APPLICATION NOTE

A REVIEW OF CURRENT ELECTROSTATIC MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

AND THEIR LIMITATIONS

by

WILLIAM E. VOSTEEN
Monroe Electronics, Inc.
Lyndonville, NY 14098

In electrostatic measurements, as in any other separated by an insulator but can be more

scientific measurements, there are two areas of generally defined as follows:
limitations.
The capacitance C of a capacitor is the ratio of
1. The limitation of the methods or the magnitude of the charge Q on two bodies to
instrumentation used to gather the data. the potential difference between the bodies.

2. The researcher’s understanding of the

subject under investigation.

In this paper I will attempt to review some

basic electrostatic principles in order to give
the reader a necessary understanding to make C in Farads, Q in coulombs, V in volts.
accurate electrostatic measurements. Then I’ll
review the current state of the art in of
electrostatic voltmeters and field-meters and
their limitations.
The energy stored in a capacitor is:
It is well known that all matter is made up of
positively and negatively charged electrical
particles. Whenever there is an abundance of 2
one polarity in a certain area, an electric W (work)= 1/2 CV
field E is produced. An electric field is said
to exist at a point if a force of electrical
origin is exerted on a test charge at that
point.
I feel these are the most important concepts to
grasp in order to make scientific electrostatic
measurements. I will give two examples to show
how these laws are important in electrostatic
measurement.

The first example I will use is where a

Please note that electric field is a vector continuous sheet (“web”) of plastic or other
quantity with force and direction for which the non-conductor runs over rollers as in a usual
units are Newtons per coulomb or volts per processing situation. It is very common to have
meter. This is the definition of electric significant charge build-up in this type of
field. situation. First let us assume that the “web” is
uniformly “charged”. The capacitance (C) of any
When we move one coulomb of charge from one small area of the web is proportional to its
point to another in an electric field, we are area (A) divided by the distance ℓ the web is
doing work on that charge. The term we use for from any grounded object.
this is electric potential or voltage.

If the web is in close contact with the rollers,

ℓ is very small and C is maximum. As the web
moves off the roller into free space,
ℓincreases dramatically from almost 0, the
Again, a volt is the amount of work it takes to thickness of the material to tens of
move one coulomb of charge a certain distance centimeters. The capacitance C changes inversely
through an electrical field E. proportional as noted above.
This now leads us to capacitance. A capacitor From this we can see that changes of capacitance
is normally viewed as any two conductors in order of 100 to 1000 is not unusual.
The web being uniformly charged changes in This trait is one of the limiting factors of all
potential or voltage proportionally to the fieldmeters and if accurate readings are to be
capacitance of the web. obtained, the distance from the field-meter
probe to the surface under test must be
precisely known.

Variations can be seen in voltage measurements Another common characteristic of fieldmeters is

in factors of hundreds in this type of the field of view of the probe. Figure 1 shows
situation. Over the rollers voltage measurements us a graph in which a square target or surface
would be very low at maybe 100 volts. Away from under test with side S is positioned one unit of
the roller voltages can exceed 10kV. distance away from the probe. We can see from
this curve that for accuracy, the target size
If a ground referenced fieldmeter is used in should be three to four times this distance from
this situation, the capacitance of the field- the probe to the surface under test. This
meter probe can be significant and alter the dictates that the field-meter probe should be as
voltage measurements. In general this is not a close as possible to the test surface unless the
problem because we are most concerned with need is to measure over a large area. Remember
relative measurements and as long as the probe as spacing gets smaller, the variations in
configuration is consistent in relation to the spacing becomes much more critical to the
web, reproducible results can be obtained. accuracy of the readings. For example: at 5.0 cm
spacing a variation of 0.1 cm yields a change of
The second example is a variation of the first. 2%, at 1.0 cm spacing the same variation of 0.1
Today we commonly hear of the need to keep the cm yields a change of 10%.
voltage levels on printed circuit boards below
some set number because of the sensitivity of
the components. Let’s say we have a circuit
board sitting 1.00 mm above a bench top and we
measure 50 volts on that board. If we now lift
that board to 10 cm without discharging the
original charge the voltage will then rise to
5000 volts because the capacitance drop is
inversely proportional to the distance of the
printed circuit to the bench.

The point here is that the voltage isn’t the

whole story. If there is one equation that must
always be kept in mind during electrostatic
measurements, it is Q= CV.

THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELDMETER:

The ideal electrostatic fieldmeter would exhibit

the following characteristics:

1. It would be very very small

Range:
2. It would be capable of orientation to
determine the direction as well as
The range of sensitivity of electrostatic
the magnitude of the field.
fieldmeters currently on the market is from
0.1 voltsper centimeter to 20K Volts per
3. It would be capable of assuming the
centimeter. The upper limit of fieldmeter
potential in space of the point where
measurement is usually dictated by the breakdown
field intensity measurements are
of air, which is around 20kV per centimeter.
desired.
Calibration:
4. It must telemeter data to ground as
any interconnecting wire would
Commercially available electrostatic field-
grossly distort the field in the
meters, although responsive to electric field
vicinity of the probe.
intensity, are often calibrated to read voltage
when held at a fixed spacing with respect to a
plane surface at constant voltage. The more
sophisticated instruments are calibrated to read
In general the ideal fieldmeter would have the
field intensity directly, usually in volts per
capability of measuring the field without
centimeter or volts per meter.
distorting that field in any way. Clearly such
an instrument is quite impractical for everyday
A common calibration technique is to establish a
use.
uniform electric field by using two large
parallel conductors separated by a smaller fixed
The practical fieldmeter used today is a ground
known spacing across which is applied a known
referenced measuring device in which readings
voltage. The electric field established in the
are proportionally related to the distance from
center of the plates is then simply V/ℓ.
the probe to the surface or object under test.

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One of these plates is grounded and a hole is errors in readings due to dirt accumulation on
provided in this plate just adequate to permit the radioactive material affecting its
the fieldmeter probe to be held flush with the ionization ability and the half-life of the
grounded surface. The fieldmeter probe is then radioactive material.
subjected to the same electrostatic field as its
surroundings and can be easily calibrated. Fieldmeters utilizing an A.C. carrier type
system are most common in high quality electric
Probe—To—Surface geometry is very important and field monitoring systems. This A.C. signal is
should always be taken into account when produced by modulating a capacitance pickup in
attempting to determine charge or voltage from a an electric field. This is done normally by two
field intensity measurement. means:

A technique that is commonly promoted to obtain 1. By a fieldmeter (see Fig. 2) which

more accurate fieldmeter readings is to mount utilizes a rotor that chops the
the probe looking through a grounded metal electric field and a stator which is
plate. This normalizes the meter’s readings by the sensitive electrode in this
reducing the electric field convergence on the system. This system is simple in
probe thus creating a more uniform field design and principle. Its drawbacks
condition at the probe. (For a more detailed are that they are usually rather
study of fieldmeter theory and application, large in size, and may have limited
obtain a copy of Mark Blitshteyn’s paper motor life. The speed of response for
“Measuring The Electric Field Of Flat Surfaces this instrument is limited by the
With Electrostatic Fieldmeters”.) chopping speed of the rotor.

Types of Fieldmeters:

Fieldmeters are available in three basic

variations. They are the electrometer type, the
radioactive sensor type and the A.C. carrier
type of fieldmeter.

The electrometer or the pocket size electro-

static locator type of fieldmeter will be
reviewed first. This is basically a capacitively
coupled D.C. amplifier with a shunt capacitor
for calibration.

All amplifiers draw a finite amount of current,

therefore this instrument’s readings will drift
over time at the rate of dv/dt=I/C where I is
the electrometer input current and C is the
shunt capacitance. A more severe drift can also
be caused by a minute ion imbalance if this type
of field-meter is used in an ionized air
environment. To counteract this problem the
shunt capacitor must be periodically discharged
in a zero field condition or a known field
condition that may be used as a reference.

The main advantages of this type of fieldmeter

are low cost, simplicity, small size and the
ability to make extremely high speed
measurements.
2. By vibrating capacitor fieldmeters
The disadvantages are the inability to monitor which are probably the most commonly
an area over an extended period of time, the used for long term monitoring. These
need to periodically zero and, also because of utilize an electrode which is
its D.C. coupled circuitry, the inability to use vibrated perpendicularly to an
these in an ionized air environment. electric field. For good reading
stability the modulation amplitude
The second fieldmeter type utilizes a radio- must remain stable throughout the
active sensor. This sensor will ionize the air calibration period of the instrument.
in its immediate vicinity. When this is exposed This is because the amplitude of the
to an electric field, a current will flow that A.C. signal created is proportional
is proportional to the electric field. The to the modulation amplitude for any
current is then measured to obtain an electric given electric field. This problem is
field reading. commonly overcome by utilizing a null
seeking feedback technique that mini-
This is a very simple system and it is D.C. mizes any calibration variations due
stable. Its drawbacks are the fears associated to modulation amplitude changes. (See
with radioactive materials, the possibility of Fig. 3.)

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These instruments can be made rather small with
the probe size being one to two cubic inches. THE ELECTROSTATIC VOLTAGE FOLLOWER
They are extremely reliable and require little
power. The speed of response is typically around OR VOLTMETER
0.5 seconds.

Minimizing Fieldmeter Drift - Purging: Static Accuracy:

Most fieldmeter probes must be kept clean to

minimize drift (zero instability or offset). The The electrostatic voltage follower is an
drift can readily be understood by visualizing electronic servo which functions to create a
what happens when undesired charged dielectric null in the DC electric field at its sensitive
material accumulates within the sensitive volume electrode. Zero electric field intensity
of the field-meter. The lines of force necessitates that the sensitive electrode
associated with this unwanted charge (probe) must be at the same potential as the
accumulation produces an additional uncontrolled surface it is sensing.
electric field component which results in a zero
offset in the instrument output. Modern circuitry permits even a modest system to
function with a follow-up error of a small
An additional source of zero offset, although fraction of one percent at practical probe-to-
normally much less severe, results when the surface spacings. Follow—up errors of less than
components of the fieldmeter probe are permitted 0.01% are routine for sophisticated circuitry.
to develop contact potential differences because
of the adhesion of conductive materials on the Range:
electrodes. These effects can be minimized if
the atmosphere within the fieldmeter is kept The useable range of electrostatic voltmeters is
clear of particulate matter and is operated in a from millivolts to tens of thousands of volts
stable gaseous atmosphere. Usually this depending on what the system was designed for.
atmosphere is simply clean, filtered air which
is fed to the sensitive volume to keep it Spacing Sensitivity:
continuously purged of foreign matter (solids,
liquids, and gasses). If the explosion hazard is Theoretically, with sufficient gain, no change
minimized by operating the entire system under in indicated voltage should exist as an
inert gas, the probe can be similarly purged by electrostatic voltage follower probe is moved
the same filtered inert gas. Purging is a very away from a large uniformly charged surface—
important aspect which is commonly overlooked. under—test.

In Figure 4, we see an accuracy vs. spacing

measurement. This shows that voltmeters can
indeed be used over a wide range of spacings
with excellent results when viewing a large
uniformly charged surface.

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 2. Contact Potential Changes:

The sensitive electrode of an elec-

trostatic modulator is normally
plated with some noble metal (typi-
cally gold) to create a stable,
corrosion resistant surface.

Unfortunately, a change in the

constituents of adsorbed gases on
these sensitive electrodes can pro-
duce a contact potential difference
of hundreds of millivolts. This can
produce a very undesirable drift. If
very low drift measurements are to be
made, an extremely stable atmosphere
surrounding the probe must be
provided.

Using a selected probe and a purge

kit to purge the probe with filtered
In the practical situation, any of the fol- room air has resulted in a drift rate
lowing can produce an error in the follow—up in the laboratory in the order of one
voltage: millivolt per hour.

1. Finite dimensions of surface-under- Resolution:

test.
In the field of electrophotography it is
2. Finite dimensions of probe in com- commonly desired to make high resolution
parison with dimensions of the measurements of charge patterns on photo—
sensitive electrode or sensitive receptors. High resolution necessitates a small
aperture. sensitive aperture in the probe. It is also
essential that the probe—to—surface spacing be
3. Proximity of surfaces at voltages small compared to the aperture size or the
other than the unknown (typically at benefits of the small aperture will be lost.
ground). Unfortunately, probe-to-surface spacing must at
all times be adequate to prevent sparking*
The above influences can be readily grasped if between the surface-under-test and the probe.
one realizes that as the probe is moved away This dictates, for a given surface voltage, a
from the surface-under—test, fringing fields minimum spacing which in turn dictates a limit
due to influences other than the surface under to resolution.
test can influence the probe and thus produce a
change in indication. Figure 5 shows what probe-to-surface spacing is
needed for 99% accuracy measurements of varying
Adding a conductive shroud around the probe strip widths.
with the shroud electrically connected to the
probe can very significantly reduce the in-
fluence of these fringing fields and, there-
fore, the probe-to-surface spacing errors.

Drift:

Although some drift may be attributable to

instability of electronic circuitry, in a well
designed system the major sources of drift are
undesired charge accumulation and contact
potential changes on the electrode of the
probe.

1. Undesired Charge Accumulations:

This accumulation is generally some

foreign undesired dielectric
material such as dust or toner which
accumulates on or in the vicinity of
the probe. Care must be taken to
minimize this accumulation. For
stable, high sensitivity measure-
*Most instruments can normally withstand this
ments, the probe should be purged
sparking but it is destructive to the surface—
with a clean, stable supply of air
under—test.
or other gas.

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Speed of Response:
Types of Voltmeters:
High resolution measurements can be very time
consuming unless the system exhibits good speed— There are basically two types of electrostatic
of-response. voltage follower voltmeters available today.
There is the modulated capacitor sensor type
Instruments currently available can exhibit 10% which is by far the most common (See figure 6).
to 90% speeds-of-response in hundreds of
microseconds. This utilizes either a vibrating capacitor or a
tuning fork chopper type system for its sensor.
Noise: This is a well proven system that was originally
designed thirty years ago.
The laws of physics dictate that as more
sensitive measurements are attempted the In the past few years a sensor using a weak
sensitivity is limited by noise. Therefore, high radioactive source has been available. These are
sensitivity, high resolution and high speed—of— extremely simple and are capable of extremely
response are not mutually exclusive. high speed readings. The drawbacks are the usual
fears associated with radioactive material, the
Fortunately, in typical electrostatic meas- need to keep radioactive elements clean because
urements, noise is not too serious a problem as the element is so weak that any contamination
voltages are normally in the range of hundreds can impair the system’s function, and the
of volts. ability of the radioactive material to damage or
alter the material under test.
It is possible to make non-contacting voltage
measurements with a resolution of 100 micro- If accuracy better than 2% is needed and
volts. This can only be done by slowing the resolution of less than one inch is necessary,
system down to the degree that its speed-of- the electrostatic voltage follower or voltmeter
response must be reckoned in seconds. should be used. If less accuracy and resolution
is acceptable the electrostatic fieldmeter may
be used.

If the user keeps in mind the basic physics of

electrostatics and properly utilizes today’s
instrumentation, satisfactory results should be
easily obtainable.

REFERENCES
3.Sears, F.W. and Zemansky, M.W., Univer-
1.Blitshteyn, M. “Measuring the Electric sity Physics Fourth Edition, Addison-
Field of Flat Surfaces with Electrostatic Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, Mass. 1970
Fieldmeters”, Electrostatics Society of
America Conference on Electrostatics, June 4.Vosteen, R.E., “D.C. Electrostatic Volt-
20—22, 1984. meters and Fieldmeters”, IEEE-lAS, 1974.

2.Haase, Heinz. “Electrostatic Hazards, 5.Vosteen, R..E., “Capabilities and Limi-

Their Evaluation and Control”, Verlag tations of Electrostatic Voltage Followers
Chemie, N.Y. 1977 and Electrostatic Fieldmeters”,
Electrostatic Society of America, 1975
Conference on Electrostatics.

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