriate masking of the light source it is possible
to examine discrete sections or slices of the flow. For example, a laser light
beam can be expanded into a thin sheet by passing it through a cylindrical
lens. This sheet then can be used to illuminate any cross-section of an airflow
that has been seeded with particles. The laser light will reflect from the
particles, but dark images will be observed where there is an absence of
particles, such as in the center of a vortex. A vortex core is almost void of
particles since they have been spun out by the action of centrifugal force
Measuring Devices
Pressure Taps and Probes - The surface pressure distribution on an airfoil
or any object under consideration will be measured by means of 30 static
pressure taps. These are small holes on the surface of the model that are
connected to inclined tube manometer. The pressure taps on the airfoil are
located on the upper and lower surfaces in the chord-wise.
In addition to qualitative observations, under certain conditions it is possible
to make quantitative measurements from flow visualization data as well. For
example, a measurement of the distance between streamlines in a 2-D
incompressible flow provides information on velocity ratios in the flow-field
direction at mid-span.
For the flow visualization experiments, no quantitative data will be taken; the
emphasis is on observing the behavior of the flow and extracting conclusions
from those observations.
Each student should come prepared to make notes and draw rough sketches
documenting what is observed; these sketches and notes will comprise the
data from the experiments.
Experiment 5: Velocity measurement using Pitot tube
Aim: To measure velocity of the flow field using Pitot tube.
Apparatus:
1. Pitot tube
2. Inclined tube manometer
3. Wind tunnel to generate wind.
4. Anemometer to measure wind speed
Theory:-
It is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a
pipe or a channel. It is based on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a
point becomes zero, the pressure there is increased due to the conversion of
the kinetic energy into pressure energy. In its simplest form, the Pitot-tube
consists of a glass tube, bent at right angle as shown in figure (a).
Figure 3: Pitot Tube
Procedure:-
The following procedure is adopted to measure velocity using Pitot tube.
1. The Pitot tube to the 2D traverse at the point where the measurement is
desired.
2. Connect to the U-Tube manometer to the Pitot tube.
3. Switch on the wind tunnel, and adjust the rpm to desired value.
4. Maintain the speed of the tunnel for about 2 to 3 min and take the
readings in the manometer.
5. Measure the speed of the wind flowing out using the anemometer at the
same point.
6. Calculate the speed obtained using Pitot tube, and compare the
velocities obtained using both the instruments.
Tabular Column:
Sl. Distance Velocity h
No.
Experiment 6, 7 8 and 9
Pressure distribution of circular cylinder/symmetric airfoil/cambered
airfoil/sphere
AIM
To determine the pressure distribution over a circular
cylinder/Sphere/Symmetric and Cambered Airfoil
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Cylindrical pattern/ Symmetric or Cambered Airfoil/ Sphere
2. Subsonic, wind tunnel
3. Inclined tube manometer of 30 channels
4. Control unit of wind tunnel
Procedure:
1. Mount the desired model in the test section of the wind tunnel and
adjust the angle of attack.
2. Connect the pressure tapings to the inclined manometer according to
the numbers provided on the tubes.
3. Adjust the reading of the inclined tube manometer to a particular height
and make this height zero.
4. Connect the single channel electronic pressure scanner to the Pitot tube
on the wind tunnel to record the wind speed.
5. Switch one the wind tunnel and adjust the motor rpm to the desired
speed of the wind.
6. Now record the difference in the inclined tube manometer, Δh=h 2−h 1.
7. Calculate the pressure at the point using the measured difference.
[ p− p∞ ]
C p=
( )
8. Calculate the 1 2 value at the point.
ρv
2
9. Plot the Cp curve with Reynolds number.
10. Repeat the experiment at different velocity and for different angle of
attack.
The above procedure can be adopted to any geometry object placed to
evaluate the pressure distribution in the wind tunnel.
Calculations and Tabular Colum:
Sn Angle Wind Manometer Reading for Pressure, Height in Cm [ p− p∞ ]

o of At- Spee C p=
tack
de-
d m/s ( 12 ρ v )
2
grees
H H H H H H H H H H1 H1 H1 H1 H1 H1 H1 H1 H1 H1 H2 H2
1 2 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 2
Experiment 10:- Flow Visualization using smoke rake

AIM
To find characteristics of flow field generated by objects in the flow.
Apparatus required
Airfoil (or) buff bodies like cylinder, sphere, or any automobile, Smoke generator,
Laser light, paraffin wax to generate smoke.
Theory
Procedure
1. Select the object on which flow visualization is to be carried out
2. Mount the object in the test section.
3. Assemble the Laser equipment and adjust the laser sheet to the desired
position.
4. Check the paraffin wax in the smoke generator bottle
5. Connect the single channel pressure measurement device to the Pitot tube to
measure the air flow on the object
6. Now switch ON the heater control unit and keep out it minimum.
7. After the initial heating is done the smoke starts coming out of smoke
distribution now decrease the heating in such a way that continuous smoke
starts coming out of smoke rake.
8. Switch ON the motor of the tunnel.
9. Adjust the sapped to get uniform visible smoke on the airfoil model.
10.The observed the flow pattern at different orientation of models.
11.After the experiment is over switch off the heat controller of the smoke
generator.
12.Allow the flow blower and fan to operate the far sometime to drive unused
smoke.
CAUTIONS
1. During experimental check for blockage due to condensed oils in smoke outlet
leading to distribution and drain onto sump bottle.
2. Check periodically that adequate amount of paraffin is available in the over
neat bottle.
3. Never switch ON the heater for long time of the smoke generator unit.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering

B.M.S. College of Engineering, Bangalore -19

Fluid Mechanics Laboratory Manual

3. Calibration of Orifice Meter.

4. Estimation of friction in pipes.

2. Estimation of Pressure distribution of symmetric airfoil.

3. Estimation of Pressure distribution of Cambered airfoil.

4. Estimation of Pressure distribution on cylinder.

5. Estimation of Pressure distribution on sphere.

6. Flow visualization on airfoil, cylinder and sphere.

Fluid Flow Measurements

 A short converging part

Venturimeter with Pressure tapings

Substituting this value of v 1 in equation (1)

Since Discharge is given by , Q=a2 v 2

where c d is co−efficient of venturimeter and its value is less than 1.

Value of ‘h’ given by differential U-tube manometer

so Specific gravity of liquid flowing through pipe.

X= Difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube Then

Where sl specific gravity of lighter liquid in U tube

so Specific gravity of fluid flowing through the pipe

X= Difference of the heavier liquid columns in U-tube

Case III. Inclined Venturimeter with Differential U-tube manometer.

h= ( ρgP +Z )−( ρgP + Z )=x [ ss −1] ----- (6)

Case IV. Similarly, for inclined Venturimeter in which differential manometer

Orifice meter or Orifice plate

But Differential head = h = ( P1

V 2= √ 2 gh+V 1 --- (i)

Substituting the values of v 1 in equation (i), we get

Where C d=Co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter.

This is theoretical velocity. Actual velocity is given by ( v 1 )act =C v √ 2 gh

, Where C v = Co-efficient of Pitot-tube

1. Pitot-tube along with a vertical piezometer tube as shown in Fig. (b).

liquid say x. then h=x

Darcy-Equation for loss of head due to friction in pipes

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between sections 1-1 and 2-2,

Where A= Area of pipe

Resolving all forces in the horizontal direction, we have

or ( p1− p 2) A=F1=f ' × P × L× V 2 [ From (ii), F1 f’PLV2]

Equating the value of ( p1− p 2) , we get

Chezy’s Equation for Loss of Head Due to Friction in Pipe

Now the ratio of

Discharge over a Triangular Notch or Weir

From fig (b), we have

The theoretical velocity of water through strip √ 2 gh

For a right-angled V-notch, if C d=0.6

Experiment 1: Calibration of V-notch

V-notch or triangular notch is a device having triangular shape opening

Result: the co-efficient of discharge of a given V-notch is

Experiment 2 : Calibration of Venturimeter

7. Finally calculate the coefficient of discharge of a Venturimeter using the

Head over Qact (m3/s) Qth (m3/s) Co-

1. Head over Venturimeter Manometer reading x=( h1−h2 )

2. Head over V-notch, IR = , FR = , Diff =

Experiment 3: Calibration of Orifice meter

Result: From the graph co-efficient of discharge = C d=____________

Introduction to Wind Tunnel Experiments

 Low speed tunnels

Figure 3: Pitot Tube