Internet Overview:

Billions of connected computing devices:

 hosts = end systems – both can host services in the Internet. Examples PCs, workstations,
Web servers, mail servers, PDAs, Internet-connected game consoles, etc
 running network apps at Internet’s ―edge‖
Packet switches: forward packets (chunks of data)

Communication links
 fiber, copper, radio, satellite
 transmission rate : bandwidth

Networks
collection of devices, routers, links: managed by an organization

Intranet, Extranet and Internet?

 Intranet is is a private computer network that uses Internet Protocol technologies to
securely share any part of an organization's information or operational systems within
that organization.
 Extranet An extranet is a private network uses Internet protocols, network connectivity.
Can be viewed as part of a company's intranet that is extended to users outside the
company, usually via the Internet.
 The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide.

1|Page
What’s a protocol?
all communication activity in Internet governed by protocols.
Protocols define the format, order of messages sent and received among network entities, and
actions taken on msg transmission, receipt

Internet Standards:
Internet standards
Are developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
The IETF standards documents are called requests for comments (RFCs).
They define protocols such as TCP, IP, HTTP (for the Web), and SMTP (for e-mail).
Standards are important for protocols so that people can create networking systems and products
that interoperate

2|Page
 Network core: packet/circuit switching, internet structure
 packet-switching: hosts break application-layer messages into packets
• forward packets from one router to the next, across links on path from source to
destination
• each packet transmitted at full link capacity
 Store and forward: entire packet must arrive at router before it can be transmitted on
next link.

Packet queuing and loss: if arrival rate (in bps) to link exceeds transmission rate (bps) of link
for a period of time:
 packets will queue, waiting to be transmitted on output link
 packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) in router fills up

circuit switching
end-end resources allocated to, reserved for ―call‖
between source and destination.
 dedicated resources: no sharing
• circuit-like (guaranteed) performance
 circuit segment idle if not used by call (no
sharing)
 commonly used in traditional telephone networks

3|Page
 Circuit switching: FDM and TDM
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

 optical, electromagnetic frequencies divided

into (narrow) frequency bands
 each call allocated its own band, can transmit at
max rate of that narrow band

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

 time divided into slots
 each call allocated periodic slot(s), can transmit at
maximum rate of (wider) frequency band, but only
during its time slot(s)
Packet switching versus circuit switching

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Reserves channels before data transfer Channels are not reserved before data transfer

Idle reserved resources can’t be used by any The idle resource can be used by any other ongoing
other ongoing communication communication

No waiting at the switches Waiting at the switches if data rate is more than the
link transmission capacity

Not efficient Efficient

Suitable for real-time services Not suitable for real time services

Connection oriented Connectionless

Supports less users simultaneously Supports more users simultaneously

Allocates dedicated transmission rate Allocates variable transmission rate based on demand

4|Page
Internet structure: a “network of networks” Now adays

Tier-1 ISPs are global transit ISP; but tier-1 ISPs, do not have a presence in every city in
the world. There are approximately a dozen tier-1 ISPs, including Level 3
Communications, AT&T, Sprint, and NTT.

Note that the tier-1 ISPs do not pay anyone as they are at the top of the hierarchy.

There may be multiple competing regional ISPs in a region. In such a hierarchy, each
access ISP pays the regional ISP to which it connects, and each regional ISP pays the
tier-1 ISP to which it connects. (An access ISP can also connect directly to a tier-1 ISP, in
which case it pays the tier-1 ISP). Thus, there is customer-provider relationship at each
level of the hierarchy.
We refer to this multi-tier hierarchy.

The amount that a customer ISP pays a provider ISP reflects the amount of traffic it
exchanges with the provider. To reduce these costs, a pair of nearby ISPs at the same
level of the hierarchy can peer, that is, they can directly connect their networks together
so that all the traffic between them passes over the direct connection rather than through
upstream intermediaries.

When two ISPs peer, it is typically settlement-free, that is, neither ISP pays the other.

By peering with each other directly, the two ISPs can reduce their payments to their
provider ISPs. An Internet Exchange Points (IXP) (typically in a standalone building
with its own switches) is a meeting point where multiple ISPs can connect and/or peer
together. An IXP earns its money by charging each of the the ISPs that connect to the
IXP a relatively small fee, which may depend on the amount of traffic sent to or received
from the IXP. There are over 400 IXPs in the Internet today

content-provider networks.
Google is currently one of the leading examples of such a content-provider network.
Google has over 50–100 data centers distributed across North America, Europe, Asia,
South America, and Australia.

Some of these data centers house over one hundred thousand servers. The Google data
centers are all interconnected via Google’s private TCP/IP network, which spans the
entire globe but is nevertheless separate from the public Internet.

5|Page
The Google private network attempts to ―bypass‖ the upper tiers of the Internet by
peering (settlement free) with lower-tier ISPs, either by directly connecting with them or
by connecting with them at IXPs.

The Google network also connects to tier-1 ISPs, and pays those ISPs for the traffic it
exchanges with them.

In summary, today’s Internet—a network of networks—is complex, consisting of a dozen

or so tier-1 .
ISPs and hundreds of thousands of lower-tier ISPs. The ISPs are diverse in their
coverage, with some spanning multiple continents and oceans, and others limited to
narrow geographic regions. The lower tier ISPs connect to the higher-tier ISPs, and the
higher-tier ISPs interconnect with one another. Users and content providers are customers
of lower-tier ISPs, and lower-tier ISPs are customers of higher-tier ISPs. In recent years,
major content providers have also created their own networks and connect
directly into lower-tier ISPs where possible.

6|Page
Performance: loss, delay, throughput

Packet delay: There are four sources of packet delay:

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: processing delay: The time required to examine the packet’s header and
determine where to direct the packet
 check bit errors
 determine output link
 typically < msec

dqueue: queuing delay: The length of the queuing delay of a specific packet is variable
and depends on the number of earlier-arriving packets that are queued and waiting for
transmission onto the link. If the queue is empty and no other packet is currently being
transmitted, then our packet’s queuing delay will be zero.
 time waiting at output link for transmission
 depends on congestion level of router

dtrans: transmission delay: The transmission delay is L/R. This is the amount of
time required to push (that is, transmit) all of the packet’s bits into the link, it is a
function of the packet’s length and the transmission rate of the link, but has nothing to do
with the distance between the two routers.Transmission delays are typically on the order
of microseconds to milliseconds in practice.
 L: packet length (bits)
 R: link transmission rate (bps)
dtrans = L/R
dprop: propagation delay: The propagation delay is the time it takes a bit to propagate
from one router to the next; it is a function of the distance between the two routers, and
7|Page
speed of the link. The propagation speed depends on the physical medium of the link
(that is, fiber optics, twisted-pair copper wire, and so on) and is in the range of 2⋅108
meters/sec to 3⋅108 meters/sec

 d: length of physical link

 s: propagation speed (~2x108 m/sec)
 dprop = d/s

Protocol layers, service models

Networks are complex, with many “pieces” : hosts, routers, links of

various media, applications, protocols, hardware and software
Why layering?
 Layering provides a structured way to discuss system components
 modularization eases maintenance, updating of system,
 change in layer's service implementation: transparent to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of system

Application Layer: supporting network applications. The

Internet’s application layer includes many protocols, such as the HTTP protocol (which
provides for Web document request and transfer), SMTP (which provides for the transfer
of e-mail messages), and FTP. The information at the layer is called a message.

Transport Layer: The Internet’s transport layer transports application-layer

messages between application endpoints. Breaks long messages into shorter segments.

8|Page
Two transport protocols:
 TCP : Transmission Control Protocol
o Connection-oriented service to its applications. (The guarantee delivery of
application-layer messages to the destination).
o Flow control (that is, sender/receiver speed matching).
o Provides a congestion-control mechanism, so that a source throttles its
transmission rate when the network is congested.
 UDP: User Datagram Protocol
o provides a connectionless service to its applications.
o no reliability, no flow control, and no congestion control.
Network Layer :
 Routing of datagrams from source to destination
o IP, routing Protocol
Link Layer :
 data transfer between neighboring network elements
o Ethernet, 802.11 (WiFi), …
o Link Layer packet is called Frame.

Physical Layer:
 bits ―on the wire‖

9|Page
Encapsulation:
Routers and link-layer switches do not implement all of the layers in the protocol stack;
they typically implement only the bottom layers.

Link-layer switches implement layers 1 and 2; routers implement layers 1 through 3.

This means, for example, that Internet routers are capable of implementing the IP
protocol (a layer 3 protocol), while link-layer switches are not.

The above figure illustrates the important concept of encapsulation.

 Application-layer message (M) is passed to the transport layer.

 Transport layer takes the message and appends additional information (so-called
transport-layer header information, H in) that will be used by the receiver-side
transport layer. (transport layer segment).
 The transport layer then passes the segment to the network layer, which adds network-
layer header information such as source and destination end system addresses,
creating a network-layer datagram.
 The datagram is then passed to the link layer, which will add its own link-layer header
information and create a link-layer frame.
 Thus, we see that at each layer, a packet has two types of fields: header fields and a
payload field. The payload is typically a packet from the layer above.

10 | P a g e
 Access And InterconnectionTechnology

Upstream and Downstream

 Downstream : refers to a data traveling from service provider in the Internet to a
subscriber.
 Upstream: refers to a data traveling from a subscriber to a service provider.

Narrowband Access Technology

a. Dialup telephone connections

 Computer uses its modem to dial a telephone number
given by ISP
 Most ISP servers disconnect automatically after a certain
period of inactivity.

b. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) service

 is a digital service that simultaneously transmits voice &
data, and controls signals over a single telephone line.
 can transfer data up to 128,000 bits per second (128
Kbps).
 It helps to connect a PC, telephone and fax to a single
ISDN line and use them simultaneously.

11 | P a g e
 • BroadBand Access Technology
a. Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

 use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM

• data over DSL phone line goes to Internet
• voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net
 24-52 Mbps dedicated downstream transmission rate
 3.5-16 Mbps dedicated upstream transmission rate

b. Cable Based Access

12 | P a g e
 frequency division multiplexing (FDM): different channels
transmitted in different frequency bands
 Makes use of the cable television company’s existing cable television infrastructure.
 A residence obtains cable Internet access from the same company that provides its
cable television.
 Fiber optics connect the cable head end to neighborhood-level junctions
 Traditional coaxial cable is then used to reach individual houses and apartments.
 Because both fiber and coaxial cable are employed is often referred to as hybrid fiber
coax (HFC).
 HFC: hybrid fiber coax
• asymmetric: up to 40 Mbps – 1.2 Gbs downstream transmission rate, 30-100
Mbps upstream transmission rate
 network of cable, fiber attaches homes to ISP router
• homes share access network to cable headend

c. Fiber to the Home FTTH

Each fiber leaving the central office is shared by many homes.

• Each home has an optical network terminator ONT

13 | P a g e
 Access networks:
a. home networks

b. Wireless Access Networks

Shared wireless access network connects end system to
router
Wireless local area networks (WLANs) Wide-area cellular access networks

 typically within or around building  provided by mobile, cellular network

(~100 ft) operator (10’s km)
 802.11b/g/n (WiFi): 11, 54, 450
 10’s Mbps
Mbps transmission rate
 4G cellular networks (5G coming)

c. Enterprise networks

 companies, universities, etc.

 mix of wired, wireless link technologies,
connecting a mix of switches and routers
(we’ll cover differences shortly)
 Ethernet: wired access at 100Mbps,
1Gbps, 10Gbps
a. WiFi: wireless access points at
11, 54, 450 Mbps

14 | P a g e