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Machining
Science and
Metallurgy
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Orthogonal and oblique cutting are two fundamental types of cutting processes used in
machining and metalworking:

1. **Orthogonal Cutting**:

- In orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular (orthogonal) to

the direction of the cutting motion.

- It is the most common type of cutting process and is often used in turning, milling,
and drilling operations.

- The chip formation in orthogonal cutting is primarily governed by the shear plane
angle and the rake angle of the cutting tool.

2. **Oblique Cutting**:

- In oblique cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is at an angle other than 90 degrees to
the direction of the cutting motion.

- Oblique cutting is used in certain specialized machining operations where specific

cutting conditions or tool geometries are required.

- Compared to orthogonal cutting, oblique cutting involves more complex chip

formation mechanisms and tool wear characteristics.
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- It allows for the manipulation of cutting forces, chip formation, and surface finish by
adjusting the cutting angle relative to the workpiece.

Cutting tools used in machining operations can be classified into two main categories
based on the number of cutting edges they possess:

1. **Single-Point Cutting Tools**:

- Single-point cutting tools have only one cutting edge or point that engages with the
workpiece at a time.

- Examples of single-point cutting tools include turning tools, boring tools, and
parting tools used in lathe operations.

- These tools are commonly used for operations such as turning, facing, grooving, and
threading.

2. **Multipoint Cutting Tools**:

- Multipoint cutting tools have multiple cutting edges distributed along their
periphery.

- Examples of multipoint cutting tools include milling cutters, drills, reamers, and
broaches.

- These tools are used for operations such as milling, drilling, reaming, and shaping.

- Multipoint cutting tools can remove material more efficiently compared to single-
point tools, especially in operations where high material removal rates are required.

The tool signature for a single-point cutting tool provides essential information
about its geometry and cutting parameters. It typically consists of a series of numbers
and letters that convey specific details about the tool. Here's a breakdown of a typical
tool signature for a single-point cutting tool:

1. **ISO Standard Format**:

- The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has established a standard

format for tool signatures, which includes several elements:

2. **Tool Material**:

- The first letter or letters indicate the material of the tool. Common materials
include:
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- H: High-Speed Steel (HSS) - C: Cemented Carbide

- P: Ceramics - S: Stellite (cobalt-based alloy)

3. **Tool Shape and Size**:

- Following the material designation, there are usually numbers that denote the shape
and size of the tool. This may include:

- Insert shape (square, round, diamond, etc.)

- Dimensions such as width, height, and thickness

- Shank size or diameter

4. **Tool Angle**:

- The next set of numbers represents the tool angles. These angles are critical for
determining the cutting action and chip formation. Common angles include:

- Back rake angle (α)

- Side rake angle (β)

- End cutting edge angle (γ)

- Side relief angle (φ)

- End relief angle (λ)

- Nose radius (r)

5. **Other Parameters**:

- Some tool signatures may include additional parameters such as:

- Cutting speed (V)

- Feed rate (f)

- Depth of cut (d)

- Material designation or specific machining operation

Here's an example of a tool signature:

C6-DSGNR-1234-
45°R6
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- C6: Cemented Carbide material - DSGNR: Designation code - R6: Nose
radius

- 1234: Dimensions or shape information - 45°: Back rake angle

Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting:

1. **Chip Formation**:

- During orthogonal cutting, the material ahead of the cutting edge undergoes plastic
deformation and shearing, leading to the formation of a chip.

- The chip flows along the rake face of the tool and is separated from the workpiece.

- Factors such as cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut, and material properties
influence chip formation.

2. **Shear Angle and its Significance**:

- The shear angle (\( \phi \)) is the angle between the shear plane and the plane of the
machined surface.

- It's a critical parameter as it influences cutting forces, chip formation, and surface
finish.

- A smaller shear angle typically results in lower cutting forces and better surface
finish.

- It's affected by factors like tool geometry, material properties, and cutting
conditions.

3. **Merchant Circle Diagram**:

- The Merchant circle diagram is a graphical representation used to analyze cutting

forces during orthogonal cutting.

- It plots cutting force (Fc) against thrust force (Ft) for different rake angles and shear
angles.

- It helps in understanding the relationship between cutting parameters and cutting

forces.

### Cutting Tool Materials and Applications:

1. **High-Speed Steel (HSS)**:
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- Suitable for a wide range of machining applications including turning, milling,
drilling, and tapping.

- Offers good toughness and wear resistance at moderate cutting speeds.

- Ideal for machining ferrous and non-ferrous materials.

2. **Cemented Carbides**:

- Widely used in high-speed machining of steels, cast irons, and non-ferrous

materials.

- Offers excellent wear resistance and hardness at elevated temperatures.

- Available in various grades tailored for specific applications.

3. **Ceramics**:

- Ideal for high-speed machining of hardened steels, superalloys, and abrasive

materials.

- Offers superior wear resistance and high-temperature capabilities.

- Suitable for dry machining applications.

4. **Cermets**:

- Combines the toughness of metals with the hardness and heat resistance of
ceramics.

- Suitable for high-speed machining of steels, stainless steels, and heat-resistant

alloys.

5. **Diamond and Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)**:

- Used for ultra-high-speed machining of hardened steels, cast irons, and abrasive
materials.

- Offer exceptional hardness and wear resistance.

- Suitable for continuous and interrupted cutting conditions.

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Parts of Lath Machine
1.**Bed**: The base of the lathe that provides support and rigidity to all other
components.

2. **Headstock**: Located at one end of the bed, it contains the spindle, gearbox, and
drive mechanism for rotating the workpiece.

3. **Tailstock**: Positioned at the opposite end of the headstock, it supports the other
end of the workpiece and may contain a center for drilling or turning operations.

4. **Carriage**: Moves along the bed and contains the tool post, cross-slide, and apron.

5. **Tool Post**: Holds the cutting tool and can be adjusted for different tool angles
and positions.

6. **Cross-Slide**: Moves perpendicular to the axis of the lathe and allows for precise
positioning of the cutting tool.

7. **Apron**: Contains the mechanism for engaging the feed and threading
mechanisms.

8. **Chuck**: A device mounted on the spindle for holding the workpiece.

9. **Lead Screw**: Provides longitudinal movement to the carriage for threading

operations.
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10. **Feed Rod**: Controls the feed rate during turning operations.

11. **Compound Rest**: Provides angular adjustment for turning tapers and angles.

 Accessories of a Lathe Machine:

1. **Steady Rest**: Supports long workpieces to prevent deflection during machining.

2. **Follow Rest**: Similar to the steady rest but follows the contour of the workpiece.

3. **Chuck Guard**: Safety device to protect the operator from rotating parts.

4. **Tool Holders**: Various types of holders for holding cutting tools securely.

5. **Centering Device**: Used for aligning and centering workpieces in the chuck or
between centers.

6. **Collets**: Alternative workholding devices for holding small diameter workpieces.

7. **Faceplate**: Used for holding large and irregularly shaped workpieces.

8. **Live Center**: A center mounted on the tailstock with bearings to support the
workpiece rotationally.

9. **Quick-Change Tool Post**: Allows for rapid tool changes and setup.
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 Operations Carried Out on a Lathe:

1.**Turning**:

- Turning is the primary operation performed on a lathe. It involves removing

material from the external surface of a cylindrical workpiece to achieve the desired
diameter and surface finish.

- External turning produces cylindrical, conical, or contoured shapes on the outer

surface of the workpiece.

- Internal turning, also known as boring, creates holes or enlarges existing ones on
the inner surface of the workpiece.

2. **Facing**:

- Facing is the process of machining the end surface of a workpiece to produce a

smooth, flat surface that is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

- It is commonly used to square the ends of cylindrical workpieces or to create

smooth, flat surfaces for subsequent operations.

3. **Drilling**:

- Drilling on a lathe involves making holes in the workpiece using a rotating drill bit
mounted in the tailstock or tool post.

- It is typically used to create holes for bolts, screws, or other fasteners, as well as for
creating internal features such as counterbores or counter sinks.

4. **Boring**:

- Boring is the process of enlarging existing holes or machining internal surfaces to

achieve precise dimensions and surface finishes.

- It is commonly used to finish the inside diameter of cylindrical workpieces or to

create internal features such as keyways or splines.

5. **Threading**:

- Threading on a lathe involves cutting external or internal threads on the workpiece

to create screw threads.
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- External threading is performed using a cutting tool mounted on the tool post, while
internal threading is typically done using a tap or die mounted in the tailstock.

6. **Knurling**:

- Knurling is the process of producing a textured pattern on the surface of the

workpiece to improve grip or provide decorative effects.

- It is commonly used on handles, knobs, or other parts that require increased friction
or a more aesthetically pleasing appearance.

7. **Parting Off**:

- Parting off, also known as cutting off or grooving, is the process of separating the
finished workpiece from the remainder of the stock material.

- It is typically done using a narrow cutting tool mounted on the tool post, which
creates a groove or cut that severs the workpiece from the stock material.

Kinematics of
a Lathe:
The kinematics of a
lathe involve the
study of motion and
velocities of its
components during
various machining
operations. It
includes the
determination of
cutting speeds, feed
rates, and tool
movements to
achieve desired
machining outcomes
while ensuring safety
and efficiency.
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### Turret and Capstan Lathe:

1. **Turret Lathe**:

- A type of lathe with a turret-mounted tooling system that allows for rapid tool
changes.

- Suited for high-volume production of parts with repetitive machining operations.

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- The turret holds multiple tools simultaneously, enabling quick tool selection and
reduced setup times.

2. **Capstan Lathe**:

- Similar to a turret lathe but typically used for smaller workpieces and lighter cutting
operations.

- Features a tailstock and collet closer for rapid workpiece loading and unloading.

- Ideal for batch production of small precision parts in industries such as electronics
and instrumentation.

Turret Lath

Turret Lathe:
1. **Turret Mechanism**:

- The defining feature of a turret lathe is its turret, which holds multiple cutting tools
simultaneously.

- The turret can index to bring different tools into cutting position rapidly, allowing
for quick tool changes without stopping the machine.

2. **High Productivity**:

- Turret lathes are designed for high-volume production of parts with repetitive
machining operations.
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- They excel in applications where multiple operations are required on a single
workpiece, such as turning, drilling, boring, and threading.

3. **Automatic Operation**:

- Turret lathes can be equipped with automatic tool changers and bar feeders,
enabling continuous machining of multiple workpieces without operator intervention.

- This automation reduces setup time and maximizes machine utilization, leading to
increased productivity and cost efficiency.

4. **Versatility**:

- Turret lathes can accommodate a wide range of cutting tools and tooling
configurations, making them suitable for machining various materials and part
geometries.

- They offer flexibility in tool selection and machining strategies to meet diverse
production requirements.

Capstan Lathe:

1. **Collet System**:

- Capstan lathes use a collet system for workpiece clamping, which provides high
precision and repeatability.

- The collet holds the workpiece firmly in place and allows for rapid loading and
unloading, minimizing idle time between operations.

2. **Tailstock and Tool Post**:

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- Capstan lathes typically feature a tailstock for supporting longer workpieces and a
tool post for holding cutting tools.

- The tool post may be equipped with multiple tool holders, allowing for quick tool
changes and setup adjustments.

3. **Quick Indexing**:

- Similar to turret lathes, capstan lathes are designed for rapid tool changes and
indexing.

- They use a turret-like mechanism or a hexagonal turret for holding cutting tools,
enabling fast indexing and positioning of tools for different machining operations.

4. **Small to Medium Batch Production**:

- Capstan lathes are well-suited for small to medium batch production of precision
parts.

- They offer higher productivity compared to conventional engine lathes while

maintaining versatility and ease of operation.

Comparison:
- Both turret and capstan lathes are designed for high-speed, high-precision machining
operations in mass production environments.

- Turret lathes are more suitable for larger workpieces and complex machining
operations requiring multiple tools, while capstan lathes excel in smaller workpieces
and shorter production runs.

- The choice between turret and capstan lathe depends on factors such as production
volume, part complexity, machining requirements, and available floor space.

Moduel-2
### Up Milling (Conventional
Milling):

1. **Process**:

- In up milling, also known as

conventional milling, the cutter
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rotates against the direction of the feed motion of the workpiece.

- The cutting action starts at the surface of the workpiece and moves gradually deeper
into the material as the cutter advances.

2. **Chip Formation**:

- Chips are initially thick and gradually reduce in thickness as the cutter moves along
the workpiece.

- The chip thickness increases towards the end of the cut, which can lead to poor
surface finish and higher cutting forces.

3. **Advantages**:

- Lower cutting forces compared to down milling, resulting in reduced tool wear and
longer tool life.

- Less chance of workpiece lifting or chattering due to the cutting action pushing the
workpiece down onto the machine table.

- Suitable for thin-walled or delicate workpieces where minimizing cutting forces is

critical.

4. **Disadvantages**:

- Poor surface finish, especially at the beginning of the cut, due to thicker initial chip
formation.

- Increased risk of workpiece vibrations or chatter, particularly with long overhangs

or flexible setups.

- Requires more power due to the cutter pushing against the workpiece.

### Down Milling (Climb Milling):

1. **Process**:

- In down milling, also known as climb

milling, the cutter rotates in the same
direction as the feed motion of the
workpiece.

- The cutting action starts at the deepest

point of the cut and gradually moves towards
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the surface of the workpiece as the cutter advances.

2. **Chip Formation**:

- Chips are initially thin and increase in thickness as the cutter progresses along the
workpiece.

- The chip thickness decreases towards the end of the cut, resulting in improved
surface finish.

3. **Advantages**:

- Better surface finish compared to up milling, especially at the beginning of the cut.

- Reduced tendency for workpiece lifting or chatter due to the cutting action pulling
the workpiece onto the machine table.

- Lower power consumption as the cutting action helps to pull the workpiece into the
cutter.

4. **Disadvantages**:

- Higher cutting forces compared to up milling, leading to increased tool wear and
shorter tool life.

- Increased risk of workpiece distortion or deflection, particularly with thin-walled or

flexible workpieces.

- Requires careful setup and tooling to prevent workpiece movement or vibrations.

### Application:

- Up milling and down milling are selected based on factors such as workpiece material,
part geometry, cutting parameters, machine rigidity, and desired surface finish.

- Up milling is commonly used in applications where minimizing cutting forces and

workpiece deformation is critical, while down milling is preferred for achieving better
surface finish and reducing tool wear.

### Classification Based on Machine Configuration:

1. **Horizontal Milling Machine**:
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- The spindle axis is horizontal, and the cutter is mounted on a horizontal arbor.

- Suitable for heavy-duty milling operations, such as slotting, facing, and contouring.

- Often used in production environments for machining large workpieces.

2. **Vertical Milling Machine**:

- The spindle axis is vertical, and the cutter is mounted on a vertically oriented arbor.

- Allows for easy setup and visibility of the cutting process.

- Commonly used for drilling, facing, and profile milling operations.

3. **Universal Milling Machine**:

- Combines the features of horizontal and vertical milling machines, with a swiveling
table that can be adjusted to various angles.

- Offers versatility for machining complex shapes and angles.

Classification of Milling machines

Milling machines can be classified into various categories based on different criteria
such as their structure, purpose, degree of automation, and size. Here's a general
classification:

1. **Based on Structure:**

- **Horizontal Milling Machine:** The spindle axis is horizontal to the table.

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- **Vertical Milling Machine:** The spindle axis is vertical to the table.

- **Universal Milling Machine:** Combines the features of both horizontal and

vertical milling machines, allowing for the milling of surfaces at various angles.

- **Bed Type Milling Machine:** The worktable is mounted directly on the bed,
providing more rigidity.

2. **Based on Purpose:**

- **Plain Milling Machine:** Used for simple milling operations like plain milling,
grooving, and slotting.

- **Face Milling Machine:** Designed for milling flat surfaces, often used for
producing flat or angular surfaces.

- **End Milling Machine:** Utilized for milling the edges of materials.

- **Gear Milling Machine:** Specialized in cutting gears.

- **Thread Milling Machine:** Designed for cutting threads on cylindrical surfaces.

3. **Based on Degree of Automation:**

- **Manual Milling Machine:** Operated manually by a machinist.

- **CNC Milling Machine (Computer Numerical Control):** Controlled by a

computer, offering high precision and automation in machining operations.

4. **Based on Size:**

- **Benchtop Milling Machine:** Compact and suitable for smaller workshops or

hobbyists.

- **Floor-Mounted Milling Machine:** Larger and more powerful, suitable for

industrial applications.

5. **Based on Cutting Motion:**

- **Rotary Table Milling Machine:** Uses a rotary table to perform milling

operations at different angles.

- **Planner Milling Machine:** Utilizes a planner to produce a flat surface.

6. **Specialized Milling Machines:**

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- **Drum Milling Machine:** Used for machining large surfaces or creating curved
profiles.

- **Copy Milling Machine:** Mimics a template to produce intricate shapes.

Constructional features (Column and Knee and vertical milling

machine)

Column and knee milling machines are a type of vertical milling machine, which is one
of the most common types of milling machines used in workshops and manufacturing
facilities. Here are the key constructional features of a typical column and knee vertical
milling machine:

1. **Base:** The base is a heavy, solid casting that provides stability and support for the
entire machine. It usually has T-slots to allow for mounting workpieces or fixtures.

2. **Column:** The column is a vertical structure mounted on the base, providing

support for the knee, saddle, and table. It houses the spindle and its driving
mechanism. The column is typically rugged and rigid to withstand cutting forces.

3. **Knee:** The knee is a vertically adjustable casting mounted on the column. It can
be raised or lowered along the column by hand or power feed to adjust the vertical
position of the worktable and the spindle in relation to the cutter. The knee also
provides support for the saddle and table.

4. **Saddle:** The saddle is a horizontal casting mounted on the knee. It can move
along the knee horizontally, providing support for the table. The saddle usually has
dovetail or box ways to guide its movement smoothly and accurately.
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5. **Table:** The table is mounted on the saddle and can move longitudinally (in the
X-axis direction) and crosswise (in the Y-axis direction) relative to the spindle. It
provides a flat and accurately machined surface for clamping workpieces or fixtures. T-
slots are often machined into the table to facilitate the attachment of workholding
devices.

6. **Spindle:** The spindle is the rotating shaft that holds the cutting tool. It is
mounted vertically in the column and driven by a motor through various mechanisms
such as belts, gears, or direct drive. The spindle can typically be tilted or swiveled to
allow for cutting operations at different angles.

7. **Quill (Optional):** Some vertical milling machines feature a quill mechanism,

which allows the spindle to be lowered or raised independently of the knee. This
feature is particularly useful for drilling operations.

8. **Controls:** Modern vertical milling machines are equipped with controls for
adjusting spindle speed, feed rates, and other parameters. These controls may be
manual, mechanical, or computerized (CNC).

9. **Safety Features:** Vertical milling machines are often equipped with safety
features such as emergency stop buttons, interlocks, and guards to protect operators
from accidents.

Nomenclature of Milling Cutter

here's the nomenclature for a typical milling cutter:

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1. **Cutting Edge:** The sharp edge of the tooth that actually removes material during
cutting.

2. **Face of Tooth:** The surface of the tooth that faces the direction of rotation.

3. *Heel:** The portion of the tooth behind the cutting edge.

4. **Pitch of Teeth:** The distance between adjacent teeth measured along the
circumference of the cutter.

5. **Depth of Tooth:** The distance from the cutting edge to the bottom of the tooth.

6. **Land:** The narrow surface between adjacent teeth, often ground to provide
clearance.

7. **Primary Clearance Angle:** The angle formed by the cutting edge and a line
tangent to the circumference of the cutter. It provides clearance for the cutting edge.

8. **Secondary Clearance Angle:** The angle formed by the face of the tooth and a line
perpendicular to the axis of the cutter. It provides additional clearance for the tooth
behind the cutting edge.

9. **Keyway:** A groove machined into the shank of the cutter to fit into the arbor of
the milling machine, ensuring proper alignment and secure mounting.

10. **Spiral or Helix Angle:** The angle formed by the leading edge of a tooth with
respect to a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation. It determines the direction and
amount of the helical path followed by the cutting edge during rotation.

Milling Operations or Processes:

The milling operations performed on milling machine are given below

i. Plain milling iv. Straddle milling

ii. Form milling v. Slot milling

iii. End milling vi. Gang milling

vii. Angular milling

(i) Plain(Slab) Milling

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The slab milling is the operation of producing flat, horizontal surface parallel to the
axis

of rotation of a slab-milling cutter. Slab milling is done to remove the material from the

upper surface of the work piece. The slab milling cutters is held in the arbor and it may

have straight or helical teethes. Both cutters can be used to generate flat surfaces. The

required depth of cut can be adjusted by raising the table or the knee and the feed is

given by moving the saddle as shown in figure 4.

(ii) End Milling

End milling is a process of milling that is used to mill slots, pockets and keyways in
such

a way that the axis of the milling cutter is perpendicular to the surface of the work
piece.

The milling operation when used for keyway cutting as shown in figure. The advantage

of the end milling operation is that we can achieve depth of cut of nearly of the
diameter

of the mill as shown in figure 5.

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(i) SlotMilling
Slot milling is the operation of producing slots like T-slots, plain slots, dovetail slots
etc., in worktable fixtures and other work holding devices. The operation may be
performed using end milling cutter, T-slot cutter, dovetail cutter or side milling cutter.
The type of cutter selected depends on the shape of the slot to be produced as shown
in figure 6(a) & figure 6(b). Two separate milling cutters are required for milling T-
slots. Initially a side cutter or an end milling cutter is used to cut the throat (open slot)
starting fromoneendofthe workpieceto itsotherend.A T-slotmillingcutteras
showninfigure6(b) is then used to cut the headspace to the desired dimensions.
Similar procedure is followed for cutting a dovetail slot, but a dovetail slot cutter is
used in place of T-slot cutter.
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