Concise overview of World History

Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300 BCE - 1300 BCE)

• Early Period (c. 3300 BCE - 2600 BCE):

• The Indus Valley Civilization emerges in Indus River Valley (east)
• Early farming communities begin to develop
• Cities such as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are established
• Pottery, crafts, trade network begins
• Economy based on agriculture, trade, and possibly some manufacturing
• Mature Period (c. 2600 BCE - 1900 BCE):
• Advance urban planning seen at Indus cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro
• Standardize system of weights, measurements
• The civilization reaches its peak with a complex society
• Extensive trade networks reach as far as Mesopotamia, central Asia
• Intricate jewelry, pottery, and seals are created.
• Writing and art develop.
• A decline in urbanization and signs of ecological stress, possibly due to
climate change or the degradation of the Indus River, are observed.
• Late Period and Decline (c. 1900 BCE - 1300 BCE):
• The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization begins around 1900 BCE.
• There is evidence of settlements shifting eastward into the Gangetic plain.
• Possible causes for the decline include environmental factors, such as river
shifts and decreased rainfall, as well as the influx of Indo-Aryan-speaking
groups from the northwest.

Post-Indus Period (c. 1500 BCE - 500 BCE):

 • Vedic Period (c. 1500 BCE - 500 BCE):
• The Indo-Aryans enter the Indian subcontinent, and the Vedic culture and
religion emerge
• The sacred texts known as the Vedas are composed
• The caste system becomes established
• Society becomes more agrarian and less urban

Rise of 16 Mahajanapadas (c. 700 - 300 BCE)

Janapadas of Bengal
In ancient times, Bangla was not a united country like today. Different parts of Bangla were divided
into various small regions. The ruler of each region ruled separately as their will. These small
regions of Bangla were aggregately called ‘Janapada.’ In the present times, the old names of
Janapadas are generally used to denote specific areas. Pundra, Gaurh, Lakhnauti, and Barendra
referred to overlapping territories at different times.

Pundra(পু ন্ড্র): It has been said that a tribe named “Pundra” built up this Janpadas. The name of
the capital of Pundra was Pundranagar. Later that its name changed to Mohasthangar. Possibly
at the time of Maurya king Ashok (273 BC-232 BC.), this ancient Pundra lost its independence.
Pundra covered Bogra, Rangpur, Dinajpur, Rajshahi of Bangladesh, and perhaps Purnia of Bihar
state.

Gaurh (গ ৌড়): Though Gauda's name is quite familiar, there is much controversy about which
area was the actual Gauda and how they named it. In the 7th century, Karnasuvarna of
Murshidabad district was the capital of Shashanka, the king of Gauda. In modern times Raj-
shahi, Dinajpur, Kushtia of Bangladesh, and Murshidabad, Nadia and Malda of West Bengal are
considered the borders of Gauda.

Banga (বঙ্গ): The description of this Janapada is also found in king Chandra Gupta, Bikramaditta,
and other inscriptions and the books of Kalidas. Greater Dhaka, Mymensingh, Comilla, Barisal,
Pabna, Faridpur, Nayakhali, Bakerganj, and Patuakhali's lower wetlands and the western
highlands of Kushtia, Nadia, Shantipur, and the adjoining areas of Bikrampur in Dhaka
belonged to Banga Janapada.

Harikela (হরিকেল): Seventh-century writers describe a town called Harikela. It stretches from
Sylhet and Chittagong of Bangladesh and Agartala of India.

Samatata (সমতট): Some experts believe that Samatata was the ancient name of Comilla. The
present Comilla, Nayakhali, Chittagong, and perhaps part of Sylhet is included in the Samatata.

Barendra includes Rajshahi and parts of Bogra and Dinajpur and probably a part of Mymensingh
as well.

Lakhnauti covered Kushtia of Bangladesh and Murshidabad, Malda and Nadia of West Bengal
and Rajmahal of Bihar.
 Gangaridai ( ঙ্গারিডাই)

The earliest reference to Gangaridai is found in the written works of the Greek ethnographer
Megasthenes (350-290 BC). A number of modern scholars locate Gangaridai in the Ganges
Delta of the Bengal region. Gange or Ganges, the capital of the Gangaridai (according to
Ptolemy [টলেমি]), has been identified with several sites in the region, including Chandraketugarh
(চন্দ্রলেতু গড়) and Wari-Bateshwar (উয়ারী-বলটশ্বর). Some of these writer’s state that Alexander the
Great withdrew from the Indian subcontinent because of the strong war elephant force of the
Gangaridai. Dhana Nanda, the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty, was king of the Gangaridai
region at the time of the invasion by Alexander the Great. Dhana Nanda was later dethroned
by Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, which ruled until 185 BC. After
the collapse of the Mauryas, Gandaridai reemerged, but simultaneously many principalities
became autonomous. Dominated trade routes along the Ganges River and Bay of Bengal.
Exported goods like silk, cotton, pearls, spices to Roman empire and other regions.

Early Historic Period (c. 6th century BCE - 4th century CE):

• The Persian Empire (c. 6th century BCE):

• The Achaemenid Empire of Persia briefly conquers the northwest part of the
Indian subcontinent
• Maurya Empire (c. 4th century BCE - 2nd century BCE):
• Chandragupta Maurya establishes the first major Indian empire.
• His grandson, Ashoka, becomes a famous ruler, spreading Buddhism
throughout the region.
• Gupta Empire (c. 4th century CE - 6th century CE):
• The history of Bengal from the fall of the Mauryas (মিৌর্য) to the rise of the
Guptas (গুপ্ত) is obscure. By about the middle of the 4th century CE most
independent states came under Samudragupta's rule. Samatata (The trans-
Meghna region comprising the Comilla-Noakhali area) was outside his
empire, but was reduced to the status of a tributary state. The Gupta Dynasty is
known for significant achievements in science, mathematics, and the arts.
• Hinduism and Buddhism coexist and flourish during this period.

Medieval Period (c. 7th century - 18th century):

• Medieval Kingdoms (Delhi Sultanate [1200CE-1526CE], The Mughal Empire

[1526-1857]):
• India sees the rise and fall of various dynasties and kingdoms, including the
Chola, Chalukya, and Rajput dynasties.
• Different parts of the subcontinent experience varying degrees of political
stability and cultural development.

British Colonial Period (c. 18th century - 1947):

• British East India Company (c. 1757 - 1858):

• The British East India Company gradually establishes control over India,
largely through trade.
 • The Indian Rebellion of 1857-1858 (also known as the Indian Mutiny or the
Sepoy Mutiny) is a significant turning point, leading to direct British rule over
India.
• British Raj (c. 1858 - 1947):
• India becomes the "Jewel in the Crown" of the British Empire.
• The Indian National Congress and other movements advocate for
independence.
• Mahatma Gandhi leads nonviolent protests and campaigns for India's
independence.

The Bangladesh we know today had a long history over different periods of time. Those
timeframes can be divided into three different timeline:

The Rise of the Gupta Empire

The imperial Gupta controlled a large part of Bengal for nearly two centuries. Under the
imperial Guptas, probably for the first time, Banga was probably joined with Rarh, Gaurh,
and Barendra. The Gupta, however, were not unchallenged in Bengal; Chandra Barma of
West Bengal, for example, defied the Guptas.

Several copperplates (ত়াম্রশ়াসন) of 5th century Gupta emperors (Kumaragupta - Budhagupta

[কুি়ারগুপ্ত-বু ধগুপ্ত]) found in northern Bengal prove that Gupta rule was then well established in
that area. They also testify to the existence of a well-structured local administration, in
which the representatives of the local people had the opportunity of playing an
important part. This is undoubtedly the earliest instance of local self-government (স্থ়ানীয
স্ব়াযত্তশ়াসন) in Bengal and its significance cannot be overestimated.

Administrative System
❑ In the Gupta period, Bengal was divided into some well-defined administrative
units like Bhukti (ভুক্তি), Visaya (ক্তিষয়), Mandala (মন্ডল), Vithi (িীক্তি), and Grama (গ্রাম).
Each of the units seems to have an Adhikarana (অক্তিকরণ)or office of its own at its
headquarters [Adhisthana (অক্তিষ্ঠান)].
❑ The land administration of the Guptas was also well controlled. We find references
to some varieties of land in the Gupta epigraphic records such as Ksetra [ক্ষেত্রে]
(চাষত্র াগ্য/ a field under cultivation); Khila [(ক্তিল) পক্তিি জক্তম /uncultivated], and Vastu
[িাস্ত্ত’] (িসিাত্রসর উপত্র াগ্ী/ a dwelling site). The accurate measurement system of land
was active.
❑ Gold and silver coins brought into currency in entire Bengal. Introduction of a
large number of gold coins proves economic prosperity of Bengal. Betel nut, silk,
cotton, coconut, salt, and sugar etc. were probably exported from Bengal.
❑ At that time Bengal had trading link with Southeast Asia and China.
❑ The discovery of a large number of imitation Gupta coins from different places of
Bengal prove that Bengal enjoyed the benefit of money economy.
 ❑ This period also saw artistic excellence
❑ The Gupta period is also remarkable for religious toleration. The imperial Gupta
monarchs were followers of Brahminic religion (ব্রাহ্মণয িমম), but they patronized
Buddhism, Jainism, and other religious communities and the people of the period
enjoyed an environment of religious toleration and mutual coexistence of religions

Rise of Shashanka [Gauda]

After the fall of Guptas, regional kingdoms fragmented Indian subcontinent. With the
weakening of Gupta empire two powerful kingdom grew up in Gaura and Banga. Shashanka
of Gaura is the most famous king of the period and he established in Gaura at the beginning of
seventh centuary.
King Shashanka, in his twenty years of rule, waged wars one after the other, and when he fell,
it was difficult for anyone to pick up the threads in a totally destabilized region. While there
was some order in Banga, Samatata, and Harikela, Rarh, Gaurh, Pundra, and Magadha were in
total disarray. The repeated invasions from the North by Tibet compounded the difficult
situation. Bengal, especially northern and western Bengal, suffered a state of anarchy known
as Matsan-naya for over half a century.

❑ In the second half of the seventh century CE Bengal saw the emergence of two new
lines of kings: the later Guptas in Gauda ক্ষগ্ৌড়) and Magadha (মগ্ত্রি) (western Bengal and
southern Bihar) and the Khadgas (িড়গ্ রাজিংশ) in Vanga (িঙ্গ) and Samatata (সমিত্রে)
(southern and southeastern Bengal).
❑ Neither of these dynasties, however, appears to have succeeded in establishing a strong
rule in Bengal
❑ In the 8th CE century the death of Shashanka, Bengal saw very little of stable
government and the whole country was torn by internal strife and disturbed by invasions
from outside.
❑ The condition of Bengal towards the middle of the 8th century CE, before the rise of
Gopala, found mention in one of the Pala records (Khalimpur copperplate; (িাক্তলমপুর
িাম্রশাসন) as a state of Matsyanyayam (মাৎস্যন্যায়)
❑ Gopala, the founder of the Pala dynasty, emerged out of this chaos as the ruler, and as
mentioned in the Pala copperplate, put an end to the state of lawlessness
(Matsyanyayam).

Matsyanyayam (মাৎস্যন্যায়)
❑ The condition of Bengal in the 8th century following the death of Shasanka and before
the rise of the Palas (750-850 CE) has been described as Matsyanyayam
❑ The Sanskrit term Matsyanyayam, used in ancient texts, bears special significance. The
Kautilya Arthaxastra (ক্ষকৌটিলয এর অিমশাস্ত্র) defines the term as follows: when the law of
punishment is kept in abeyance (a state of temporary disuse or suspension), it gives rise
to such disorder as is implied in the proverb of fishes, ie, the larger fish swallows a
smaller one, for in the absence of a magistrate, the strong will swallow the weak
❑ Lama Taranatha, the 17th century Tibetan historian of Buddhism in India, also
mentions that all of Bengal was pervaded by an unprecedented anarchy in the century
before the rise of the Palas.
 ❑ Government was fragmented, with no king having real control over Gauda, Vanga or
Samatata. Ksatriyas, Brahmanas, merchants and townsmen all were kings in their own
homes. The sufferings and strife of the common people were intolerable

The Rise and fall of the Pala Dynasty

❑ Gopala, a Buddhist Chief of Pundra, was elected King by the warring principalities of
Gaurh, Barendra, and Rarh. This happened "to put an end to a lawless state of things in
which everyone was the prey of his neighbor." For about three centuries of the Pala
dynasty, there was a stable government and a prosperous society in the country.
❑ Under Buddhist liberalism, arts, learning, and commerce flourished. The Bengali
language made its appearance. Mainamati and Paharpur Vihars were established during
the Pala period.
❑ Palas in their heydays kept direct control over Mithila, Magadha, Rarh, Gaurh,
Barendra, Banga, Samatata, and Harikela but created vassal states (any state that has a
mutual obligation to a superior state or empire) from Kamrup in the East to Sind and
Frontier in the West and Northwest.
❑ Such a vast empire naturally collapsed and independent states reduced the sway of the
Palas in the second century of the Pala dynasty.
❑ There was a resurgence of Pala imperialism towards the end of the tenth century. But
Bengal had many independent rulers well before Bijoy Sen defeated the last of the Pala
kings in 1155.
❑ The dynasty founded by Gopala (ক্ষগ্াপাল) in the middle of the 8th century CE, ruled
Bengal for about four hundred years through many transformations. During this long
period of eighteen generations of kings we notice ups and downs in the fortunes of the
dynasty. But there can hardly be any doubt regarding the fact that the rule of the Palas
(পাল) formed a glorious chapter in the history of ancient Bengal.
❑ The Pala empire did not last long after Ramapala (রামপাল), and the final collapse came
with the rise of the Senas in the third quarter of the 12th century CE.

Glories of the Palas

❑ The long rule of the Pala dynasty, spreading over about four centuries, gave to
Bengal the blessings of a stable government, which bore rich fruits in the arts of peace
❑ Widespread empire, organized administrative system, ruling policy oriented
towards welfare of the people, unprecedented excellence in the field of arts and
cultivation of knowledge and literature all these are the achievements and glories of
the Pala dynasty
❑ Trade and commerce was not that important factor in Pala economy. Trading
activities were possibly limited within the region or at best extended beyond the borders
to the adjacent territories.

Administrative System

❑ The Pala copperplates bear ample testimony to their well-organized system of

administration.
❑ Inherited an administrative structure from the Guptas and it was to their credit that
they made the structure more efficient and added many new characteristics.
❑ Built up an efficient structure for revenue collection. The long list of state-officials,
found in the Pala copperplates, clearly indicate that the administration was taking care
 of every aspect of public life - from the ferry ghats to the riverways, land routes, towns
and ports, and law and order in the country. Even forest or market management was not
left out. The basis of their long rule was the efficient administrative system.
❑ The most glorious aspect of Pala rule was their policy of public-welfare. The Pala
rulers were Buddhists, but majority of their subjects were Hindus.
❑ There is no doubt that the Hindu gods and goddesses and the Brahmins received liberal
patronage from the Pala rulers, though they themselves were devout Buddhists
❑ There is no evidence of any religious discord between the Buddhists and the Hindus
in the society. Religious toleration and mutual coexistence can be identified as the
characteristic of the social life of the people in the Pala period
❑ This social peace over a long period of time must have contributed to developments in
other fields.
❑ Dharmapala is known to have excavated a few tanks by spending several thousands
of Dramma (silver coins). Mahipala I (প্রিম মহীপাল) had occupied a place in the hearts of
the people of Bengal by his welfare activities - digging tanks and establishing towns,
which bear his name
❑ The tradition of religious harmony and toleration that was created in the Pala period,
was given a sudden jolt during the period of the Senas (ক্ষসন ুত্রগ্) and the ground was
prepared for the easy acceptance of Islam in the subsequent period.
❑ The long Pala period produced an atmosphere of accommodation and admixture of
Hindu-Buddhist culture and as a result were evolved the Santrik cults (িাক্তিক মিাদশম),
the legacy of which transcended through the medieval period down to the modern.
❑ The brightest aspect of Pala glories was manifest in the field of different arts
❑ The largest Buddhist Vihara in the Indian subcontinent, Somapura Mahavihara at
Paharpur (পাহাড়পুত্ররর ক্ষসামপুর মহাক্তিহার), a creation of Dhamapala (িমমপাল), proudly announces
the excellence of the architectural art achieved in the Pala period.
❑ The Buddhist Viharas in the Pala empire played a significant role in the propagation
of Buddhism in the neighboring countries of Nepal, Tibet and Sri Lanka.
❑ It is not possible to assess the development of literature in the Pala period. So far only
a few literary works have been found. But the numerous Pala copperplates clearly
indicate the development of Sanskrit language and poetry

Varman Dynasty
❑ In the last quarter of the 11th century CE the Varman Dynasty, taking advantage of the
Kaivarta rebellion (ককিিম ক্তিত্ররাহ) in the Pala empire, established their independent rule in
southeastern Bengal.
❑ Five generations of the Varmans (Jatavarman, জািিমমণ; Harivarman, হক্তরিমমণ;
Samalavarman, শযামলিমমণ; and Bhojavarman, ক্ষভাজিমমণ) ruled for less than a century before
they were toppled by the Senas.
❑ The Varmans were Hindus and their capital was also at Vikramapur (ক্তিক্রমপুর)

The Rise and Fall of Senas

❑ The Senas established themselves in Rarh towards the end of the eleventh century and
by the middle of the next century expanded their authority over Gaurh, Barendra,
Mithila, and Kalinga. They also conquered Banga and Samatata and made a vassal state
of Kamrup. Barendra was the center of the Pala dynasty.
❑ The Sena dynasty made Lakhnauti their center. King Laksman Sen presumably
assumed the title of Gaureshwar or Lord of Gaurh. But he was a weak ruler and the
kingdom was weakened by the rise of independent principalities.
❑ During the reign of Lakshman Sen, a general of the slave dynasty of Delhi, Mohammed
Bin Bakhtiar Khilji occupied Nadia in a surprise attack in A.D. 1201. Lakshman Sen
instead of putting up resistance fled to Samatata and set up quarters in Vikrampur of
Dacca. The Senas continued to rule there for another sixty years when a local chieftain
of the Deb dynasty took over power.
❑ The Palas ruled on for some time in southern Bihar until the Muslim occupation of the
area in the beginning of the 13th century CE
❑ The Senas held control over Bengal for more than a century (1097-1223 CE) in
which five generations of kings ruled, (Vijayasena [ক্তিজয়ত্রসন], Vallalasena [িল্লালত্রসন],
Laksmanasena [লক্ষ্মণত্রসন], Vishvarupasena [ক্তিশ্বরূপত্রসন] and Keshavasena [ক্ষকশিত্রসন])
❑ But it must be noted that the invasion of Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji put an end
to Sena rule in parts of western and northern Bengal (1204 CE) and Laksmanasena had
to fall back on his possessions in southeastern Bengal where, after him, his two sons
ruled for some time
❑ The Sena rulers were Hindus and their rule is considered to be a period of revival of
Hinduism in Bengal. Vallalasen is known to have attempted the establishment of an
orthodox Hindu social order with caste rigidity
❑ The decline of Buddhism in Bengal may be ascribed to this change in social order. It is
rightly said that 'it was not Islam which overcame Buddhism, but a more jealous rival
of nearer origin and it is clear that 'Buddhism had already been severely crippled before
the Muslims reached Bengal
❑ The scenario of Hindu-Buddhist enmity in Bengal in the Sena period may be said to
have had a far-reaching impact in the history of Bengal and may have indirectly helped
the cause of Islam in Bengal
❑ The Sena period is significant from another point of view. The period saw the
development of Sanskrit literature in Bengal
❑ It was partly under the direct patronage of the Sena kings and partly due the
environment created by them that literary activities in Sanskrit are distinctly visible in
this period
❑ The most important contribution of Bengal to the poetic literature in Sanskrit is the
Gitagovinda of Jayadev (জয়ত্রদি এর গ্ীিত্রগ্াক্তিন্দ), who was one of the ornaments of the court
of Laksmanasena (লক্ষ্মণত্রসন)

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