Pallavas

Introduction and Background:

After the collapse of the renowned Satavahana Empire in the 3rd century A.D, a number of kingdoms came
into existence. These kingdoms took control of former Satvahana areas and made it their own. One of these
kingdoms was that of the Pallavas who emerged in South India in the early 5th century A.D, and lasted till
around the 9th century A.D. The political situation changed dramatically in this region with the rise of the
Pallava kingdom in the region called Tondaimanadalam (northern portion of Tamil Nadu) with their capital at
Kanchipuram. Over time, they continued to capture territories and brought parts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh and southern Karnataka under their rule. With a formidable empire and strong leaders, this dynasty
flourished during the 7th and 8th centuries when rulers such as Narasimhavarman I (630–68 A.D.),
Parameshvaravarman I (670–700 A.D.) and Narasimhavarman II (695– 728 A.D.) left their mark on
contemporary history.
This period of five centuries is a story of conflicts among the three powers for the extension of their
influences and empires. Such conflicts, however, were no obstacle to the growth of art, religion and culture in
these areas. The many-sided religious revival checked the growth of Jainism and Buddhism and resulted in a
volume of soul stirring devotional literature and advanced philosophical speculation. The history of Pallavas is
important for their contribution to art and architecture, as well as the Bhakti movement of the time. The
Pallava rule, based on epigraphical evidence, can be divided into two phases: the early Pallavas and the latter
or Imperial Pallava. The Early Pallavas included those who ruled before A.D. 600. They can be further
divided into those who issued the Prakrit charters (only 3 rulers were associated with Prakrit charters) and
those who issued the Sanskrit charters. Imperial Pallavas were those who came after A.D. 600. The first ruler
of this line was Simhavishnu.

There are many theories surrounding the origin of the Pallavas. Some scholars believe that the Pallavas had a
Tamil origin whereas some scholars believe that they were an of a Chola ruler and a Naga princess. The most
widespread theory states that the Pallavas were actually not from India, but rather from Persia. This would
thus make them Indo-Parthians, who are often referred to as the “Pahlavas” (Prakrit for Parthians) in many
texts. Yet another theory states that the Pallavas were executive officers under the Satvahana kings and held
posts like Maharati and Mahasenapati (governor). After the disintegration and decline of the Satavahanas, the
Pallavas may have declared themselves the kings and started to rule in South India. The scholars have not yet
reached to a strong conclusion regarding the origin of the Pallavas.

Sources:

The literary sources for the history of Pallavas can be classified as native and foreign sources. Native sources
can be further divided into Tamil literature, Sanskrit literature and foreign literature. Tamil literature describes
the social and religious life of the people during the Pallava rule. It consists of a song compised by Azhalvars
known as Nalayira Divya Prabhandam, Tamil epics like Periya Puranam written by Sekizhar and
Manimekalai, Nandikalambakam, talking about Nandivarman III and Paripadal (Sangam Literature). Sanskrit
literature includes Avani Sundari Katha written by Dandin, Loga Vibagam written by Sarva Nandi and
Mathavilasa Prakasanam. ‘Mathavilasa Prakasanam’ talks about the Pallava monarch Mahendravarman
I. Digambara Jain text called Lokavibhaga written in Prakrit also helps scholars to reconstruct the Pallava
history. Deepavamsa and Mahavamsa, Siyuki and the Mackenzie manuscripts constitute the foreign sources of
Pallava history. Deepavamsa and Mahavamsa are the Ceylon chronicle written in Pali and Siyuki is Hiuen
Tsang’s travel accounts.

The archaeological sources of the Pallavas include inscriptions, coins and monuments. They depict the Pallava
kings, their military achievements, their ancestors, religious beliefs, wars fought, victory records and the socio
- economic conditions prevalent in the Pallava period. They also aid in establishing the genealogical records
of the dynasty. The languages used were mainly Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu. Some important
inscriptions of the Pallava and contemporary rulers are:
 ▪ The Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta which mentions the Pallava king Vishnu
Gopa.
▪ The Aihole Inscription of Chalukyan king Pulakesin II. It gives details about the Pallava
Chalukya conflict.
▪ The Panamalai Inscriptions of Rajasimha.
▪ Vayalur Pillar Inscription.
▪ Prakrit Stone Inscriptions found at Guntur.
▪ The Kuram Copper Plates issued by Parameshwaravarman
▪ Velurpalayam Copper Plates of Nandivarman III which records military achievements of the
Pallavas.
▪ Hirahadagalli Copper Plate Grant issued by Sivaskandavarman
▪ The Penugonda Plates of the Western Gangas

Some Sanskrit charters written in the reign of the Pallavas include:

▪ The Uruvapalle and Singarayakonda plates of Yuvamaharaja Vishnugopa issued in the reign of
Simhavarman
▪ The Udayendiram grant of Nandivarman I
▪ Chendalur grant of Kumaravisnu II
▪ The Omgodu grant of Skandavarman II
▪ The Omgodu II, the Pikira, Mangaduru and Vilavatti plates of Simhavarman
▪ The Chura Grant

Talking about the coins and monuments of the Pallava period, most Pallava coins were minted in bronze,
lead and copper. Basic symbols of Pallava coins were the bull and the lion. Bull is the royal emblem of the
Pallava dynasty, and the emblem of Lord Shiva. Other symbols on Pallava coins include the swastika, flags,
twin-masted ships and fish or double fish. The fish symbol was the Pallava crest and had its presence not
only on the Pallava coins but also on the Pandya coins. This indicates that the Pandyas recognised Pallava
supremacy. The monuments found at Mammallapuram were constructed during the reign of
Mahendravarman I. They were especially dedicated to the Hindu God, Shiva. He was also a great patron of
art and architecture and is known for introducing a new style to Dravidian architecture, which the noted art
historian Jouveau Debreuil referred to as “Mahendra style.” Mahendravarman also wrote plays, including
Mattavilasa-prahasana which is a great source of Pallava history.

Political Survey:

The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the third or fourth century A.D. The Political and
cultural influence of the Pallavas was felt in Andhra from the 4th century A.D. till it was swept by the Western
Chalukyan invasion led by Pulakesin II in the first quarter of the 7th century A.D. Hirahadagalli and the
British Museum plates mention that the early Pallavas had their ascendency in the first quarter of the fourth
century A.D. during the reign of Maharaja Sivaskandavarman of the Mayidavolu. He seems to have been
the first great ruler of the early Pallavas. According Prakrit records, he extended his dominions from Krishna
in the North to Pennar in the South and to Bellary district in the West. The Hirahadagalli Copper – Plates
mention that the provinces of Satahani (Satahani-Rattha) were also a part of their empire. He performed the
Aswamedha and other Vedic sacrifices and administered the kingdom on the Mauryan lines.

Sivaskandavarman was followed by Vijayskandavarman, Skandavarman, Vishnugopa I, Kumaravishnu I and

Skandavarman II after whom the Early Pallava line came to an end. The Later or Imperial Pallava line started
from the rule of Simhavarman around c. 550 – 650 A.D. The Lokavibhaga, a Digambara Jain work and
Velurpalayam plates have given us this Pallava chronology. The Pallavas from Simhavarman are collectively
called the Later or Imperial Pallavas because they were the most important power in the areas North of Kaveri
(half of the Tamil country) for 5 centuries. The Bhakti movement also started and took shape in this period
making it a culturally significant era. The Simhavamshu line of the Pallavas saw great territorial expansions
and significant progress in art and architecture under some important rulers like Simhavishnu,
Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I, Paramesvaravarman I and Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha). It ended
with Parameswaraman II after whom Nandivarman II (Pallavamalla of Bhimvarman), brother of Simhavishnu,
started the Kadva Line of the Pallavas and continued to rule of the Pallava territories. The Pallava Dynasty
finally came to an end after the death of Aparajitavarman, the last Pallava ruler, around 893 – 896 A.D.
Coming back to the Imperial Pallava line, Simhavarman I was the first ruler. He was a Shiva devotee and is
identified as ‘Ayiadigal Kadavarkon’ in the Tamil epic Periyapuranam. The expansion of the Pallava
kingdom began during his reign, but was achieved by the crown prince Simhavishnu. The Velurpaliyam
plates coupled with the Vayalur inscription informs us that Simhavishnu was the son of Simhavarman. Verse
10 of the Velurpalayam inscription states that Simhavishnu succeeded his father Simhavarman and
conquered the Chola kingdom, fertilized by river Kaveri. Stone inscriptions from this period suggest that
with the conquest of Simhavishnu, the Pallavas extended their dominion further south of Kanchi, and
adopted the Dravidian language. By the end of 575 CE, Simhavishnu had defeated the Kalabhras and
extended his rule upto the Kaveri River. After victory over the Kalabhras, Simhavishnu also came in conflict
with the Pandyas and the ruler of Ceylon. In the Kasakkudi plates, he is said to have defeated the Cholas,
Malavas, Kalabhras, Pandyas and the Sinhalas in the course of his extension of the Pallava Empire. He was a
worshiper of Vishnu, and had the title of ‘Avanisimha’ (lion of the earth). Sculptures of him and his son
Mahendravarman I have been found at Adivaraha temples at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram). He was also a
great builder, poet and musician. He professed Jainism for a while but gave it up in the favor of Shaivism,
under the influence of Appar.

Simhavishnu was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman I who assumed various titles such as
Chatrumalla, Gunabhara, Vichitrachitta, Mattavilasa, Avanibhajana, and Sankirnajati. Mahendravarman
ruled the Pallava kingdom approximately from 600 – 630 A.D. and was a contemporary of Harshavardhana.
From his cave inscription at Tiruchirappalli, we know that his empire extended in the South up to the River
Kaveri. Mahendravarman was the one who initiated the Pallava-Chalukya and Pallava-Pandya feuds, which
were continued by his successors for one and half centuries. The Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II refers to
the defeat of the ‘Lord of the Pallavas’. However, according to The Kasakkudi plates of Nandivarman II,
Mahendravarman defeated Pulakesin II’s army at Pallalur. According to the Mandagappattu inscription he
was the originator of rock architecture in South India. From his reign onwards, stone inscriptions begin to
appear. Mahendravarman’s rule was eventful in the realm of religious and literary activities as well. He was
the author of ‘Mattavilasaprahasana’. He was a patron of fine arts and music. On the religious front, Jainism,
Buddhism and Hinduism flourished at Kanchi in his time. Hiuen Tsang’s account records the existence of
viharas in Kanchi around this time. Mahendravarman was a Jaina in the early part of his reign and converted
to Shaivism later. Appar, a Shaivite saint was responsible for the conversion.

Narasimavarman I succeeded Mahendravarman in about 630 A.D. He is best known by his title ‘Mamalla’.
During his reign, Pulakesin II again invaded the Pallava region but Narasimhavarman defeated him in
multiple battles including the ones at Manimangala, Pariyala and Suramara. We know this from the Kuram
Plates of Paramesvaravarman. He also sent a naval expedition to Ceylon and captured the Chalukyan capital
of Vatapi (Badami). In this, he was helped by his general, Paranjyothi. An inscription engraved behind the
temple of Mallikarjunadeva in Badami in the 13th year of his reign alludes to him as “Vatapikonda”, which
attests Narasimhavarman’s occupation of the Chalukya capital. The Mahavamsa speaks of a Ceylon prince
Manavarman, exiled from Ceylon and residing with the Pallavas as a refugee. He is said to have been a friend
of Narasimhavarman, who helped him in his exploits against the Chalukyas. Following Pulakesin’s death, the
Pallavas seemed to have sway over most of the southern parts of the Chalukyan territory. However, one of
Pulakesin’s sons Vikramaditya, aided by his grandfather, compelled Narasimha to retire from Badami and
proclaimed himself as king. Narasimhavarman is also said to have vanquished the Cholas, Cheras, Kalabhras
as well as the Pandyas. Huan Tsang mentions in his accounts that 100 monasteries and 80 Digambar shrines
were built in the reign of Narsimhavarman. This proves that along with Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism
also co-existed.

Mahendravarman II succeeded Narsimhavarman around 670 A.D. Relations between the Chalukyas and
Pallavas continued to remain unpleasant even during the reign of Mahendravarman II and Parameshwara
I. Mahendravarman II was an insignificant ruler mentioned in the Kuram plates as one who ‘thoroughly
enforced the sacred law of castes and orders’. He ruled for a very short period. Parmesvaravarman I
succeeded him. His reign witnessed the full fury of the Pallava - Chalukya conflict. We know From the
Kuram Plates, and the Udayendiram inscriptions, that Paramesvaravarman defeated Vikramaditya
Chalukya in the heart of the Chola Kingdom, despite the fact that he had an extremely powerful army.
However, the Gadval plates give another story. It says that Vikramaditya Chalukya invaded the Pallava
kingdom and captured Kanchi. The royal family and their ministers are known to have escaped to Uraiyur.
Paramesvaravarman was a Shaivaite who built many temples for Shiva and gifted a whole village to the
brahmans.
In 700 A.D., Narsimhavarman II succeeded the throne. Narasimhavarman II has the title of “Rajasimha”.
He was relatively free of dynastic wars, and during his reign, considerable developments took place in art
and architecture. He had Dandin at his court. He is credited with the construction of the Kalisantha and
Airavatesvara temples at Kanchi, the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram, and the Talapurisvara temple at
Panamalai. He also built a Buddhist vihara at Nagapatanam. In the Kailashnathar inscription, he is referred
to as ‘Vichitrachitta-Chettakarni-Atyankakaama. He was succeeded by Mahendravarman III, and
Parmesvaravarman II. During Parmesvaravarman II’s rule from 705-710 A.D., Kanchi was sacked by
the Chalukyas. He tried to attack the Chalukyan invaders and save his territories but he was killed in war.
This ended the Simhavishnu Line of the Pallavas.

Nandivarman II or Bhimvarman was the brother of Simhavishnu who started the Kadva Line after the death
of Paramesvaravarman II. He had a long rule from 731-796 A.D. He restored the temple architectures and
built the Vaikuntha Perumal temple. He was succeeded by Dantivarman who was begotton by a Rashtrakuta
princess. The decline of Pallavas started in his reign due to continuous invasions from the Pandyas and
Rashtrakutas. Nandivarman III, a Shavite ruler, ascended the throne in 825 A.D. and had a navy of his own.
He faced Pandyan invasions where he fought with them and rolled them back with an alliance of Rashtrakutas
and Ganges. There were a few other rulers before Aparajitavarman who was the last Pallava King. He was
killed by Aditya Chola in 983/986 A.D. which ended the Pallava Dynasty.

Socio – Cultural and Religious Survey:

The Pallava administration broadly followed the style and principles of the Mauryan administration. From
the Hirahadagalli inscription at Kanchipuram, we learn that the administrative system was divided into
different political units, with the King at the top, followed by provincial governors and departmental
ministers. In some early copper plates of the Pallavas, there are references to political units such as ‘Visaya’
and ‘Rastra’. The Hirahadagalli grant of Sivaskandavarman also gives us a reference to Amatyas
(councillors), Mahamatras (high officials of state), Mantrins (diplomats) and a Mantri-parishad (Council of
Ministers). Lower ranking ministers included Purohita, Nampas and Uttamasila (those who carried out the
king‟s orders pertaining to endowments), Rahasyadhikrta (private secretary to the king) etc. The Pallava
rulers basically followed the system of self-governance. They patronised Sanskrit and Tamil literature and
gave us great scholars like Dandin and Bharavi. Kanchi emerged as a learning centre during the Pallava era.

The Pallavas belonged to the Bharadvaja Gotra, and traced their lineage back to God Brahma. They are said
to be descendants of Ashvathama from the Mahabharata. From the time of Pallavamalla, the idea of the
Pallava dynasty being of divine origin was seen in copper plates. There was caste stratification when
Brahmanism entered Tamil society. Some of the Pallava rulers are said to have performed Vedic sacrifices
such as the Ashwamedha, the Rajasuya, and the Vajapeya. The Bhakti movement also prospered during their
reign. Along with Brahmanism, the Pallava rulers followed Shaivism, Vishnuism and Jainism. Buddhism was
also supported by the rulers. Talking about the art and architecture, the Pallava rulers introduced the
technique of rock – cut temples. The art and architecture developed in three important stages under the
Pallava rulers Mahendravarman I, Narsimhavarman I and Narsimhavarman II. Ground zero of Pallava
architecture was a ‘ratha’. The Kailashnath temple shows paintings of the Pallava times.

Conclusion:

Characterized by constant political conflict with the Chalukyas, Cholas and Pandyas, the Pallava rule was not
at all uneventful. It was Simhavishnu who first put an end to the political turmoil caused by the Kalabhras,
thus extending his territory up to the river Kaveri, and coming into conflict with the Pandyas. The Pallava-
Chalukyan conflict began during the reign of Mahendravarman I, and continued till the end of the empire.
Despite constant conflict with their contemporaries, the Pallavas made significant contributions to literature,
art and architecture as well as the Bhakti movement of the time.
 Chola Dynasty

Sangam Age:
The Sangam Age or Sangakālam flourished in a region associated with the words ‘Tamilakam’ and ‘Nadu’ in
South India (Dravida/Dakshina). This Sangam Age was parallel to the Vedic Age in Northern India and lasted
approximately from the 6th century BCE to c. 3rd century CE. Tamilakam was a land that belonged to the
Tamils which was ruled by three dynasties – the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas. The geographical
bounds of Tamilakam have been defined in works of antiquity as Venkatam (Tirupati Hills) in the North to
Kumāri in the South, and to the sea on the East and West. It thus includes present-day states of Kerala, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, parts of Goa and southern parts of Maharashtra. Based on
records we have, these three important kingdoms that flourished in South India ruled over different areas in
the region. The Pandya kingdom covered the southernmost region, extending from coast to coast. The Chola
kingdom lay to the north-east of it, and occupied the delta of River Kaveri and the adjoining area. The Chera
Kingdom was to the north-west of the Pandya kingdom, and stretched along the west coast, as far north as
Konkan. The Mysore Plateaus and attached parts which lay beyond these three kingdoms contained numerous
small states which owed allegiance to one or the other larger kingdoms.
The Sangam Age in the Tamil literature is considered as a period of great literary glory. According to a
popular view of the people it has surpassed in the history of any literature to exist. It talks about the accounts
of the 'Sangams'. Sangams were societies that consisted of learned men. They functioned in a manner that the
great French Academy is functioning in today’s time. As a substitute for the earlier Tamil term ‘Kudal’- Jain
and Buddhist monks started using the term ‘sangam’. Characterized by the literature penned, the Sangam Age
was divided into three academies, each of which defined a period, which were as follows: the Head Sangam or
the First Sangam, the Middle Sangam and the Last Sangam Period. Out of these, only the Last Sangam was
considered as historical, because all the surviving Sangam literature is from this period. The other two periods
are not considered much for several reasons. There is scanty or absolutely no literature from the first two
periods found yet. The vast and unsure timeline of the first two Sangam periods also lead them to be too vast
to be considered historically accurate.
The first sangam was started in Madura which is now submerged in the Indian Ocean. The membership of this
sangam totaled to about 549 people. About 4,499 authors had submitted their writings to the sangam in a span
of 4,440 years. There were different standards of works that were present in the first sangam such as
Agastyam, Mudukuruku. The second sangam was also settled in another submerged town called
Kapatapuram. This sangam sanctioned the works of 3,700 poets and received great support from 59 Pandyan
kings and was successfully running in an unbroken continuity for 3,700 years. There were various classics that
existed in the second sangam. This sangam accommodated about 8149 works which was all taken away by the
sea. Though both the sangams were held in different places, the second sangam was a continuation of the first
sangam which was at Madura. Except ‘Tolkappiyam’ a great Tamil grammar attributed to Tolkappiyar all of
the second sangam literature is lost.
The third sangam was settled in northern Madura or the Madura that is known to us today. The membership of
the academy totaled to about 59 people. 499 poets are said to have submitted their works for approval in the
third sangam. 49 pandyan kings patronized the works of the poets and this continued for about 1850 years.
There were major lights that were present in the third sangam where Nakkirar was the president among many
more. The four languages that were spoken in the southern part of India were namely – Tamil, Kannada,
Telugu and Malayalam out of which Tamil is considered as the oldest among them. The liberal patronage
offered by the kings in the sangam age was enjoyed by the poets of that time. The ‘Paripadal’ tell us about
different deities through a variety of 70 songs. The Tamil literature was composed during all the three
sangams and comprises 5 major epics, according to sources. There were 5 minor epics that came into
existence after the third part of the sangam. The sangams had the Buddhist, Jain, Saiva and Vaishnanva poets
who had different castes and were set in different professions. They have made the Tamil literature richer in
information.

Introduction and Background to Cholas:

With Cheras in the West and Pandyas in the South, the Chola dynasty was one of the three great dynasties that
ruled over Southern India. Its origin goes back to the Ashokan days, but up until the days of Rajaraja Chola I
of the Imperial Cholas, most of the Chola history is lost. The Chola rule can be divided into 4 stages – early
cholas, interregnum, medieval or imperial cholas and later cholas. The Early Cholas were rulers of the
Sangam Age along with Cheras and Pandyas. They ruled from the remote past till 200 A.D. Sangam Literature
like Pattinappaalai, Silappadikaram and Manimekhalai Cholan Monarchs. They were also mentioned in
Ashoka’s 2nd rock edict. They ruled from areas of Uraiyur, Kaveripattanam, Poompuhar, etc and controlled a
riverine port which facilitated them in taking part in the Indo Roman Trade during that period. An important
King of the Early Cholas was Karikalan Chola who ascended the throne around 90 BC. Not much is known of
any other ruler from this stage.
The interregnum stage of the Cholan Empire lasted from around 200 A.D – 848 A.D. In this time period, there
is absolutely no mention of any ruler or advancement of the Cholas. Thus, it may be assumed that they must
have gone underground due to unknown reasons. The Medieval Cholas or the Imperial Cholas ruled over a
unified Southern India from 848 A.D. – 1070 A.D. They arose as Pallava feudatories who ruled from
Thanjavur & Gangaikondacholapuram. Vijayalaya, a feudatory of Pallava dynasty is considered the founder
of the Imperial Chola dynasty under the overlordship of the Pallavas and Pandyas. Some note-worthy rulers of
this imperial dynasty are Vijalaya, Aditya Chola, Rajaraja Chola, Rajendra Chola, etc. Like any other dynasty,
the Chola dynasty started declining under the rule of Later Cholas starting from 1070 A.D. They were finally
defeated by the Pandyan rulers in 1279 A.D which marked the end of the Chola Empire.

Sources:
Some important literary and archaeological sources of the Chola Empire include:
▪ The Sangam Literature (Third Sangam - 600 BC-300 AD) including works like Pattinappaalai
and Silappadikaram
▪ The Second and Thirteenth Rock Edict of Ashoka mentions the Cholas as ‘friendly powers in
the South’
▪ Obscure account in Mahavamsa, a Ceylonese chronicle
▪ Copper plate grants of various Medieval Chola and late Cholan Rulers
▪ Inscriptions of the rulers
▪ Coins
▪ Dynastic Sketch
Generally, inscriptions record gifts or endowments given to temples and brahmins. The subject of
such inscriptions is its construction or renovation. Several inscriptions were intended to preserve in a
permanent manner the matters of public importance like royal orders of taxation and land revenue, resolutions
of village assemblies and so on. Rajaraja Chola I came up with the idea of prefixing his inscriptions with a set
historical introduction and recounting the achievements of his reign. He kept them up to date in an ornate,
Tamil poetic style. Ordering the writing on stone in a set form and in the language of the people gave an
official, authorized account of events which furnished a formal record of exceptional value of each reign.

Political Survey:
The political history of the Chola rulers was obscure from the 4th – 9th centuries A.D. under the Kalabrah
occupation. Buddhadutta of Uraiyur speaks of Kalabrahas ruling Kaveripattanam in 5th century A.D. The
Pallavas and Pandyas overthrew the Kalabrahas but Cholan rulers were still not known to be in the picture.
Finally, in 848 A.D., Vijayalaya, a feudatory of Pallava dynasty is seen to build the Imperial Chola dynasty
under the overlordship of Pandyan and Pallava rulers. Vijayalaya was probably a chieftan near Uraiyur before
he founded his own empire. He was titled as ‘Parakesari’ and ‘Rajakesari Vijayala Chola’ when he gifted land
to his citizens and used a lion symbol. In his political career, he captured Tanjore and built a Durga temple
there. Vijayalaya was succeeded by Aditya Chola I in 871 A.D.
Though Vijayalaya was the founder of the Imperial Chola Empire, Aditya Chola is credited for expanding the
territorial boundaries of the Empire. He captured Coimbatore and Salem from the Pandyas and Gangas via
Sthanu Ravi. He also took over Talakad of Western Gangas. Further, he defeated and annexed the territories
of the last Pallava King, Aparajitavarman. On the contrary, he had married his princes into the Pallava line for
increasing his territory through matrimonial alliances. Aditya Chola was succeeded by Parantaka Chola I
who had a long rule from 907 A.D. – 953 A.D. He was known as an empire builder because of his territorial
expansions. He defeated the Pandyas, a Sri Lankan King and other chiefs. He also raided Madurai which gave
him the title of ‘Maduraikonda’. Parantaka Chola was a follower of Shaivism as seen through his donations at
Nataraj Shrine at Chidambaram. He was succeeded by Gandaraditya Chola (953–957 AD), Arinjaya Chola
(956–957 AD), Sundara Chola (957–970 AD) and Uttama Chola (970–985 AD). We unfortunately do not
have proper sources to learn about their rule.
The next important ruler of Imperial Cholas was Rajaraja I who ruled from 985 A.D. – 1014 A.D. He was
the son of Sundara Chola and one of the most famous Cholan rulers. He extended his empire till the Norther
part of Sri Lanka by destroying the Pandyas and the Chera navy. According to the Tanjore inscription,
Rajaraja I was victorious over Vengai nadu, Gangapadi, Tadigaipadi, Nolambapadi, Kudamalai Nadu,
Kollam, Kalinga , Ilamandlam of Singala and 12000 islands of the sea. He also interfered in the Eastern and
Western Chalukyan politics. He is known to have built the Rajarajeshwara or Brihadeshwara temple at
Tanjore. Rajendra Chola I was the son and successor of Rajaraja I from 1012 A.D. – 1044 A.D. He was
active in battles even before he became the King as he was made a ‘Yuvaraj’ during his father’s time. He also
conquered Ganges and took the title of ‘Gangaikondachola’. He built a city named ‘Gangaikondacholapuram’
and made it his capital. He constructed a Shiv temple at this new city which shows his incline towards
Shaivism. He had issued 31 copper-plates in the entirety of his rule. The Thirumalai inscription mentions him
as a ‘great conqueror’ as he took over Raichur, Banavasi, Hyderabad, Manyakheta, Malkhed and Sri Lanka. In
his Sri Lankan conquest, he was aided by his son, Rajadhiraja Chola. Rajadhiraja Chola was succeeded by
Rajendra Chola II (1051–1063 AD) and Virarajendra Chola (1063–1070 AD) during whose rules the Chola –
Chalukyan conflicts continued. Athirajendra Chola (1067–1070 AD) was the last Imperial Chola ruler
during whose rule a confusion of lineage arose.
The Chalukya–Chola power in Vengi was eclipsed by the Western Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya and the
Cholas were unable to gain back their territory even after the death of Vikramaditya. The extent of the Chola
dynasty degraded even more than the accession of Kulottunga I, a later Chola King. They had already lost
important places like Gangavadi and Ceylon. The constant tensions between Vikramaditya and Kulottunga I
degraded the Cholas more and more. The Cholas were able to defend themselves but were not able to avert
back. After the rule of Kulottunga I, he was succeeded by his son Vikrama Chola. This is the period which
we can consider where the downfall of Cholas began. The rise of Hoysalas and the Western Chalukyas
started troubling the Cholas. Dwarasamudra from the Hoysala dynasty had completely emerged in the South
Indian politics with the Cheras, Kerala and the Pandyan Kings. The successors of Vikrama Chola were weak
in power and lacked planning. The constant wars and issues with Pandyan Kings, the capture of Rajaraja III
became threatening to the whole dynasty. There were joint ruling kingdoms with Rajaraja III and Rajendra III
around 1246 - 1267 A.D. Due to internal weakness, revolts and constant butchering by other kingdoms,
specially the Pandyan Kingdom, the strength of Chola Dynasty finally ended in 1279 A.D.

Socio – Cultural and Religious Survey:

During the Cholas' reign, the society and culture underwent massive changes. In this era, the temple was the
main centre for all social and religious meetings. The surroundings of this region became a school for the
people, where students were taught the Holy Scriptures and the ancient Vedas. This was also a safe haven
during times of war and political upheaval. At the time, the societal structure was divided into Brahmins and
Non-Brahmins. There were several goddesses and gods worshipped. However, Shaivism was given the
greatest patronage by most Chola rulers and this was reflected in the temples that were built during this
period. But, some of the later Chola kings also extended their patronage to Vaishnavism. During the tenth
century CE, there was also a migration of Brahmana ascetics from the North. Non – brahmanical religions like
Buddhism also existed. Tamil literature of this period shows great liveliness and vigour as in Kamban’s
version of the Ramayan.

There were two main types of temples built during the Chola dynasty. The first was of a sepulchral
nature where the temples were built over the remains of kings who died in war. The second were the newly
built ones using stone at sacred sites of Tamil religious traditions. The Chola emperors also changed the
construction of temples from bricks to granite. In many ways they carried forward the legacy of the Pallavas.
Some of the highlights of the art of that period are as follows:

▪ The bronze utsava idols made using the lost wax technique, Eg. Nataraja Idol

▪ The murals of the Chola age bring out diverse emotions on many faces, a feature rarely seen in
Indian art

▪ The Imperial Chola rulers of Tanjore developed the Dravidian style of temple architecture
almost to perfection

▪ The Brihadeswara or Rajarajeswara Temple in Tanjore built by Rajaraja Chola in 1010 A.D. is
the largest and highest of Chola temples and stands as a symbol of Chola greatness

▪ The temple at Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rajendra I Chola (1018 to 1035 A.D.) is

another great piece of temple architecture
 ▪ The temple was the cultural and social centre, where people used to gather

▪ The courtyard of the temple was often used as a school

▪ Temples also functioned as centres for development of painting dance and music

During the Chola era, the political or administrative structure was such that so every village functioned as a
self-contained political entity. The whole southern territory was brought under the control of a single ruling
power during the Cholas' rule with a stable monarchy. The Tiruchirapalli, Tiruvarur, Perambalur, Ariyalur,
Nagapattinam, Pudukkottai, Vridhachalam, Pichvaram, and Thanjavur districts of Tamil Nadu made up the
Chola Empire. Here, the enormous country was divided into mandalams, or provinces. For each mandalam,
separate governors were in charge. These were further partitioned into tehsil-based districts known as ‘nadus’.