MACHINE DESIGN

Spring Design

MAY 1, 2023
BELLS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, OTA
Ighravwe Desmond
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1. Overview

Figure 1: Mechanical spring

Spring Design is the process of designing and selecting springs for a wide range of applications.

Springs are mechanical components that are used to store energy and provide force or motion.

They come in a variety of shapes and sizes, and can be made from different materials, depending

on the application.

The main function of a spring is to exert a force when it is compressed, stretched or twisted. The

force exerted by a spring is proportional to its deformation, which is governed by Hooke's Law.

This law states that the force exerted by a spring is proportional to the displacement or deformation

of the spring from its rest position.

There are different types of springs, including compression springs, extension springs, torsion

springs, and flat springs. Each type of spring has its own specific design considerations and

requirements.

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When designing a spring, several factors must be considered, including the load or force that the

spring will be subjected to, the deflection or deformation required the space available for the

spring, the material to be used, the spring rate or stiffness, the number of cycles that the spring is

expected to endure, and the manufacturing process.

In addition to these factors, there are also safety considerations to take into account. Springs are

often used in applications where failure could result in serious injury or damage, such as in

automotive suspension systems or aircraft landing gear. Therefore, springs must be designed with

a sufficient safety factor to ensure that they can withstand the loads and cycles that they will be

subjected to without failing.

Spring design can be a complex process, and there are many software tools and simulation

techniques that can be used to aid in the design and selection of springs. These tools can help to

optimize the design for performance, cost, and safety.

2. Reasons why springs are essential in machine design

Springs are an important component in machine design as they allow machines to store and release

energy, generate forces, absorb shocks and vibrations, provide position control, and reduce the size

and weight of mechanical systems. These benefits make springs essential for creating efficient,

reliable, and cost-effective mechanical systems.

⮚ Energy Storage: Springs are designed to store and release energy when required. This

energy can be used to power a wide range of mechanical systems and devices, including

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automotive suspension systems, door closers, and toys. Springs are therefore essential in

machine design as they allow machines to store and release energy in a controlled manner.

⮚ Force Generation: Springs are capable of generating forces that can be used to move or

control mechanical systems. For example, springs are commonly used in valve actuators

to control the flow of fluids. They are also used in mechanical switches to provide a tactile

feedback when the switch is pressed. Springs can, therefore, be used to create mechanical

systems that are responsive, efficient, and easy to control.

⮚ Shock Absorption: Springs are capable of absorbing and dissipating shock and vibrations.

They are commonly used in suspension systems to absorb shocks and vibrations caused by

uneven road surfaces. Springs are also used in machinery to reduce the impact of shocks

and vibrations that could cause damage to the machine or its components. Springs can,

therefore, help to improve the durability and reliability of mechanical systems.

⮚ Position Control: Springs are often used in mechanical systems to provide position control.

For example, springs are used in the suspension systems of vehicles to keep the wheels in

contact with the road surface. They are also used in aircraft landing gear to absorb shock

and ensure a smooth landing. Springs can, therefore, be used to create mechanical systems

that are stable, predictable, and easy to control.

⮚ Size and Weight Reduction: Springs are relatively small and lightweight components that

can be used to replace larger and heavier mechanical components. For example, springs

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can be used to replace hydraulic or pneumatic systems in some applications, resulting in a

more compact and lightweight machine design. This can result in significant cost savings,

improved efficiency, and reduced environmental impact.

3. Types of springs

There are several types of springs used in machine design, each with their specific applications

and advantages. Understanding the properties and characteristics of each type of spring is

essential to selecting the appropriate spring for a given application.

⮚ Compression Springs: These are the most common type of spring used in machine design.

They are designed to resist compressive forces and are often used in applications where a

part needs to return to its original position after being compressed. Compression springs

can come in various shapes and sizes, including cylindrical, conical, and hourglass shapes.

⮚ Extension Springs: These are designed to resist tensile forces and are often used in

applications where a part needs to return to its original position after being stretched.

Extension springs are commonly used in industrial equipment, trampolines, and toys.

⮚ Torsion Springs: These are designed to resist torsional or twisting forces and are commonly

used in applications such as hinges and levers. Torsion springs can store and release energy

by twisting and untwisting.

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⮚ Belleville Springs: These are also known as disc springs and are designed to provide a high

spring rate in a compact space. They are often used in applications where space is limited,

such as in pumps and valves.

⮚ Wave Springs: These are designed to provide a compact and lightweight spring solution.

They are commonly used in applications where space is limited, such as in medical devices

and aerospace applications.

⮚ Flat Springs: These are designed to provide a flat force over a large surface area. They are

commonly used in applications such as electrical contacts and clutches.

⮚ Constant Force Springs: These are designed to provide a constant force over a range of

deflections. They are often used in applications such as counterbalance mechanisms,

retractable cords, and automotive seat belts.

4. Spring Diameter

Figure 2: Spring components

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The diameter of a mechanical spring refers to the distance across the center of the coil from one

side to the other. This dimension has a direct impact on the spring's strength, flexibility, and

durability. Larger diameter springs tend to be stronger, stiffer, and more durable, while smaller

diameter springs are generally more flexible and can handle smaller loads.

The diameter of a spring is typically determined by the size of the wire used to make it. Thicker

wire will result in a larger diameter spring, while thinner wire will produce a smaller diameter

spring. The diameter of a spring can also be varied along its length, creating tapered or conical

springs that offer unique performance characteristics.

In addition to its diameter, other factors that affect the performance of a mechanical spring include

its length, number of coils, wire type, and overall design. These factors all work together to

determine the spring's ability to compress, stretch, or bend under load, and to return to its original

shape when the load is removed.

Mechanical springs are used in a wide range of applications, from simple toys and household items

to complex machinery and industrial equipment. By understanding the relationship between

diameter and performance, engineers can design and select the right springs for their specific

needs, ensuring that their machines and devices operate reliably and efficiently.

8𝑊𝐷
𝜏=
𝜋𝑑 3

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Example 1

A close-coiled helical spring is to carry a load of 100N and the mean coil diameter is to be 8 times

that of the wire diameter. Calculate these diameters, if the maximum stress is to be 10 N/mm2.

Given

Load (W) = 100N

Mean coil diameter (D) = 8d

Max Shear stress (τ) = 10 N/mm2

Required

Coil diameter (D)

Wire diameter (d)

Solution

8𝑊𝐷
𝜏=
𝜋𝑑 3

8 × 100 × 8𝑑
10 =
𝜋 × 𝑑3
8×100×8
𝑑2 = 10𝜋

𝑑 = 14.27𝑚𝑚
𝐷 = 8𝑑 = 114.18𝑚𝑚

5. Number of coils in a mechanical spring

The number of coils in a mechanical spring is an important factor that affects its performance and

behavior. The number of coils refers to the number of full revolutions or turns that the wire makes

to create the spring.

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A spring with more coils will be longer and more flexible than a spring with fewer coils, all other

factors being equal. This is because more coils mean that the spring can compress or expand over

a greater distance, which allows it to handle a wider range of loads and forces. On the other hand,

a spring with fewer coils will be shorter and stiffer, making it better suited for applications that

require a strong and rigid spring.

The number of coils in a mechanical spring can also affect its ability to handle compression or

tension. Springs with a higher number of coils will generally have a smoother and more uniform

compression or expansion, as each coil contributes a small amount of movement. This can be

useful in applications that require a steady and predictable response to external forces.

In addition to the number of coils, other factors that affect the behavior of a mechanical spring

include the wire diameter, material, and overall design. These factors all work together to

determine the spring's strength, flexibility, and durability.

Mechanical springs are used in a wide variety of applications, from small toys and household items

to complex machinery and industrial equipment. By understanding the relationship between the

number of coils and the behavior of a spring, engineers can design and select the right springs for

their specific needs, ensuring that their machines and devices operate reliably and efficiently.

64𝑊. 𝑅 2 . 𝑛
∆=
𝐶. 𝑑 4

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Example 2: Number of coils

A closely coiled helical spring is to carry a load of 500N. Its mean diameter is to be 10 times that

of the wire diameter. Calculate these diameters if the maximum shear stress in the materials of the

spring is to be 80 N/mm2. Also, calculate the number of coils in the usually wired helical shoring

if the stiffness of the spring is 20 N/mm deflection and modulus of rigidity = 8.6 × 104N/mm2.

Given

Load on spring, W = 500N

Max. Shear stress, τ = 80 N/mm2.

Required

Diameter of wire, d =?

Mean diameter of coil, D = ?

i.e., D = 10d
16𝑊𝑅
Solution𝜏 = 𝜋𝑑3

𝐷
16×500×
2
80 = 𝜋𝑑3

10𝑑
8×500×
2
80 = 𝜋𝑑3

80𝜋𝑑 3 = 8000 × 5𝑑

8000 × 5
𝑑2 =
80𝜋
𝑑 = 12.6𝑚𝑚

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑘) =
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑊
𝑘=
∆
500
20 =
∆

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500
∆=
20
64𝑊. 𝑅 2 . 𝑛
∆=
𝐶. 𝑑 4
64 × 500 × 632 . 𝑁
25 =
8.4 × 104 × 12.64
n = 6.6

6. Stiffness of the spring

The stiffness of a spring is a measure of how much force is required to compress or extend it a

certain distance. It is also known as the spring constant and is typically denoted by the letter "k."

The stiffness of a spring depends on several factors, including its material, diameter, length, and

number of coils.

The stiffness of a spring is directly proportional to its spring constant. The higher the spring

constant, the stiffer the spring. Conversely, a lower spring constant indicates a softer, more flexible

spring. The stiffness of a spring is also affected by the amount of deformation or compression it

undergoes. In general, the more a spring is compressed or extended, the stiffer it becomes.

The stiffness of a spring plays an important role in determining its suitability for a particular

application. For example, a stiff spring may be used in a machine that requires precise control over

its movements or in a device that needs to resist deformation under heavy loads. A soft, flexible

spring, on the other hand, may be used in a toy or other application that requires a more forgiving

response to external forces.

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The stiffness of a spring can be calculated using the following equation:

F = kx

Where F is the force required to compress or extend the spring, k is the spring constant, and x is

the distance that the spring is compressed or extended. This equation can be used to determine the

stiffness of a spring for a given amount of deformation.

In summary, the stiffness of a spring is a critical factor in its performance and behavior. By

understanding the relationship between stiffness and other factors, engineers can design and select

the right springs for their specific needs, ensuring that their machines and devices operate reliably

and efficiently.
𝑤
𝑘=
∆

Example 3

A closely coiled helical spring of round wire 10mm in diameter having 10 complete turns with a

mean diameter of 120mm is subjected to an axial load of 200N. Determine

i) The deflection of the spring

ii) Maximum shear stress in the wire

iii) Stiffness of the spring.

Take C = 8x104 N/mm2

Given

Dia of wire, d= 10mm

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No. of turns, n= 10

Mean dia of coil, D = 120mm

Radius of coil, R = D/2 = 60mm

Axial load, W = 200N

Modulus of rigidity, C = 8 × 104 N/mm2

Required

∆ = Deflection of the spring =?

τ = maximum shear stress in the wire =?

k = Stiffness of the spring =?

Solution

i. Deflection

64𝑊. 𝑅 2 . 𝑛
∆=
𝐶. 𝑑 4
64 × 104 × 200 × 602 × 𝑛
∆=
8 × 104 × 104
∆= 34.5𝑚𝑚
ii. Shear stress
16𝑊𝑅
𝜏= 𝜋𝑑3

16×200×60
𝜏= 𝜋×103

𝜏 = 61.1 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

iii. Stiffness
𝑤
𝑘=
∆
1
iv. Strain energy = 2 𝑊∆

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7. Frequency of free vibration

The frequency of free vibration in a spring is a measure of how quickly it oscillates when set in

motion without any external forces acting upon it. This frequency is determined by several factors,

including the stiffness of the spring, it’s mass, and the way it is mounted or attached. The frequency

of free vibration is sometimes referred to as the natural frequency of the spring. It is the frequency

at which the spring will vibrate if it is set in motion and left to oscillate on its own without any

external forces acting upon it. The natural frequency of a spring is related to its stiffness and mass,

with stiffer springs having higher frequencies and heavier springs having lower frequencies.

The frequency of free vibration can be calculated using the following equation:

f = (1/2π) x √(k/m)

Where f is the frequency of free vibration, k is the spring constant, and m is the mass of the

spring.

This equation shows that the frequency of free vibration is inversely proportional to the square

root of the mass of the spring. This means that lighter springs will have higher natural frequencies

than heavier springs, all other factors being equal. The equation also shows that the frequency is

directly proportional to the square root of the spring constant, so stiffer springs will have higher

natural frequencies than softer springs.

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The frequency of free vibration is an important factor in many applications, particularly those

involving oscillating or vibrating systems. By understanding the natural frequency of a spring,

engineers can design systems that operate at or around this frequency, which can lead to more

efficient and effective performance.

In summary, the frequency of free vibration in a spring is a measure of how quickly it oscillates

when set in motion without any external forces acting upon it. This frequency is determined by

the stiffness and mass of the spring and is an important factor in many engineering applications.

Example 4

A close coiled helical spring of 100mm mean diameter is made up of 10mm diameter rod and has

20 turns. The spring carries an axial load of 200N. Determine the shearing stress taking the values

of modulus of rigidity = 8.4x104 N/mm2. Determine the deflection when carrying this load. Also

calculate the stiffness of the spring and the frequency of free vibration for a mass hanging from it.

Given

Mean dia of coil, D = 100mm

Mean radius of coil, R = D/2 = 100/2 = 50mm

Diameter of rod, d = 10mm

No. of turns, n = 20

Axial load, W = 200N

Modulus of rigidity, C = 8.4 × 104 N/mm2.

Required

τ =? ; ∆ =?; K =?; g = ? f = ?

Solution

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16𝑊𝑅 16×200×50 𝑁
𝜏= = = 50.93 𝑚𝑚3
𝜋𝑑3 𝜋×103

64𝑊. 𝑅 3 . 𝑛 64 × 200 × 503 × 20 𝑁

∆= 4
= 4 4
= 38.095
𝐶. 𝑑 8.4 × 10 × 10 𝑚𝑚2
𝑊 200 𝑁
𝑘= = = 5.25
∆ 38.095 𝑚𝑚

1 𝑔 1 9.81
𝑓= √ = √
2𝜋 ∆ 2𝜋 3.8095

8. Mean dia of the coil

The mean diameter of the coil in a spring is a critical factor that affects its performance and

behavior. The mean diameter is the average diameter of the coil measured across the center of the

spring, and it plays a crucial role in determining the spring's strength, flexibility, and overall

performance.

The mean diameter of the coil affects the amount of material used in the spring and its resistance

to compression or extension. Springs with a smaller mean diameter are typically more flexible and

can handle a wider range of loads and forces. This is because they have a greater number of active

coils that contribute to the spring's behavior. However, smaller mean diameters also mean that the

spring will have a shorter overall length, which can limit its range of motion.

On the other hand, springs with a larger mean diameter are typically stronger and more rigid. This

is because they have fewer active coils and more material per coil, which increases their resistance

to compression or extension. Larger mean diameters also mean that the spring will be longer

overall, which can provide greater range of motion but also, makes it less flexible.

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The mean diameter of the coil is typically determined during the design phase of a spring, based

on the specific requirements of the application. Engineers must consider factors such as the load

requirements, available space, and other design constraints when selecting the appropriate mean

diameter for a given spring.

In addition to the mean diameter, other factors that affect the behavior of a spring include the wire

diameter, material, and number of coils. These factors all work together to determine the spring's

strength, flexibility, and durability.

The mean diameter of the coil in a spring is an important factor that affects its performance and

behavior. By understanding the relationship between mean diameter and other factors, engineers

can design and select the right springs for their specific needs, ensuring that their machines and

devices operate reliably and efficiently.

Example 5

The stiffness of a closely coiled helical spring is 1.5N/mm of compression under a maximum load

of 60N. The maximum shearing stress produced in the wire of the spring is 125 N/mm2. The solid

length of the spring (when the coils are touching) is given as 50mm. Find (i) Diameter of wire (ii)

mean diameter of the coils and (iii) number of coils required. Take C = 4.5x104 N/mm2.

Given

Stiffness of spring, K = 1.5 N/mm.

Load on spring, W = 60N

Max. shear stress, τ = 125N/mm2

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Solid length of spring = 50mm

Modulus of rigidity, C = 4.5 × 104 N/mm2.

Required

`Dia. Of wire, d = ?

Mean dia of coil, D = ?

Mean radius of coil, R = D/2.

No. of coils, n =?
Solution

𝐶𝑑 4
𝐾=
64𝑅 3 𝑛
4.5 × 104 × 𝑑 4
𝐾=
64 × 𝑅 3 𝑛

4
64 × 𝑅 3 × 𝑛
𝑑 = 1.5 ×
4.5 × 104
𝑑 4 = 0.002133𝑅 3 𝑛 (i)

16𝑊𝑅
𝜏=
𝜋𝑑 3
16 × 60 × 𝑅
125 =
𝜋 × 𝑑3
𝑅 = 0.40906(𝑑)3 (ii)

𝑑4 = 0.02133 × (0.40906𝑑 3 )3 × 𝑛
𝑑 4 = 0.00014599𝑑 9 × 𝑛
1
𝑑5𝑛 = (iii)
0.00014599

Solid length = n x d

50 = 𝑛 × 𝑑
50
𝑛= (iv)
𝑑

Substituting eqn (iv) in (iii)

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50 1
𝑑5 × =
𝑑 0.00016
𝑑 4 = 125
d = 3.42 mm
50
𝑛 = 3.42 = 14.62 𝑠𝑎𝑦 15

Substitute, d = 3.42 mm in eqn (ii)

𝑅 = 0.40906 × 3.423

R = 16.36mm

Mean dia of the coil (D) =2R

𝐷 = 2 × 16.32 = 32.72𝑚𝑚

Assignment

The stiffness of a closely coiled helical spring is 1.2N/mm of compression under a maximum load

of 60N. The maximum shearing stress produced in the wire of the spring is 125 N/mm2. The solid

length of the spring (when the coils are touching) is given as 50mm. Find (i) Diameter of wire (ii)

mean diameter of the coils and (iii) number of coils required. Take C = 4.5x104 N/mm2.

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