INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY TECHNIQUES

BDT151

FEBRUARY, 2024
NANA COLLEGE OF NURSING AND HEALTH SCIENCE, ANYIGBA
Okegbi road, behind Kogi State University, Anyigba, Dekina, Dekina L. G. A., Kogi State
K. Brian
Contents
Definition of dispensing.................................................................................................................................1
Dress code......................................................................................................................................................1
Scope of dispensing.......................................................................................................................................1
List of equipment used in dispensing lab/reference books............................................................................2
Equipment used in a Dispensing Lab:.......................................................................................................2
Reference Books for Dispensing:..............................................................................................................2
Fundamental operations in compounding......................................................................................................3
Weighing techniques......................................................................................................................................3
Calibration of bottles and measuring of liquids.............................................................................................4
Calibration of Bottles:................................................................................................................................4
Measuring Liquids:....................................................................................................................................5
Clarification in Purification:..........................................................................................................................5
Clarification Processes:..............................................................................................................................6
Identification of dosage forms.......................................................................................................................7
Identification of Containers and Closures for Dispensed Products:..............................................................8

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Definition of dispensing
Dispensing is the process of preparing and providing
medications to patients as prescribed by a healthcare
professional. It involves accurately measuring,
packaging, and labeling the prescribed medication to ensure
proper dosage and administration. The goal of
dispensing is to facilitate the safe and effective use of
medications by patients, following all legal and ethical
guidelines.

Dress code
According to the Pharmacy Council of Nigeria (PCN), the regulatory body for pharmacy technicians in
Nigeria, the dress code for this sub-cadre is as follows
 A white coat with a PCN logo on the left breast pocket and the name of the institution on the right
breast pocket.
 A name badge with the designation “Pharmacy Technician” on the left lapel of the coat.
 A white shirt or blouse and black or navy-blue trousers or skirt underneath the coat.
 Black or brown shoes (no sandals or open-toed shoes).
The dress code is meant to reflect the professionalism and identity of pharmacy technicians in Nigeria. It
also helps to distinguish them from pharmacists and other health workers.

Scope of dispensing
The scope of dispensing for pharmacy technicians encompasses various responsibilities related to the
accurate and safe provision of medications. This includes:
1. Medication Preparation: Measuring, compounding, and packaging prescribed medications
accurately.
2. Labeling: Ensuring that medication containers are properly labeled with essential information,
including dosage instructions and patient details.
3. Patient Education: Providing basic information to patients on how to use their medications
safely and effectively.
4. Record Keeping: Maintaining accurate records of dispensed medications, ensuring traceability
and accountability.
5. Collaboration: Collaborating with pharmacists and other healthcare professionals to ensure
comprehensive patient care.
It is crucial for pharmacy technicians to work within legal and ethical guidelines, adhere to prescription
protocols, and prioritize patient safety throughout the dispensing process.

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List of equipment used in dispensing lab/reference books
Equipment used in a Dispensing Lab:
1. Balance or Scale: For accurate measurement of drug quantities during compounding.
2. Mortar and Pestle: Used in the compounding and mixing of certain medications.
3. Measuring Devices: Graduated cylinders, syringes, and spoons for precise measurement of
liquid medications.
4. Pharmacy Dispensing
Software: Computer
systems to manage patient
records, prescriptions, and
dispensing information.
5. Labeling Machine: To
print and affix labels on
medication containers.
6. Pill Counting Tray:
Facilitates the counting of
pills to ensure the correct
quantity is dispensed.
7. Prescription Reading
Devices: To verify and
interpret prescriptions
accurately.
8. Storage Cabinets: Secure storage for medications, ensuring proper organization and
accessibility.

Reference Books for Dispensing:

1. "Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy": Comprehensive pharmacy reference
covering various aspects, including dispensing.
2. "Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference": Offers information on pharmaceuticals,
including dosage and formulation details.
3. "Handbook of Non-prescription Drugs": Focuses on over-the-counter medications and their
appropriate use.
4. "Pharmaceutical Calculations": A reference for mastering the calculations involved in
dispensing medications.
5. "Community Pharmacy: Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment": Guides dispensing in a
community pharmacy setting.
These resources help pharmacy technicians stay informed about pharmaceuticals, dosage forms, and best
practices in dispensing.

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Fundamental operations in compounding
Fundamental operations in compounding, the process of preparing customized medications, include:
1. Weighing and Measuring: Accurate measurement of ingredients using calibrated scales and
measuring devices to ensure precise formulations.
2. Mixing or Blending: Combining ingredients thoroughly to create a homogeneous mixture, often
achieved using tools like mortars and pestles or specialized mixing equipment.
3. Grinding or Trituration: Reducing the particle size of substances to enhance solubility or create
uniform powders.
4. Heating: Applying heat to certain substances to facilitate dissolution, mixing, or transformation
of ingredients.
5. Melting: Changing the state of a substance from solid to liquid through controlled heating.
6. Compaction: Compressing powder or granules into a solid mass, typically for tablet or
suppository formation.
7. Filtration: Separating particles or insoluble materials from a liquid to obtain a clear solution.
8. Dilution: Adjusting the concentration of a solution by adding a solvent.
9. Sterilization: Ensuring the removal or destruction of microorganisms to maintain product safety
and integrity.
10. Packaging: Properly packaging the compounded medication for dispensing, including
appropriate labelling.
These operations, performed with precision and adherence to compounding standards, help ensure the
safety, efficacy, and quality of compounded medications.

Weighing techniques
Weighing techniques using different types of balances involve specific considerations for each type.
Here's a brief overview:
1. Class A Balances:
 These are precision balances with a high degree of accuracy.
 Weighing should be done in a controlled environment to minimize air currents.
 Allow the balance to stabilize before weighing, and close the doors or windows to
prevent air disturbances.
2. Class B Balances:
 Less precise than Class A balances but still offer reasonable accuracy.
 Similar considerations to Class A, but slight variations in environmental conditions may
have a smaller impact.

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 3. Beam Balances:
 Ensure the balance is on a stable surface, free from vibrations.
 Level the balance using the built-in level indicator.
 Tare the balance before each measurement to account for the weight of the container or
sample holder.
4. Electronic Balances:
 Place the balance on a stable surface to prevent vibrations.
 Calibrate the balance regularly using standard weights to maintain accuracy.
 Tare the balance with the container on it before adding the sample.
 Avoid static electricity by using anti-static measures, such as ionizers or anti-static
brushes.
Regardless of the balance type, it is crucial to follow these general weighing principles:
 Minimize air currents to prevent inaccurate readings.
 Allow the balance to stabilize before weighing.
 Use appropriate weighing containers and handle materials carefully.
 Record weights promptly to avoid changes due to environmental factors.
Always refer to the manufacturer's guidelines and standard operating procedures for each specific balance
type to ensure accurate and reliable results.

Calibration of bottles and measuring of liquids

Calibration of Bottles:
1. Preparation:
 Thoroughly clean bottles using a suitable cleaning method to remove any residues.
 Ensure bottles are completely dry before calibration.
2. Equipment and Standards:
 Use calibrated measuring devices, such as a volumetric flask or pipette, to establish a
reference standard.
 Choose standards that match the intended use and volume range of the bottles.
3. Procedure:
 Fill the bottle with a known volume of water using the calibrated measuring device.
 Record any variations between the marked volume on the bottle and the actual volume.
4. Adjustment or Labeling:
 Adjust or label the bottle accordingly to reflect any discrepancies found during
calibration.

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  If adjustments are made, repeat the calibration process until the accuracy meets
acceptable standards.
5. Verification:
 Periodically re-verify the calibration, especially after any adjustments or if the bottles
change usage or handling.

Measuring Liquids:
1. Selecting Appropriate Containers:
 Choose graduated cylinders, beakers, or other
measuring devices suitable for the volume
range of the liquid being measured.
2. Eye Level Reading:
 Position yourself at eye level with the meniscus of the liquid to avoid parallax errors.
 Read the bottom of the meniscus for accurate volume measurement.
3. Preparation and Taring:
 Ensure the container is clean and dry before use.
 Tare the container on the balance if applicable, considering the weight of the container
itself.
4. Pouring Techniques:
 Pour liquids slowly and carefully to prevent splashing or spillage.
 Allow time for any lingering drops to fall into the container to ensure accurate
measurements.
5. Temperature Considerations:
 Be aware of temperature variations, as they can affect the density and volume of liquids.
 If possible, measure and record the temperature of the liquid.
6. Record Keeping:
 Record measurements promptly and accurately by laboratory or pharmacy procedures.
 Include details such as date, time, and any specific conditions affecting the measurement.
By meticulously following these detailed steps, you ensure a thorough calibration process for bottles and
accurate measurements of liquids in various laboratory or pharmacy applications.

Clarification in Purification:
Clarification, in pharmaceutical or laboratory settings, refers to the process of removing impurities,
particulate matter, or unwanted substances from a liquid or solution. This can be achieved through various
methods such as filtration, centrifugation, or settling, where the goal is to obtain a clear and pure liquid.

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This purified liquid is then often used as a base for further processes like compounding medications or
conducting experiments, ensuring that the final product is free from undesirable elements.

Clarification Processes:
a. Straining:
 Definition: Straining involves using a mesh or porous material to separate larger particles from a
mixture.
 Application in Clarification: Primarily employed to eliminate larger impurities, resulting in a
cleaner liquid.
b. Filtration:
 Definition: Filtration is a separation process where solids
are removed from liquids or gases using a filter medium.
 Application in Clarification: Essential for removing
fine particles, ensuring the obtained liquid is clear and
free from impurities.
c. Decantation:
 Definition: Decantation is the separation of liquids from settled solids by carefully pouring off
the liquid, leaving the sediment behind.
 Application in Clarification: Useful for removing settled particles, contributing to the
purification of the liquid.
Dissolution:
 Definition: Dissolution is the process of a solute becoming uniformly distributed in a solvent to
form a solution.
 Relevance: While not a clarification method, dissolution is a precursor to mixing and facilitates
the creation of a homogeneous solution.
Mixing:
 Definition: Mixing involves combining substances to achieve a uniform distribution of
components.
 Role in Clarification: Important after dissolution, ensuring thorough integration and
homogeneity in the mixture.
Size Reduction (Grinding):
 Definition: Size reduction, such as grinding, involves breaking down larger particles into smaller
ones.
 Application in Clarification: A preliminary step to facilitate subsequent processes by reducing
particle size.

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Size Separation (Sifting):
 Definition: Size separation, like sifting, involves sorting particles based on size.
 Application in Clarification: Useful for obtaining a purified substance by removing larger or
undesirable particles through controlled sieving.
In summary, these processes collectively contribute to the clarification of substances, ensuring the
removal of impurities and achieving the desired characteristics in the final product.

Identification of dosage forms

1. Tablets:
 Characteristics: Solid, often flat or cylindrical, with imprinted markings for identification.
 Methods of Identification: Pill imprints, colour, shape, and any additional markings.
2. Capsules:
 Characteristics: Gelatin or polymer shells containing medication.
 Methods of Identification: Color, size, and any imprinted markings on the capsule.
3. Liquids:
 Characteristics: Fluid form, stored in bottles or vials.
 Methods of Identification: Label information, colour, and clarity of the liquid.
4. Topical Creams/Ointments:
 Characteristics: Semi-solid, applied externally.
 Methods of Identification: Packaging details, texture, and color.
5. Injections (Parenteral):
 Characteristics: Sterile liquid for injection, vials or ampules.
 Methods of Identification: Label information, colour, and packaging details.
6. Inhalers:
 Characteristics: Devices for inhaling medication.
 Methods of Identification: Device labelling, colour, and design.
7. Suppositories:
 Characteristics: Solid dosage form inserted into body orifices.
 Methods of Identification: Packaging details, shape, and colour.
8. Powders:
 Characteristics: Finely ground solid particles.

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  Methods of Identification: Packaging details, colour, and texture.
9. Lozenges/Troches:
 Characteristics: Solid dosage form intended to dissolve in the mouth.
 Methods of Identification: Packaging details, shape, and color.
10. Patches:
 Characteristics: Transdermal patches for controlled release.
 Methods of Identification: Packaging details, design, and size.
In the identification of dosage forms, attention to visual characteristics, packaging information, and any
imprints or markings is crucial. This ensures proper dispensing and administration of medications while
preventing errors.

Identification of Containers and Closures for Dispensed Products:

1. Bottles:
 Characteristics: Glass or plastic; amber-colored for light-sensitive medications. Various sizes
and shapes.
 Identification: Labels include medication name, strength, dosage instructions, patient details,
and dispensing date.
2. Vials:
 Characteristics: Small, sterile glass containers for injectable medications, often sealed with a
rubber stopper.
 Identification: Label with drug information, concentration, lot number, and expiration date. May
include color-coded caps.
3. Ampules:
 Characteristics: Hermetically sealed glass containers with a break-open point.
 Identification: Break-open points, label information indicating drug name, concentration, and
manufacturer details.
4. Blister Packs:
 Characteristics: Individual compartments for each dose, providing protection and aiding in
medication adherence.
 Identification: Printed foil or plastic with drug details, dosage instructions, lot number, and
expiry date.
5. Dropper Bottles:
 Characteristics: Glass or plastic bottles with a built-in dropper for accurate liquid dispensing.

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  Identification: Labels with drug information, concentration, and usage instructions. Often tinted
for light-sensitive medications.
6. Tubes:
 Characteristics: Soft, collapsible containers for semi-solid medications like creams or ointments.
 Identification: Labeling with drug details, usage instructions, and manufacturer information.
7. Jars:
 Characteristics: Wide-mouth containers for various formulations, often made of plastic or glass.
 Identification: Labels with drug information, dosage instructions, and any specific warnings. It
may include tamper-evident features.
8. Prefilled Syringes:
 Characteristics: Sterile syringes pre-filled with a specific dosage of medication.
 Identification: Labeling with drug details, concentration, lot number, expiration date, and any
specific handling instructions.
9. Pouches:
 Characteristics: Flat, sealed containers for multiple doses, often used in unit-dose packaging.
 Identification: Packaging details, including drug information, dosage instructions, and lot
number for each pouch.
11. Closures (Caps, Lids):
- Characteristics: Various types, including screw-on, snap-on, or child-resistant closures, made
of plastic or metal.
- Identification: Material details, manufacturer information, safety features (e.g., child-resistant),
and compatibility with the container.
Ensuring comprehensive identification involves detailed labelling, adherence to safety standards, and
consideration of specific characteristics to prevent errors and promote patient safety during the dispensing
process.

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