Ch-9 Light Reflection& Refraction

WHAT MAKES THINGS VISIBLE?
We see a variety of objects in the world around us. However, we are We unable to see
anything in a dark room. On lighting up the room, things become visible. What makes
things visible? During the day, the sunlight helps us to see objects. An object reflects light
that falls on it. This reflected light, when received by our eyes, enables us to see things.
WHAT MAKES THINGS VISIBLE?
We are able to see through a transparent medium as light is transmitted through it.
There are a number of common wonderful phenomena associated with light such as
image formation by mirrors, the twinkling of stars, the beautiful colours of a rainbow,
bending of light by a medium and so on.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Bouncing back of light when it strikes on a polished surface like mirror.
Incident ray - The ray of light falling on the reflecting surface AB is called the incident
ray.
Reflected ray - The light ray bouncing back in the same medium as incident ray, after
striking the reflecting surface is called as reflected ray.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Bouncing back of light when it strikes on a polished surface like mirror.
Angle of incidence - the angle between the incident ray and the normal is the angle of
incidence.
Angle of reflection - the angle between the normal and the reflected ray is called angle
of reflection.
Normal - it is an imaginary line, perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the point of
incidence.
TYPES OF REFLECTION
Regular Reflection Irregular reflection
• When all reflected rays are parallel to • When reflected rays are not parallel to
each other, the reflection is called each other, the reflection is called
regular reflection. irregular reflection.
• Clear image is formed in case of • Diffused image is formed in case of
regular reflection. irregular reflection.
LAWS OF REFLECTION
(1) Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
(2) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in
the same plane.
These laws of reflection are applicable to all types of reflecting surfaces including spherical
surfaces.
CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGE FORMED BY THE PLANE MIRROR
 Size of image is equal to the size of object.

 Virtual and erect.
 Image is formed as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
 Laterally inverted. (the left side of the object is seen on the right side in the image,
and right side of the object appears to be on the left side in the image)
CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGE FORMED BY THE PLANE MIRROR
• Place a vertical screen behind the mirror.
• Try to obtain the image of the candle on this screen.
• Can you get the image on the screen? Now place the screen in front of the mirror.
• Can you get the image on the screen now?
• You will find that the image of the candle cannot be obtained on the screen in either
case.
An image which cannot be obtained on a screen is called a virtual image.

REAL AND VIRTUAL IMAGE
REAL IMAGE VS VIRTUAL IMAGE
REAL IMAGE VIRTUAL IMAGE

An image which can be obtained on a An image which cannot be obtained
screen is called a real image. on a screen is called a virtual image.
A real image is formed by the actual A virtual image is formed by the
intersection of light rays. imaginary intersection of light rays.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.1
Take a large shining spoon. Try to view your face in its curved surface.
 Do you get the image? Is it smaller or larger?
 Move the spoon slowly away from your face. Observe the image. How does it change?
• Yes.The image on the inner curved surface is smaller.

• The size of the image gradually decreases.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.1
 Reverse the spoon and repeat the Activity. How does the image look like now?
 Compare the characteristics of the image on the two surfaces.
• When you view your face on the convex side of the spoon, you will see an image that
is diminished and erect.
• As you move the spoon away from your face while observing the convex side, the
image continues to get smaller or point sized as we keep on moving further.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.1
 Compare the characteristics of the image on the two surfaces.
Outer Surface Inner surface
(i)Image is always erect. (i)The image is erect when spoon is close
and inverted when spoon is away.
(ii)Image size gradually decreases as we (ii)Image size is larger when spoon is close
move away from the spoon. and it is smaller when spoon is moved
away.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.1
Conclusion:-
The curved surface of a shining spoon could be considered as a curved mirror. The
most commonly used type of curved mirror is the spherical mirror.
SPHERICAL MIRRORS:
Mirrors whose reflecting surface is curved.
Concave Mirror Convex Mirror
• A spherical mirror, whose reflecting • A spherical mirror whose reflecting
surface is curved inwards, that is, faces surface is curved outwards, is called a
towards the centre of the sphere, is convex mirror
called a concave mirror.
• Converging mirror. • Diverging mirror.
TERMS RELATED TO SPHERICAL MIRRORS
Center of Curvature (C) :
The centre of the hollow
glass sphere of which the
mirror was a part.
It is represented by the
letter C.
Pole (P): The centre of the
spherical mirror.
Please note that the centre of curvature is not a part of the mirror. It lies outside its
reflecting surface. The centre of curvature of a concave mirror lies in front of it. However,
it lies behind the mirror in case of a convex mirror.
• Radius of Curvature (R):
The radius of the sphere
of which the reflecting
surface of a spherical
mirror forms a part, is
called the radius of
curvature of the mirror.
• It is represented by the
letter R
Principal axis : A straight
line passing through the
pole and the centre of
curvature of a spherical
mirror. This line is called
the principal axis.
The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is by-and-large spherical. The surface,
then, has a circular outline.
Aperture :
The diameter of the
reflecting surface of
spherical mirror is called its
aperture.
We shall consider in our discussion only such spherical mirrors whose aperture is much
smaller than its radius of curvature.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.2
CAUTION: Do not look at the Sun directly or even into a mirror reflecting
sunlight. It may damage your eyes.
 Hold a concave mirror in your hand and direct its reflecting surface towards the Sun.
 Direct the light reflected by the mirror on to a sheet of paper held close to the mirror.
 Move the sheet of paper back and forth gradually until you find on the paper sheet a
bright, sharp spot of light.
 Hold the mirror and the paper in the same position for a few minutes. What do you
observe? Why?
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.2
CAUTION: Do not look at the Sun directly or even into a mirror reflecting
sunlight. It may damage your eyes.
 Hold a concave mirror in your hand and direct its reflecting surface towards the Sun.
 Direct the light reflected by the mirror on to a sheet of paper held close to the mirror.
 Move the sheet of paper back and forth gradually until you find on the paper sheet a
bright, sharp spot of light.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.2
 Hold the mirror and the paper in the same position for a few minutes. What do you
observe? Why ?
The paper at first begins to burn producing smoke. Eventually it may even catch fire. Why
does it burn? The light from the Sun is converged at a point, as a sharp, bright spot by the
mirror. In fact, this spot of light is the image of the Sun on the sheet of paper. This point
is the focus of the concave mirror. The heat produced due to the concentration of
sunlight ignites the paper. The distance of this image from the position of the mirror gives
the approximate value of focal length of the mirror
PRINCIPAL FOCUS
PRINCIPAL FOCUS OF A CONCAVE MIRROR
Define Principal Focus

A number of rays parallel to the principal axis are falling on a concave mirror. Observe the
reflected rays. They are all meeting/intersecting at a point on the principal axis of the
mirror. This point is called the principal focus of the concave mirror.
PRINCIPAL FOCUS OF A CONVEX MIRROR
Define Principal Focus

The incident rays coming parallel to the principal axis after reflection appear to diverge
from a common point on the principal axis, this point is called the principal focus of a
convex mirror.
FOCAL LENGTH OF SPHERICAL MIRRORS
• The distance between the pole and the principal focus of a spherical mirror is called the
focal length.
• It is represented by the letter f.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FOCAL LENGTH AND RADIUS OF CURVATURE:
For spherical mirrors of small apertures, the radius of curvature is found to be equal to
twice the focal length.
This implies that the principal focus of a spherical mirror lies midway between the pole and
centre of curvature.
𝑅
R = 2f 𝑓=
2
IMAGE FORMATION BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS
• We have studied about the image formation by plane mirrors.
• We also know the nature, position and relative size of the images formed by them. How
about the images formed by spherical mirrors?
• How can we locate the image formed by a concave mirror for different positions of the
object?
• Are the images real or virtual?
• Are they enlarged, diminished or have the same size? We shall explore this with an
Activity.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.3
 Take a concave mirror. Find out its approximate focal length in the way described
above. Note down the value of focal length. (You can also find it out by obtaining image
of a distant object on a sheet of paper.)
 Mark a line on a Table with a chalk. Place the concave mirror on a stand. Place the
stand over the line such that its pole lies over the line.
 Draw with a chalk two more lines parallel to the previous line such that the distance
between any two successive lines is equal to the focal length of the mirror. These lines
will now correspond to the positions of the points P, F and C, respectively. Remember –
For a spherical mirror of small aperture, the principal focus F lies mid-way between the
pole P and the centre of curvature C.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.3
 Keep a bright object, say a burning candle, at a position far beyond C. Place a paper
screen and move it in front of the mirror till you obtain a sharp bright image of the
candle flame on it.
 Observe the image carefully. Note down its nature, position and relative size with
respect to the object size.
 Repeat the activity by placing the candle – (a) just beyond C, (b) at C, (c) between F
and C, (d) at F, and (e) between P and F.
 In one of the cases, you may not get the image on the screen. Identify the position of
the object in such a case. Then, look for its virtual image in the mirror itself.
 Note down and tabulate your observations.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.3
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.3
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.3
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.3
Representation of images formed by spherical mirrors using ray diagrams
• We can also study the formation of images by spherical mirrors by drawing ray
diagrams. Consider an extended object, of finite size, placed in front of a spherical
mirror.
• Each small portion of the extended object acts like a point source.
• An infinite number of rays originate from each of these points.
Representation of images formed by spherical mirrors using ray diagrams
• However, it is more convenient to consider only two rays, for the sake of clarity of the
ray diagram.
• These rays are so chosen that it is easy to know their directions after reflection from
the mirror.
• The intersection of at least two reflected rays give the position of image of the point
object. Any two of the following rays can be considered for locating the image.
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE MIRROR
Position of the Position of the Size of the Nature of the

object image image image
At infinity At the focus F Highly diminished Real & inverted
point-size
Beyond C Between F & C Diminished Real & inverted
At C At C Same size Real & inverted
Between C & F Beyond C Enlarged Real & inverted
At F At infinity Highly enlarged Real & inverted
Between P & F Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect
RULES TO DRAW RAY DIAGRAMS
(i)A ray parallel to the principal axis, after reflection, will pass through the principal focus
in case of a concave mirror or appear to diverge from the principal focus in case of a
convex mirror.
(ii)A ray passing through the principal focus of a concave mirror or a ray which is directed
towards the principal focus of a convex mirror, after reflection, will emerge parallel to the
principal axis.
(iii)A ray passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror or directed in the
direction of the centre of curvature of a convex mirror, after reflection, is reflected back
along the same path.
The light rays come back along the same path because the incident rays fall on the mirror
along the normal to the reflecting surface.
(iv)A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards a point P (pole of the mirror), on
the concave mirror [Fig. 9.6 (a)] or a convex mirror [Fig. 9.6 (b)], is reflected obliquely.
• The incident and reflected rays follow the laws of reflection at the point of incidence
(point P), making equal angles with the principal axis.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.4
Draw neat ray diagrams for each position of the object shown in Table 9.1.
 You may take any two of the rays mentioned in the previous section for locating the
image.
 Compare your diagram with those given in Fig. 9.7.
 Describe the nature, position and relative size of the image formed in each case.
Tabulate the results in a convenient format.
TABLE 9.1IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE MIRROR

At infinity At the focus F Highly diminished Real & inverted
point-size
Beyond C Between F & C Diminished Real & inverted
At C At C Same size Real & inverted
Between C & F Beyond C Enlarged Real & inverted
At F At infinity Highly enlarged Real & inverted
Between P & F Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect
USES OF CONCAVE MIRROR
 Concave mirrors are commonly used in torches, search-lights and vehicles
headlights to get powerful parallel beams of light.
 They are often used as shaving mirrors to see a larger image of the face.
 The dentists use concave mirrors to see large images of the teeth of patients.
 Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar
furnaces.
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX MIRROR

At infinity At the focus F, behind Highly diminished Virtual and erect
the mirror point-size
Between infinity and Between P & F Diminished Virtual and erect

the pole P of the behind the mirror
mirror
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.5
 Take a convex mirror. Hold it in one hand.
 Hold a pencil in the upright position in the other hand.
 Observe the image of the pencil in the mirror. Is the image erect or inverted? Is it
diminished or enlarged?
 Move the pencil away from the mirror slowly. Does the image become smaller or
larger?
 Repeat this Activity carefully. State whether the image will move closer to or farther
away from the focus as the object is moved away from the mirror?
• Its image in the mirror is erect and diminished.
• The image becomes smaller.
• The image moves closer to the focus
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.6
 Observe the image of a distant object, say a distant tree, in a plane mirror.
 Could you see a full-length image?
 Try with plane mirrors of different sizes. Did you see the entire object in the image?
 Repeat this Activity with a concave mirror. Did the mirror show full length image of the
object?
 Now try using a convex mirror. Did you succeed? Explain your observations with
reason.
• No
• No
• Yes.In a covex mirror,we can see full length image of distant object with wider field of
view.
USES OF CONVEX MIRROR
• Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view (wing) mirrors in vehicles.
• These mirrors are fitted on the sides of the vehicle, enabling the driver to see traffic
behind him/her to facilitate safe driving.
• Convex mirrors are preferred because they always give an erect, though diminished,
image. Also, they have a wider field of view as they are curved outwards.
• Thus, convex mirrors enable the driver to view much larger area than would be
possible with a plane mirror.
NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Define the principal focus of a concave mirror.
Ans.The light rays that are parallel to the principal axis of a concave mirror converge at a
specific point on its principal axis after reflecting from the mirror.
2. The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is 20 cm. What is its focal length?
3. Name a mirror that can give an erect and enlarged image of an object
Ans.Concave mirror
4. Why do we prefer a convex mirror as a rear-view mirror in vehicles?
Ans.We prefer convex mirror as a rear view mirror in the vehicles because convex mirror
always forms virtual, erect and diminished images irrespective of distance of the object.
A convex mirror enables a driver to view large area of the traffic behind him.
SIGN CONVENTION FOR REFLECTION BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS
While dealing with the reflection of light by spherical mirrors, we shall follow a set of sign
conventions called the New Cartesian Sign Convention. In this convention, the pole (P) of
the mirror is taken as the origin (Fig. 9.9). The principal axis of the mirror is taken as the
x-axis (X’X) of the coordinate system.
THE CONVENTIONS ARE AS FOLLOWS –
(i) The object is always placed to the left of the mirror. This implies that the light from the
object falls on the mirror from the left-hand side.
(ii) All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole of the mirror.
THE CONVENTIONS ARE AS FOLLOWS –
(iii) All the distances measured to the right of the origin (along + x-axis) are taken as
positive while those measured to the left of the origin (along – x-axis) are taken as
negative.
(iv) Distances measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis (along + y-axis) are
taken as positive.
(v) Distances measured perpendicular to and below the principal axis (along –y-axis) are
taken as negative.
MIRROR FORMULA AND MAGNIFICATION
• In a spherical mirror, the distance of the object from its pole is called the object
distance (u).
• The distance of the image from the pole of the mirror is called the image distance
(v).
• The distance of the principal focus from the pole is called the focal length (f).
• There is a relationship between these three quantities given by the mirror formula
which is expressed as
1 1 1 v = Image distance
+ = u = Object distance
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 f = Focal length
MIRROR FORMULA AND MAGNIFICATION
• This formula is valid in all situations for all spherical mirrors for all positions of the
object.
• We must use the New Cartesian Sign Convention while substituting numerical
values for u, v, f, and R in the mirror formula for solving problems.
v = Image distance
1 1 1
+ = u = Object distance
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 f = Focal length
SIGN CONVENTION FOR REFLECTION BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS
Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (i) (ii)
u - - - - - - - -
v - - - - - + + +
R - - - - - - + +
f - - - - - - + +
h + + + + + + + +
ℎ′ - - - - - + + +
m - - - - - + + +
MAGNIFICATION OF SPHERICAL MIRRORS
• Magnification produced by a spherical mirror gives the relative extent to which the
image of an object is magnified with respect to the object size.
• It is expressed as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. It is
usually represented by the letter m.
• If h is the height of the object and h′ is the height of the image, then the magnification
m produced by a spherical mirror is given by
Height of the image ℎ′

𝑚=
Height of the object
𝑚=
ℎ
• The magnification m is also related to the object distance (u) and image distance (v). It
can be expressed as:
𝑣
𝑚=−
𝑢
ℎ′ 𝑣
𝑚= =−
ℎ 𝑢
• The height of the object is taken to be positive as the object is usually placed above the
principal axis.
• The height of the image should be taken as positive for virtual images.
• However, it is to be taken as negative for real images.
• A negative sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is real.
• A positive sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is virtual.
ℎ′ 𝑣
𝑚= =−
ℎ 𝑢
NCERT EXAMPLE 9.1
A convex mirror used for rear-view on an automobile has a radius of curvature of 3.00 m.
If a bus is located at 5.00 m from this mirror, find the position, nature and size of the image.
NCERT EXAMPLE 9.1
A convex mirror used for rear-view on an automobile has a radius of curvature of 3.00 m.
If a bus is located at 5.00 m from this mirror, find the position, nature and size of the image.
v = + 1.15 m
The image is 1.15 m at the back of the mirror.
m= +0.23
The image is virtual, erect and smaller in size by a factor of 0.23.
NCERT EXAMPLE 9.2
An object, 4.0 cm in size, is placed at 25.0 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length
15.0 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in order to obtain a
sharp image? Find the nature and the size of the image.
NCERT EXAMPLE 9.2
An object, 4.0 cm in size, is placed at 25.0 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length
15.0 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in order to obtain a
sharp image? Find the nature and the size of the image.
v = – 37.5 cm
The screen should be placed at 37.5 cm in front of the mirror. The image is real.
Height of the image, h= – 6.0 cm
The image is inverted and enlarged.
NCERT INTEXT QUESTION
1. Find the focal length of a convex mirror whose radius of curvature is 32 cm.
𝑅
𝑓=
2
2. A concave mirror produces three times magnified (enlarged) real image of an object
placed at 10 cm in front of it. Where is the image located?
Thus, the image is located _________in front of the mirror.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Light seems to travel along straight-line paths in a transparent medium. What happens
when light enters from one transparent medium to another? Does it still move along a
straight-line path or change its direction?
SOME EXAMPLES OF REFRACTION:
 The bottom of a tank or a pond containing water appears to be raised.
 When a thick glass slab is placed over some printed matter, the letters
appear raised when viewed through the glass slab.
 A pencil partly immersed in water in a glass tumbler ,it appears to be
displaced at the interface of air and water.
 A lemon kept in water in a glass tumbler appears to be bigger than its
actual size, when viewed from the sides.
APPARENT DISPLACEMENT OF A PENCIL, PARTLY IMMERSED IN WATER
• The light reaching you from the portion of the pencil inside water seems to come from
a different direction, compared to the part above water.
• This makes the pencil appear to be displaced at the interface. For similar reasons, the
letters appear to be raised, when seen through a glass slab placed over it.
CAUSE OF REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Does a pencil appear to be displaced to the same extent, if instead of water, we use
liquids like kerosene or turpentine?
Will the letters appear to rise to the same height if we replace a glass slab with a
transparent plastic slab?
We will find that the extent of the effect is different for different pair of media. These
observations indicate that light does not travel in the same direction in all media.
Refraction is caused due to the change in speed of light when it enters from one medium
to another.
DEFINE REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Light when travelling obliquely from one medium to another, the direction of propagation
of light in the second medium changes. This phenomenon is known as refraction of light.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.7
 Place a coin at the bottom of a bucket filled with water.
 With your eye to a side above water, try to pick up the coin in
one go. Did you succeed in picking up the coin?
 Repeat the Activity. Why did you not succeed in doing it in one
go?
 Ask your friends to do this. Compare your experience with
theirs
• No.
• Refracted light coming from the submerged coin in water (denser medium), on
entering air (rarer medium), bend away from the normal due to refraction of light and
image size becomes larger than its actual size. Thus, coin appears to be closer than its
actual distance.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.8
 Place a large shallow bowl on a Table and put a coin in it.
 Move away slowly from the bowl. Stop when the coin just disappears from your sight.
 Ask a friend to pour water gently into the bowl without disturbing the coin.
 Keep looking for the coin from your position. Does the coin becomes visible again from
your position? How could this happen?
• The coin becomes visible again on pouring water into the bowl. The coin appears
slightly raised above its actual position due to refraction of light.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.9
 Draw a thick straight line in ink, over a sheet of white paper placed on a Table.
 Place a glass slab over the line in such a way that one of its edges makes an angle with
the line.
 Look at the portion of the line under the slab from the sides. What do you observe?
Does the line under the glass slab appear to be bent at the edges?
 Next, place the glass slab such that it is normal to the line. What do you observe now?
Does the part of the line under the glass slab appear bent?
 Look at the line from the top of the glass slab. Does the part of the line, beneath the
slab, appear to be raised? Why does this happen?
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.9
 Look at the portion of the line under the slab from the sides. What do you observe?
Does the line under the glass slab appear to be bent at the edges?
The line under the glass slab appears to be bent at the edges.It is due to refraction of light.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.9
 Next, place the glass slab such that it is normal to the line. What do you observe now?
Does the part of the line under the glass slab appear bent?
The part of the line under the glass slab does not appear bent.It appears in a straight line
.Because a ray of light perpendicular to the plane of the refracting medium doesn’t change
its direction.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.9
 Look at the line from the top of the glass slab. Does the part of the line, beneath the
slab, appear to be raised? Why does this happen?
Yes.Part of the line appears to be raised .This is due to refraction of light.

CAUSE OF REFRACTION OF LIGHT
• When light enters obliquely from a rarer to a denser medium, it bends towards the
normal.
• When light enters obliquely from denser to a rarer medium, it bends away from
the normal.
OPTICALLY RARER AND DENSER MEDIUM
Optically denser medium: Out of two given media, the medium with higher value of
refractive index.
Optically rarer medium: Out of two given media, the medium with lower value of
refractive index.
TABLE 9.3 ABSOLUTE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF SOME MATERIAL MEDIA
Material Refractive Material medium Refractive
medium index index
Air 1.0003 Canada Balsam 1.53
Ice 1.31 Rock salt 1.54
Water 1.33 Carbon Disulphide 1.63
Alcohol 1.36 Dense Flint glass 1.65
Kerosene 1.44 Ruby 1.71
Fused Quartz 1.46 Sapphire 1.77
Turpentine Oil 1.47 Diamond 2.42
Benzene 1.50
Crown Glass 1.52
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.10
 Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board using drawing pins.
 Place a rectangular glass slab over the sheet in the middle.
 Draw the outline of the slab with a pencil. Let us name the outline as ABCD.
 Take four identical pins.
 Fix two pins, say E and F, vertically such that the line joining the pins is inclined to the
edge AB.
 Look for the images of the pins E and F through the opposite edge. Fix two other pins,
say G and H, such that these pins and the images of E and F lie on a straight line.
 Remove the pins and the slab.
 Join the positions of tip of the pins E and F and produce the line up to AB. Let EF meet
AB at O. Similarly, join the positions of tip of the pins G and H and produce it up to the
edge CD. Let HG meet CD at O′.
 Join O and O′. Also produce EF up to P, as shown by a dotted line in Fig. 9.10
REFRACTION THROUGH GLASS SLAB
• In this Activity, you will note, the light ray

has changed its direction at points O and O′.
• Note that both the points O and O′ lie on
surfaces separating two transparent media.
• Draw a perpendicular NN’ to AB at O and
another perpendicular MM′ to CD at O′.
• The light ray at point O has entered from a

rarer medium to a denser medium, that is,
from air to glass. Note that the light ray has
bent towards the normal.
• At O′, the light ray has entered from glass to
air, that is, from a denser medium to a rarer
medium. The light here has bent away from
the normal.
• Compare the angle of incidence with the
angle of refraction at both refracting
surfaces AB and CD.
• In Fig. 9.10, a ray EO is obliquely incident

on surface AB, called incident ray.
• OO′ is the refracted ray and
• O′ H is the emergent ray.
You may observe that the emergent ray is parallel to the direction of the incident ray.
Why does it happen so?
The extent of bending of the ray of light at the opposite parallel faces AB (air-glass
interface) and CD (glass-air interface) of the rectangular glass slab is equal and opposite.
This is why the ray emerges parallel to the incident ray. However, the light ray is shifted
sideward slightly. What happens when a light ray is incident normally to the interface of
two media?
• Refraction is due to change in the speed of light as it enters from one transparent
medium to another.
• Experiments show that refraction of light occurs according to certain laws.
LAWS OF REFRACTION OF LIGHT
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the
interface of two transparent media at the point of incidence, all
lie in the same plane.
(ii) Snell’s law: The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the
sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for a light of given
color and for a given pair of media. This law is also known as
Snell’s law of refraction. (This is true for angle 0 < i < 90° )
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
= 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to
the first.
THE REFRACTIVE INDEX
The extent of the change in direction that takes place in a given pair of media may be
expressed in terms of the refractive index, the “constant” appearing on the right-hand side
of Eq.(9.4).
The refractive index can be linked to an important physical quantity, the relative speed of
propagation of light in different media.
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
= 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
• It turns out that light propagates with different speeds in different media.
• Light travels fastest in vacuum with speed of 3×108 m/s.
• In air, the speed of light is only marginally less, compared to that in vacuum.
• It reduces considerably in glass or water.
The value of the refractive index for a given pair of media depends upon the speed of
light in the two media, as given below.
Consider a ray of light travelling from medium 1 into medium 2, as shown in Fig.9.11. Let
v1 be the speed of light in medium 1 and v2 be the speed of light in medium 2.
• The refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 is given by the ratio of the
speed of light in medium 1 and the speed of light in medium 2. This is usually
represented by the symbol n21.
• By the same argument, the refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2 is
represented as n12.It is given by
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 1 𝑣1

𝑛21 = =

𝑛12 = =
• If medium 1 is vacuum or air, then the refractive index of medium 2 is considered with
respect to vacuum. This is called the absolute refractive index of the medium. It is
simply represented as n2 .
Speed of light in medium 1 v1
n21 = =
Speed of light in medium 2 v2
• If c is the speed of light in air and v is the speed of light in the medium, then, the
refractive index of the medium nm is given by
Speed of light in air c

nm = =
Speed of light in the medium v
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐

𝑛𝑚 = =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑣
• The absolute refractive index of a medium is simply called its refractive index.
• The refractive index of water, nw = 1.33.
• This means that the ratio of the speed of light in air and the speed of light in water is
equal to 1.33.
TABLE 9.3 ABSOLUTE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF SOME MATERIAL MEDIA
medium index index
Benzene 1.50
Crown Glass 1.52
Note from Table 9.3 that an optically denser medium may not possess greater mass
density. For example, kerosene having higher refractive index, is optically denser than
water, although its mass density is less than water.
MORE TO KNOW
The ability of a medium to refract light is also expressed in terms of its optical density. Optical
density has a definite connotation. It is not the same as mass density. We have been using the
terms 'rarer medium' and 'denser medium' in this Chapter. It actually means 'optically rarer
medium' and 'optically denser medium', respectively. When can we say that a medium is
optically denser than the other? In comparing two media, the one with the larger refractive index
is optically denser medium than the other. The other medium of lower refractive index is
optically rarer. The speed of light is higher in a rarer medium than a denser medium. Thus, a
ray of light travelling from a rarer medium to a denser medium slows down and bends towards
the normal. When it travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it speeds up and bends
away from the normal
1. A ray of light travelling in air enters obliquely into water. Does the light ray bend
towards the normal or away from the normal? Why?
Ans. When a ray of light travelling in air enters obliquely into water, it bends towards
the normal. This is because water is optically denser than air. On entering water, the
speed of light decreases and the light bends towards normal.
2. Light enters from air to glass having refractive index 1.50. What is the speed of light in
the glass? The speed of light in vacuum is 3 × 108 m s–1.
Speed of light in air c
nm = =
Speed of light in the medium v
3. Find out, from Table 9.3, the medium having highest optical density. Also find the
medium with lowest optical density.
medium index index
Benzene 1.50
Crown Glass 1.52
4. You are given kerosene, turpentine and water. In which of these does the light
travel fastest? Use the information given in Table 9.3.
medium index index
Benzene 1.50
Crown Glass 1.52
5. The refractive index of diamond is 2.42. What is the meaning of this
statement?
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐
𝑛𝑚 = =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑣
By saying that the refractive index of diamond is 2.42, we mean that the ratio of
speed of light in air (or vacuum) to the speed of light in diamond is equal to
2.42.
In other words, the speed of light in diamond is 1/2.42 times the speed of light
in vacuum.
REFRACTION BY SPHERICAL LENSES
• A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which one or both surfaces are
spherical, forms a lens.
• This means that a lens is bound by at least one spherical surface.
• In such lenses, the other surface would be plane. A lens may have two spherical
surfaces, bulging outwards or inwards.
SPHERICAL LENS:
Double convex lens or Convex lens Double concave lens or concave lens
It is thicker at the middle as compared to It is thicker at the edges than at the
the edges. middle.
Convex lens converges light rays as Concave lens diverge light rays as shown in
shown in Fig. 9.12 (a). Hence convex Fig. 9.12 (b). Such lenses are also called
lenses are also called converging lenses. diverging lenses.
SPHERICAL LENSES
You might have seen watchmakers using a small magnifying glass to see tiny parts. Have you
ever touched the surface of a magnifying glass with your hand? Is it plane surface or curved?
Is it thicker in the middle or at the edges?
TERM RELATED TO SPHERICAL LENSES
• A lens, either a convex lens or a concave lens, has two spherical surfaces. Each of
these surfaces forms a part of a sphere.
• The centres of these spheres are called centres of curvature of the lens. The centre of
curvature of a lens is usually represented by the letter C.
• Since there are two centres of curvature, we may represent them as C1 and C2
TERM RELATED TO SPHERICAL MIRRORS:
• An imaginary straight line passing through the two centres of curvature of a lens is
called its principal axis.
• The central point of a lens is its optical centre. It is usually represented by the letter O.
• A ray of light through the optical centre of a lens passes without suffering any deviation.
TERM RELATED TO SPHERICAL LENSES:
• The effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens is called its aperture.
• We shall confine our discussion in this Chapter to such lenses whose aperture is
much less than its radius of curvature and the two centres of curvatures are
equidistant from the optical centre O.
• Such lenses are called thin lenses with small apertures.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.11
 CAUTION: Do not look at the Sun directly or through a lens while doing this Activity
or otherwise. You may damage your eyes if you do so.
 Hold a convex lens in your hand. Direct it towards the Sun.
 Focus the light from the Sun on a sheet of paper. Obtain a sharp bright image of the
Sun.
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.11
 Hold the paper and the lens in the same position for a while. Keep observing the
paper. What happened? Why? Recall your experience in Activity 9.2.
The paper begins to burn producing smoke. It may even catch fire after a while. Why does
this happen? The light from the Sun constitutes parallel rays of light. These rays were
converged by the lens at the sharp bright spot formed on the paper. In fact, the bright spot
you got on the paper is a real image of the Sun. The concentration of the sunlight at a point
generated heat. This caused the paper to burn.
PRINCIPAL FOCUS OF CONVEX LENS
Several rays of light parallel to the principal axis are falling on a convex lens. These rays,
after refraction from the lens, are converging to a point on the principal axis. This point on
the principal axis is called the principal focus of the lens.
PRINCIPAL FOCUS OF CONCAVE LENS
Several rays of light parallel to the principal axis are falling on a concave lens. These rays,
after refraction from the lens, are appearing to diverge from a point on the principal axis.
This point on the principal axis is called the principal focus of the concave lens.
FOCAL LENGTH OF LENS
• If you pass parallel rays from the opposite surface of the lens, you get another principal
focus on the opposite side.
• Letter F is usually used to represent principal focus. However, a lens has two principal
foci. They are represented by F1 and F2 .
• The distance of the principal focus from the optical centre of a lens is called its focal
length. The letter f is used to represent the focal length.
FOCAL LENGTH
How can you find the focal length of a convex lens? Recall the Activity 9.11. In this
Activity, the distance between the position of the lens and the position of the image of the
Sun gives the approximate focal length of the lens.
RULES FOR DRAWING RAY DIAGRAM OF SPHERICAL LENS
(i)A ray of light from the object, parallel to the principal axis, after refraction from a
convex lens, passes through the principal focus on the other side of the lens, as shown in
Fig. 9.13 (a). In case of a concave lens, the ray appears to diverge from the principal focus
located on the same side of the lens, as shown in Fig. 9.13 (b).
(ii)A ray of light passing through a principal focus, after refraction from a convex lens, will
emerge parallel to the principal axis. This is shown in Fig. 9.14 (a). A ray of light appearing
to meet at the principal focus of a concave lens, after refraction, will emerge parallel to
the principal axis. This is shown in Fig.9.14 (b).
(iii)A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a lens will emerge without any
deviation. This is illustrated in Fig.9.15(a) and Fig.9.15 (b).
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.12
 Take a convex lens. Find its approximate focal length in a way described in Activity 9.11.
 Draw five parallel straight lines, using chalk, on a long Table such that the distance
between the successive lines is equal to the focal length of the lens.
 Place the lens on a lens stand. Place it on the central line such that the optical centre of
the lens lies just over the line.
 The two lines on either side of the lens correspond to F and 2F of the lens respectively.
Mark them with appropriate letters such as 2F1 , F1 , F2 and 2F2 , respectively.
 Place a burning candle, far beyond 2F1 to the left. Obtain a clear sharp image on a
screen on the opposite side of the lens.
 Note down the nature, position and relative size of the image.
 Repeat this Activity by placing object just behind 2F1 , between F1 and 2F1 at F1 ,
between F1 and O. Note down and tabulate your observations.
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX LENS
Position of the Position of the Relative size of Nature of the
object image the image image
At infinity At the focus F2 Highly diminished Real and inverted
point-size
Beyond 2F1 Between F2 & 2F2 Diminished Real and inverted
At 2F1 At 2F1 Same size Real and inverted
Between F1 & 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and inverted
At focus F1 At infinity Infinitely large or Real and inverted
highly enlarged
Between focus F1 On the same side of Enlarged Virtual and erect
and optical centre o the lens as the
object
NCERT ACTIVITY 9.13
 Take a concave lens. Place it on a lens stand.
 Place a burning candle on one side of the lens.
 Look through the lens from the other side and observe the image. Try to get the image
on a screen, if possible. If not, observe the image directly through the lens.
 Note down the nature, relative size and approximate position of the image.
 Move the candle away from the lens. Note the change in the size of the image. What
happens to the size of the image when the candle is placed too far away from the lens.
• Image will not be obtained on a screen but can be observed through the lens.
• The image becomes highly diminished.
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE LENS
At infinity At focus F2 Highly diminished Virtual and erect
point-size
Between infinity and Between focus F1 Diminished Virtual and erect
optical centre O of the and optical centre
lens O
SIGN CONVENTION FOR REFLECTION BY SPHERICAL LENSES
Convex lens Concave lens

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (i) (ii)
u - - - - - - - -
v + + + + + - - -
R + + + + + + - -
f + + + + + + - -
h + + + + + + + +
ℎ′ - - - - - + + +
m - - - - - + + +
LENS FORMULA
This formula gives the relationship between object distance (u), image-distance (v) and
the focal length (f ). The lens formula is expressed as
Where, v = Image distance
1 1 1
− = u = Object distance
v u f
f = Focal length
The lens formula given above is general and is valid in all situations for any spherical lens.
Take proper care of the signs of different quantities, while putting numerical values for
solving problems relating to lenses.
MAGNIFICATION
The magnification produced by a lens, similar to that for spherical mirrors, is defined as
the ratio of the height of the image and the height of the object.
Magnification is represented by the letter m.
If h is the height of the object and h′ is the height of the image given by a lens, then the
magnification produced by the lens is given by,
ℎ′
𝑚=
ℎ
Magnification produced by a lens is also related to the object-distance u, and the image-
distance v. This relationship is given by
𝒗
𝒎=
𝒖
MAGNIFICATION
ℎ′ 𝑣
𝑚= =
ℎ 𝑢
NCERT EXAMPLE 9.3
A concave lens has focal length of 15 cm. At what distance should the object from the lens
be placed so that it forms an image at 10 cm from the lens? Also, find the magnification
produced by the lens.
NCERT EXAMPLE 9.3
A concave lens has focal length of 15 cm. At what distance should the object from the lens
be placed so that it forms an image at 10 cm from the lens? Also, find the magnification
produced by the lens.
u = – 30 cm
Thus, the object-distance is 30 cm
m= 1/3 = +0.33
The positive sign shows that the image is erect and virtual. The image is one-third of the
size of the object.
NCERT EXAMPLE 9.4
A 2.0 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a convex lens of focal
length 10 cm. The distance of the object from the lens is 15 cm. Find the nature, position
and size of the image. Also find its magnification.
v = + 30 cm
The positive sign of v shows that the image is formed at a distance of
30 cm on the other side of the optical centre. The image is real and
inverted.
m = -2
The negative signs of m and ℎ′ show that the image is inverted and
real. It is formed below the principal axis. Thus, a real, inverted image,
4 cm tall, is formed at a distance of 30 cm on the other side of the
lens. The image is two times enlarged.
POWER OF THE LENS
• The power of a lens is defined as the ability of the lens to converge or diverge a beam
of light falling on it.
• For example, a convex lens of short focal length bends the light rays through large
angles, by focussing them closer to the optical centre.
• Similarly, concave lens of very short focal length causes higher divergence than the one
with longer focal length.
• The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays achieved by a lens is expressed
in terms of its power.
POWER OF THE LENS
The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length. It is represented by the
letter P. The power P of a lens of focal length f is given by
𝟏 𝟏
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝐏=
𝐟𝐨𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 (𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫ሻ 𝒇
The SI unit of power of a lens is ‘dioptre’. It is denoted by the letter D.

DEFINE 1 D
𝟏 𝟏
𝟏
1D= 𝟏𝒎
• 1 dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 meter .

The power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative.
POWER OF THE LENS
Opticians prescribe corrective lenses indicating their powers.
Let us say the lens prescribed has power equal to + 2.0 D.
This means the lens prescribed is convex. The focal length of the lens is + 0.50 m.
Similarly, a lens of power – 2.5 D has a focal length of – 0.40 m. The lens is concave.
MORE TO KNOW
Many optical instruments consist of a number of lenses. They are combined to increase the
magnification and sharpness of the image. The net power (P) of the lenses placed in
contact is given by the algebraic sum of the individual powers P₁, P2, P3----- as
P=P1+P2+P3+…
The use of powers, instead of focal lengths, for lenses is quite convenient for opticians.
During eye-testing, an optician puts several different combinations of corrective lenses of
known power, in contact, inside the testing spectacles' frame. The optician calculates the
power of the lens required by simple algebraic addition. For example, a combination of two
lenses of power + 2.0 D and +0.25 D is equivalent to a single lens of power + 2.25 D. The
simple additive property of the powers of lenses can be used to design lens systems to
minimise certain defects in images produced by a single lens. Such a lens system.
consisting of several lenses, in contact, is commonly used in the design of lenses of
camera, microscopes and telescopes.
1. Define 1 dioptre of power of a lens.
Ans.1 dioptre is SI unit of the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre. It is denoted
by the letter D .
𝟏 𝟏
2. A convex lens forms a real and inverted image of a needle at a distance of 50 cm from it.
Where is the needle placed in front of the convex lens if the image is equal to the size of
the object? Also, find the power of the lens.
3. Find the power of a concave lens of focal length 2 m.
𝟏 𝟏
NCERT EXECRISE QUESTION
1. Which one of the following materials cannot be used to make a lens
(a) Water
(b) Glass
(c) Plastic
(d) Clay
2. The image formed by a concave mirror is observed to be virtual, erect and larger than
the object. Where should be the position of the object?
(a) Between the principal focus and the centre of curvature
(b) At the centre of curvature
(c) Beyond the centre of curvature
(d) Between the pole of the mirror and its principal focus.
3. Where should an object be placed in front of a convex lens to get a real image of the
size of the object?
(a) At the principal focus of the lens
(b) At twice the focal length
(c) At infinity
(d) Between the optical centre of the lens and
its principal focus.
4. A spherical mirror and a thin spherical lens have each a focal length of –15 cm. The
mirror and the lens are likely to be
(a) both concave.
(b) both convex.
(c) the mirror is concave and the lens is convex.
(d) the mirror is convex, but the lens is concave.
5. No matter how far you stand from a mirror, your image appears erect. The mirror is
likely to be
(a) only plane.
(b) only concave.
(c) only convex.
(d) either plane or convex.
6. Which of the following lenses would you prefer to use while reading small letters found
in a dictionary?
(a) A convex lens of focal length 50 cm.
(b) A concave lens of focal length 50 cm.
(c) A convex lens of focal length 5 cm.
(d) A concave lens of focal length 5 cm.
𝟏 𝟏
7. We wish to obtain an erect image of an object, using a concave mirror of focal length 15
cm. What should be the range of distance of the object from the mirror? What is the
nature of the image? Is the image larger or smaller than the object? Draw a ray diagram to
show the image formation in this case.
Range of object distance = 0 cm to15 cm

8. Name the type of mirror used in the following situations.
(a) Headlights of a car.
(b) Side/rear-view mirror of a vehicle.
(c) Solar furnace.
Support your answer with reason.
(a)Ans. Headlights of a car:
Concave mirrors are used as reflectors in the headlights of cars. In the
headlight. the bulb is located at the focus of the concave mirror and so, the light
rays after reflection from the mirror travel over a large distance as a parallel beam
of high intensity.
(c) Solar furnace.
(b)A convex mirror is used as a side/rear-view mirror of a vehicle. A convex mirror
always forms virtual, erect, and diminished images irrespective of the distance of the
object.
Since the image is diminished, it enables a driver to view a large area of the traffic behind
him.
(c) Solar furnace.
(c)Solar furnace:
Concave mirrors are used in the design of ‘solar furnaces’.
The concave mirrors are converging mirrors. They focus the parallel sun rays at a
single point called the focus.
The solar furnace is placed at the focus of the large concave mirror called a
reflector. The concave reflector focuses the Sun’s rays on the furnace and a high
temperature is achieved.
9. One-half of a convex lens is covered with a black paper. Will this lens produce a
complete image of the object? Verify your answer experimentally. Explain your
observations.
Ans. Even if half of the convex lens is covered with a black sheet of paper, the lens will
produce a complete image of the object. However, the intensity of the image will be less
and the image formed will be less bright as compared to the one formed by a complete
convex lens.
10. An object 5 cm in length is held 25 cm away from a converging lens of focal length 10
cm. Draw the ray diagram and find the position, size and the nature of the image formed.
v=50/3 cm =16.66 cm
Therefore, the distance of the image is 16.66 cm on the opposite side of the lens.
Hence, the height of the image =-3.3𝑐𝑚
The negative sign of the height of the image depicts that an inverted image is
formed.
11. A concave lens of focal length 15 cm forms an image 10 cm from the lens. How far is
the object placed from the lens? Draw the ray diagram.
u=−30 cm
12. An object is placed at a distance of 10 cm from a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm.
Find the position and nature of the image.
𝑣=+6𝑐𝑚
The image is formed 6 cm behind the mirror; it is a virtual and erect image
13. The magnification produced by a plane mirror is +1. What does this mean?
The magnification produced by a plane mirror is +1 which means that size of the image
formed is exactly equal to the size of the object and is virtual and erect.
14. An object 5.0 cm in length is placed at a distance of 20 cm in front of a convex mirror
of radius of curvature 30 cm. Find the position of the image, its nature and size.
v=60/7=8.57 cm
The image is formed 8.57cm behind the mirror. It is virtual and erect.
ℎ′ =2.14 cm
15. An object of size 7.0 cm is placed at 27 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length
18 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed, so that a sharp
focussed image can be obtained? Find the size and the nature of the image.
v=−54cm
The screen must be placed at a distance of 54 cm from the mirror in front of it.
ℎ′ = -14cm
Thus, the image is of 14 cm length and is real, inverted and magnified image.
16. Find the focal length of a lens of power – 2.0 D. What type of lens is this?
17. A doctor has prescribed a corrective lens of power +1.5 D. Find the focal length of the
lens. Is the prescribed lens diverging or converging?

Ch-9 Light Reflection& Refraction

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WHAT MAKES THINGS VISIBLE?

 Size of image is equal to the size of object.

An image which cannot be obtained on a screen is called a virtual image.

REAL IMAGE VIRTUAL IMAGE

• Yes.The image on the inner curved surface is smaller.

Define Principal Focus

Define Principal Focus

Position of the Position of the Size of the Nature of the

Position of the Position of the Size of the Nature of the

Position of the Position of the Size of the Nature of the

Between infinity and Between P & F Diminished Virtual and erect

Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

Height of the image ℎ′

Thus, the image is located _________in front of the mirror.

Yes.Part of the line appears to be raised .This is due to refraction of light.

• In this Activity, you will note, the light ray

• The light ray at point O has entered from a

• In Fig. 9.10, a ray EO is obliquely incident

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 1 𝑣1

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 1 𝑣1

Speed of light in air c

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐

Convex lens Concave lens

The SI unit of power of a lens is ‘dioptre’. It is denoted by the letter D.

• 1 dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 meter .

Range of object distance = 0 cm to15 cm

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