 Intermediate value theorem (IVT)

A continuous function f over the closed interval [a, b], then it also takes any value
between f(a) and f(b) at some point within the interval.

 Extreme value theorem (EVT)

A continuous function f over the closed interval [a, b], then f takes both maximum
and minimum value on [a, b].
 Differentiability of a function
Suppose that y = f(x) be a function.

f x  x   f x  f x  x   f x 

x  x  x x
f

is called the difference quotient. x
f
If Lim exists
x 0 x
then we say that f is differentiable at x.

Above limiting value is called the derivative of f at x.

f x 
d
differential coefficient, is another name. dx
f x 
This process is called the First principle.
Example ( 1 ) f x   x 2

f f x  x   f x 

x x  x  x


 x  x 2  x 2
x


2 x  x x
x
f
 2 x  x .  Lim  Lim 2 x  x 
x 0 x x 0

 2x . limit exists.

f x   2x .
d
So, f is differentiable at x, and
dx
Example ( 2 ) f x   x 3

f f x  x   f x 

x x  x  x


 x  x 3  x 3
x


3x 2

 3 xx  x 2 x
x

 3 x  3 xx  x .
2 2
 Lim
f
x 0 x x 0

 Lim 3 x  3 xx  x
2 2

 3 x 2 . limit exists.

f x   3x 2 .
d
So, f is differentiable at x, and
dx
Example ( 3 ) f x  
1
x

f f x  x   f x 

x x  x  x
f  1 
1 1  Lim  Lim   
 x 0 x x 0 x x  x  
 x  x x
x 1
  Lim
x 1 x 0 x x  x 
 
xx  x  x 1
 2
. limit exists.
1 x
 Need x  0
xx  x 
1
f x 
d   .
So, f is differentiable at non-zero x, and 2
dx x
Example ( 4 ) f x   xx  1

f f x  x   f x 

x x  x  x


x  x x  x  1  xx  1
x
xx  xx  x  1

x
 x  x  x  1 f
 Lim  Lim 2 x  x  1
x 0 x x 0

 2x  1

f x   2 x  1 .
d
So, f is differentiable at x, and
dx
f x   xx  1

We found that f  x   2 x  1 .

f x   x 2  x f x  
d 2 d
Also x  x.
d dx dx
x 1
d 2 dx  2x  1.
x  2x
dx

We better use properties of limits/derivatives.

(1)
d
 f x   g x   d f x   d g x 
dx dx dx
(1) d
 f x   g x   f x   g x 
d d
dx dx dx

(2)
d
kf x   k  f x  Here k is a constant.
d
dx dx


d
 f x   g x   d f x   d g x 
dx dx dx

(3)
d d d
 f x   g x   f x   g x    f x   g x 
dx dx  dx 

g x   f x   f x   g x 
d d
d f x  dx dx

dx g x 
(4)
g x 2
 d n
(5) x  n x n 1
dx

(6) Chain rule/function of a function

d d du
y y
dx du dx

f
f x   Lim
d
Since , if exists
dx x 0 x

f f
We can think about Lim Lim
x 0 x x 0  x

right derivative left derivative

 Result

Derivative exists if and only if

right derivative Lim

f f
and left derivative Lim
 x
x 0 x 0  x
exist and they are same.

f f
i.e. derivative exists if and only if Lim  Lim
x 0  x x 0  x

Result

A function is differentiable at the point a then it is continuous at a.

 Result

A function is differentiable at the point a then it is continuous at a.

Proof

Suppose that the function f(x) is differentiable at the point a.

f exists
 Lim
x 0 x
f a  x   f a  exists
 Lim
x 0 x

f a  x   f a 
there is L such that Lim  L.
x 0 x

f a  x   f a  is close to L when x  0

x
 f a  x   f a  is close to L when x  0

x
f a  x   f a  whenever x  0
same as L
x
 f a  x   f a   L  x whenever x  0

 Lim  f a  x   f a   Lim L  x 
x 0 x 0

 L Lim x
x 0

 0.
 Lim  f a  x   f a   0
x 0

 Lim f a  x   f a 
x 0
 Lim f x   f a  So, it is continuous at a.
x a
 Result

A function is differentiable at the point a then it is continuous at a.

Converse A function is continuous at a point a

then it is differentiable at a.

Not true, in general.

Counter example f x   x a0

y

This function is
continuous at any point.
o x
f x   x a0
f f 0  x   f 0 

x x
y f x   0

x
x

x

o x
x x
x x
Lim  Lim  Lim 1  1 x x
x 0  x
x 0  x x 0  Lim  Lim
x 0  x
x 0  x
x  x
Lim  Lim  Lim  1   1 not differentiable.
 x
x 0 x 0 x
 x 0 
 Mean value theorem (MVT)

 Rolle’s theorem
A continuous function f over the closed interval [a, b], is differentiable over the open
interval (a, b) with f(a) = f(b), then
the derivative f′(x) vanishes at some point in the interval (a, b).

y  f x  continuous over the closed interval [a, b].

differentiable over the open interval (a, b).

f(a) =f(b), then

f c   0 at some point c in the interval (a, b).

y  f x  continuous over the closed interval [a, b].
differentiable over the closed interval (a, b).

f(a) =f(b), then

f c   0 at some point c in the interval (a, b).

Example y

1 x0
 x 1
if

f x   
 0 if x0 o x


y

1 So, f is differentiable on (0, 1)

o x
So, f(0)=0 and f(1)=0

No c in the interval (0, 1) with . f c   0

f is not continuous over [0, 1].

Example

Let f ( x) = x2−4x+ 7.

Then f is continuous on the interval [0, 4].

differentiable on (0, 4).

f (0) = f(4).

Rolle’s theorem guarantees a point c ∈ (0, 4) so that f′ (c) = 0.

We can find this c .

We have f′( x ) = 2x − 4.

so if f′( c ) = 0, then 2c − 4 = 0.

So f′ (2) = 0. when c = 2.
 Mean value theorem (MVT)
A continuous function f over the closed interval [a, b], is differentiable over the open interval
(a, b), then
f b   f a 
there is a point c in the interval (a, b) such that f c   .
ba

Example

Let f (x) = x3−4x on [-2, 1].

Then f is continuous on the interval [-2, 1].

differentiable on (-2, 1).

f b   f a  MVT guarantees a point c ∈ (-2, 1)

 -1. so that f′ (c) = -1.
ba
f x   x 3  4 x

f x   3 x 2  4

Looking for c ∈ (-2, 1) so that f′ (c) = -1. 3c 2  4  1.

 3c 2  3.
 c 2  1.

We can accept only c  1.

E.g. Apply the MVT to the function f x   25  x 2
over the interval [-3, 5].

This function f is

continuous over the closed interval [-3, 5]

differentiable over the open interval (-3, 5),

f 5  f  3
there is a point c in (a, b), with f c  
5  3
04

8
1

2
Sketch the graph of this function
Sketch the graph of this function

 f x     2 x 
1 1
f x   25  x 2
2 25  x 2

x

25  x 2 f 5  f  3
f c  
5  3
1

2

Sketch the graph of this function and label the ordered pairs that determine the chord relevant
to the application of the Mean Value Theorem
To determine the ordered pairs that the chord relevant to the application of the Mean Value
Theorem
1
 f x    
2
We cannot accept c   5
c 1
 
25  c 2 2
When c   5

 4c 2  25  c 2 f c   25  5

 5c 2  25 2 5

 c2  5 So, the ordered pair that determine the chord relevant to

the application of the Mean Value Theorem is
c 5
2 5, 5 
 La Hopital’s Rule
sin x
E.g. ( 1 ) Lim  1
x 0 x

Think about the functions f x   sin x g x   x

 f 0   0 Lim x  g 0   0
sin x f x  x 0
Lim  Lim
x a g  x 
x a x

f x  cos x
 Lim  Lim 1 sin x 0
x a g  x  x a 1 Lim 
x 0 x 0
 La Hopital’s Rule
2
 3x  2

Lim x 2  3 x  2  0
E.g. Lim x 2 x 1

 2 x  3 Limx  2 x  3 0
 2
undefined
x 1 x
x 1

Lim 2
x 2  3x  2
 Lim
 x  1x  2
x 1 x  2 x  3 x 1 x  1x  3
Think about the functions
 x  2
 Lim
x 1  x  3
f x   x  3 x  2
2 g  x   x 2
 2x  3


1  2
f x   2 x  3 g x   2 x  2
1  3

1 f x  2 x  3 2 1  3 1
Lim  Lim  
4 x 1 g  x  x 1 2 x  2 2 1  2 4
 5
4x 2  5x 4
 Lim 4  0
E.g. ( 2 ) Lim x   4
x  1  x 2
x  1 0 1
2
1
x

4 x  5x
2 
Lim 4 x 2  5 x   undefined
 x 
Lim
x  1  x2 
Lim 1  x 2
x 
 


 
Observe that
 
d
4x  5x
2 d
4x  5x
2
8x  5
Lim dx  Lim 4 x  5 x Lim dx
2
x  d
dx
1 x 2
 
x   2 x
5
Lim
x  1  x 2

x  d
1  x 2
 
8 dx
x  8  0
 Lim  4
x   2 2
This is the problem with indeterminate forms.
It’s just not clear what is happening in the limit.
0
We have seen the type;
0
Some other types are, 0     1 0 0  0 

ex ex 
E.g. ( 3 ) Lim Lim 2 
x  x2 x 0 x 
1 1
2 2 0
If we rewrite it as; Lim x x
Lim 
x  1 x  1 0
ex ex
 La Hopital’s Rule
f x  0
Suppose that we have one of the cases, Lim 
x a g x  0
f x  
Lim 
x a g  x  
a is any number any real number,
+ or - infinity

f x  f x 
Lim  Lim
then xa g x  x a g x 
 d x
e
ex e x
E.g. ( 3 ) Lim  Lim dx  Lim
x  x2 x  d
x 2 x  2 x
dx
d x
e
 Lim dx
x  d
2x
dx
ex
 Lim
x  2

  does not exist, better

E.g. ( 4 ) Lim x ln x
ln x
x 0 
of the type  Lim x ln x  Lim
 x 0  x 0  1
x
 ln x
Lim x ln x  Lim
x 0  x 0  1
x
d
ln x
 Lim dx
x 0  d 1
dx x
1
 Lim x
x 0   1 2
x

  Lim x 0

x 0
 La Hopital’s Rule Proof
f x  0
Suppose that we have one of the case Lim 
x a g x  0
f x  f x   0
Lim  Lim
x a g  x  x a g x   0

f x   f a 
 Lim
x a g  x   g a 

f x   f a 
xa f a 
 Lim  Lim
x  a g  x   g a  x  a g a 
xa
Consider the type 0    
f x  1
f x 
We can consider Lim
x a g  x 
 Lim
x a g x 

It becomes into the type  


In the other hand Lim f x   Lim f x 
x a g  x  x a 1
g x 
0
It becomes into the type
0
E.g. ( 5 ) Lim x e x
x  
of the type    0
 x ex
Lim x e
x  
 Lim
x   1
x
d x
e
 Lim dx
x   d 1
dx x
x
e Lim x e x  Lim x
 Lim
x    1 x   x  1
2 x
x e
Not going in a suitable way x
 Lim
x  e  x
Lim x e x x
x    Lim
x  1
ex
x
 Lim  x
x  e
d
x
 Lim dx
x   d
ex
dx
1   Lim e x 1
 Lim 
x    e  x x  


0
 1
x
E.g. ( 6 ) Lim x
x 
of the type 0
Let us take 1 1
yx x then Lim x x Lim y
x  x 
1
ln y  ln x x

1
1
  ln x  Lim ln y  Lim  ln x
x  x  x
x
1 d
 Lim  ln x
x  d dx
x
dx
1 1
 Lim   0
x  1 x
 1
Lim x x  Lim ln y  0
x  x 
ln is a continuous function
 Lim ln y  ln Lim y 
x   x  

 ln Lim y   0
 x  
 Lim ye 0
x 

1
 Lim x x Lim ln y  1
x  x 
E.g. ( 7 ) Lim e  1
x
d

e x1 
 Lim dx
x 0 x 1  x 
x1  x 
x 0 d
dx
ex
 Lim
x 0 2 x  1

1

1

1
 Surface integrals
Let us look an example. How to find the area of a triangle.


2

( 0, 2) Area  x dy
y 0


2 2
( 2, 0)  2  y  dy 2
y 0
2


equation y = 2 - x 2
 y dx  2
x 0

Another way 2
 2 x 
2 x  2 x

2

   
2
Area  dx  dy   dy dx    y  dx
  x  0 y  0
x 0 y 0
x 0
 y 0 
 2 x

 
2
Area  dx  dy
x 0 y 0

 2 x

2
   y  dx
x  0 y  0


2
 2  x dx
x 0
2
 1 2
  2x  x 
 2  x 0 Area  2 square area
 1 2
 2 2   2 
 2 