TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

Traffic engineering is mainly concerned with the flow of vehicular traffic on roadways. This chapter
discusses the basic properties (or characteristics) of the transportation elements as they relate to traffic
engineering. Specifically, the chapter describes the relevant features of (i) vehicles, (ii) drivers and users, (iii)
roads, (iv) control mechanisms, and (v) terminal or parking facilities.

VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
The importance of characteristics of vehicles to traffic engineering is self-evident. Among the different
features which characterize a vehicle, the ones which are of importance to a transportation engineer are: (i) size,
(ii) weight and axle configuration, (iii) power-to-weight ratio, (iv) turning radius, (v) turning path, and (vi)
pollution creation.

SIZE, WEIGHT, AXLE CONFIGURATIONS AND POWER-TO-WEIGHT RATIO

A vehicle has three dimensions, the length, the width, and the height. All the three dimensions are required
in the design of different transportation facilities. For example, when designing open air on street or off street
parking facilities the length and width of vehicles are important input parameters. The height of vehicles
(especially those of trucks and buses) are important considerations when placing signs and designing overpasses
and underpasses.
The weight of vehicles, especially of heavy vehicles, plays an important role in the design of both flexible
and rigid pavements. Hence, knowledge of vehicle weights is important for transportation engineers. Since the
weight of a vehicle is transferred to the pavement layer through the axles, the wheel and axle configuration of
vehicles also plays an important role in the design of pavements. In fact, as will be discussed in the chapters on
pavement analysis and design, it is the number of axles (and not vehicles) of a standard weight which is considered
as a variable in the design of pavements.
The power-to-weight ratio of a vehicle is a parameter which characterizes the ease with which a vehicle
can move. For example, human-powered vehicles like cycles or rickshaws (pedicab) have very low power-to-
weight ratio and their operating characteristics (like acceleration capability, sustainable speeds on slopes, etc.) are
thus very poor. Motorized vehicles, like automobiles, motorbikes, etc. have high power-to-weight ratios and hence
have good operating characteristics. Heavy vehicles, on the other hand, though motorized, have poorer power-to-
weight ratios than those of other motorized vehicles owing to the heavy weight of the vehicles (especially when
full). This ratio is important to transportation engineers as it relates to the operating efficiency of vehicles on
roads and especially on positive gradient road sections. For example, the length for which a positive gradient can
be maintained on a road is often limited by its effects on the operation of heavy vehicles.

TURNING RADIUS AND TURNING PATH

Every vehicle has a minimum turning radius which is the radius of the circle that will be traced out by the
front wheels if the vehicle moved with its steering turned to the maximum extent possible. This radius is
dependent on the design and class of the vehicle. For example, a big vehicle like a bus has a much larger turning
radius than that of a smaller vehicle like an automobile.
Another important feature related to vehicles is the turning path traced by the vehicle. Since only the front
wheels turn and (i) the rear wheels are fixed, and (ii) the vehicle’s body extends beyond the tires, different points
of the vehicle trace out different paths as shown in Figure2.1. Due to this, as can be seen from the figure, the
effective width of a vehicle on a turn increases. This fact is taken into account while designing turns at
intersections of roads (where the corners are arched in order to increase the space for turning) and at sharp
horizontal curves (where the width of the road on the curve is increased in order to accommodate the increased
effective width of vehicles).
VEHICLE AS A SOURCE OF POLLUTION
Vehicles (which operate on fossil fuel) emit pollutants into the atmosphere. Vehicles release hydrocarbons
(due to unburnt fuel and fuel evaporation) which react with nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight to produce
ground level ozone which irritates the eyes and aggravates respiratory problems. Vehicles also release various
oxides of nitrogen, a major contributor to the formation of acid rain. Carbon monoxide which reduces flow of
oxygen in the bloodstream also forms a part of the automobile emission. Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is
also emitted by automobiles. The rate of release of these pollutants is affected by the operating speed, frequent
acceleration/ deceleration, type and age of vehicle, air temperature, etc. A traffic engineer can aid in the process
of reducing pollutant emissions by designing roads (especially ones with frequent signalized intersections) where
drivers can maintain a reasonable cruising speed and do not have to accelerate and decelerate frequently. For
example, signals could be coordinated such that vehicles in different movements do not have to stop at all the
signals. Driver education and compliance with traffic regulations (like stopping engines at red lights) also aid in
reducing pollutant emissions.
Moving vehicles also transmit noise, caused by engine functions, action of tires on roads, aerodynamics
of moving vehicles, horns, the squeals of brakes, etc. to the surrounding area. Noise pollution, other than hurting
the auditory faculty of people, also causes psychological and other physiological problems by interfering with
sleep, concentration, and certain daily activities of human beings. Noise emission is also dependent on age and
type of vehicle, type of engine, driving pattern, etc. Traffic engineers, often have to mitigate the effect of noise
on habitations by building noise barriers along heavily travelled roads. Sometimes though, especially in urban
areas, nothing can be done, except enforcing rules on the use and type of horns, to reduce the effect of noise.

DESIGN VEHICLE
On any given road, vehicles of different classes move. On Philippine roads, the vehicle classes include:
(i) motorized two-wheelers, (ii) motorized three-wheelers, (iii) passenger cars or automobiles, (iv) buses, (v)
single-unit trucks, (vi) semi-trailers, (vii) truck-trailer combination, and (viii) slow non-motorized vehicles like
cycles, rickshaws, and animal drawn carts. Each class of vehicle differs from the other in most of the
characteristics mentioned above. For the purposes of design, an engineer needs to choose a type of vehicle based
on the characteristics of which the road design is done. Such a vehicle is referred to as a design vehicle.

HUMAN FACTORS AND DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS

Two of the important constituents of a transportation system are drivers and transport users (or
passengers). An understanding of some of the human characteristics of drivers and passengers is therefore
essential for proper design of transportation facilities.
PERCEPTION-REACTION PROCESS
Human beings react in different situations by first perceiving the scenario, then inferring a suitable course
of action, and finally implementing that action. This entire process is referred to as the perception-reaction
process. The time required to complete this process is referred to as the perception-reaction time.
Various studies have been carried out to determine the perception-reaction time of drivers under different
situations which arise in transportation engineering. It is found that this reaction time not only increases with (i)
age and (ii) intoxication level, but is also affected by features like (i) expectancy (where drivers have learnt to
anticipate certain stimulus) and (ii) complexity of the scenario (where the information to be processed for a
response is large). Obviously, for different situations the reaction time is different. Situations where the
perception-reaction time plays a very important role are emergencies where drivers need to brake in order to be
safe. Hence, a lot of work has gone into determining the perception-reaction time in these cases. Based on these
results, suggest a value of 2.5 seconds as the perception-reaction time for braking.

PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Certain human factors, psychological in origin, play an important role in transportation
engineering. That is, these factors are not due to any physiological characteristics or functions of the human body.

VALUE OF TIME
Human beings value time and the way that time is spent. This value for time has implications when
designing public transport systems (specifically routes and schedules) and various other traffic facilities like
signalized intersections. For example, less number of people will use a route which has a longer travel time
compared to a route which has a shorter travel time; yet on the other hand the longer route may be preferred if the
journey on this route is a lot more comfortable (either because the road is less congested or because the buses
running on the route are less crowded).

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Safety requirements play a major role in traffic engineering. For example, a longer distance between
vehicles is required to be maintained while going at higher speeds. This parameter ultimately leads to an upper
bound on the maximum number of vehicles that can flow on a road. Driving needs to be much more cautious on
narrow roads (though wide enough to accommodate one vehicle comfortably) leading to smaller capacities for
such roads.
The concept of maintaining a safe buffer distance also plays an important role when drivers choose gaps
in the opposing adjacent lane in order to overtake a slow moving vehicle. It is seen that although, in order to
complete the overtaking maneuver, a vehicle needs a certain obstacle-free distance, say D, in the opposing lane,
in reality a vehicle initiates an overtaking maneuver only when the distance gap between the vehicle and an
oncoming vehicle is much greater than D. The reason for this is that drivers are extra cautious when travelling in
the opposing lane for overtaking purposes, and want to have a buffer distance with the oncoming vehicle even
after completing the overtaking maneuver. Various studies have been done to understand the overtaking behavior.
Based on these studies, the distance which the drivers look for in order to initiate and complete an overtaking
maneuver is generally described as shown in Figure2.2. In the figure, dx may be thought of as the ‘perception-
reaction’ distance this is the distance between the point at which the driver perceives a possibility for overtaking
and actually starts initiating the overtaking maneuver. Distance d2 is the distance physically required to complete
the overtaking maneuver, distance d4 is the distance the opposing vehicle travels during the overtaking maneuver,
and distance d3 is the buffer distance arising out of safety considerations of drivers. It must be noted that all these
distances increase with the speed of the traffic streams. As shown in the figure, the sum
d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 is referred to as the overtaking distance.
At unsignalized intersections, drivers sometimes have to choose gaps in the opposing stream of traffic in
order to complete their turning maneuver. Here again, the drivers choose gaps which are much larger than those
actually required for the maneuver. The minimum gap size which a driver chooses, referred to as critical gap,
generally increases with the speed of the opposing stream, the number of opposing lanes, and the age of the driver,
and reduces with the amount of time a driver spends in waiting for a gap. In general, the critical gap varies between
4 and 7.5 seconds depending on the situation.

COMFORT
Drivers as individuals, care about the comfort of the drive. As engineers, the design of various traffic
facilities should be such that drivers do not face any discomfort. Among the common causes of discomfort to
drivers, some are (i) excessive deceleration rates, (ii) excessive jerk, and (iii) glare.
If drivers are required to decelerate beyond a certain rate, they feel uncomfortable. The maximum value
of the comfortable deceleration rate is around 3 m/𝑠 2 , and it obviously varies from person to person. The designer
must therefore be aware of the comfortable deceleration rates preferred by drivers. A good example of how this
value affects design can be seen in the dilemma zone analysis and amber time fixation.
High jerk, generally greater than 0.7 m/𝑠 3 , causes considerable discomfort to drivers. Drivers always
experience jerk while negotiating curves on roads. Sometimes the curvature is large enough to cause
uncomfortable jerk due to changes in centrifugal acceleration.
Glare is defined as an intense, blinding light. It causes extreme discomfort to the driver as the driver is
effectively blinded for a very small period of time, posing a big safety hazard. The problem, in the context of
design of traffic engineering, can occur from bright and ill-placed street lights or signboard lights. But mostly it
occurs from headlights of oncoming vehicles, which use ‘high-beam’. The problem of glare has direct bearings
on the design of street lighting and street sign lighting. Sometimes, median barriers have to be constructed on
high-speed two-way roads to eliminate the problem caused by glare.

VISION
The aspects of human vision which are important for a traffic engineer are (i) visual acuity, (ii) field of
vision, and (iii) color perception. In the following, each of these is explained in detail.

VISUAL ACUITY
Visual acuity refers to how well a person can see. Normal vision is defined as the ability of a person to
recognize a letter (or an object) of approximately 8.5 mm size from a distance of nearly 6 m. A person with normal
vision is said to have 6/6 vision. As per this notation, a person with 6/9 vision has poorer than normal vision
because he/she can read (or recognize) from a distance of 6 m what a normal person can read (or recognize) from
a distance of 9 m. Alternatively, a person with 6/9 vision can read (or recognize) from a given distance letters (or
objects) which are 9/6 (=1.5) times bigger than those which a normal vision person can read (or recognize) from
the same distance. In general, therefore, a 6/x vision person will have to be 6/x times closer than a normal vision
person to be able to recognize the same letter (or object), or the letter (or object) has to be x/6 times larger for a
6/x vision person to be able to recognize it from the same distance as a 6/6 vision person. Further, visual acuity is
affected by contrast and brightness of the object and the relative speed between the object and the driver.
FIELD OF VISION
Visual acuity reduces with the angle of vision. Persons can see most clearly within a 3-degree cone (see
Figure 2.3). Clarity of vision is reasonable within a 10-degree cone. However, beyond that till about a 160 degree
cone everything is peripheral vision. Information on field of vision is important while deciding the placement of
road signs. For example, signs should be placed within the 10-degree cone of vision of drivers. Sometimes on
wide two-way roads this is not possible and in such cases, signs are placed in overhead positions.

COLOR PERCEPTION
It must be understood that all types of colors and color combinations are not equally discernible and only
the most visible of these should be used in traffic facilities. Light colors on dark backgrounds or dark colors on
light backgrounds are most easily discernible by the human eye. Based on discernibility considerations (and
considerations of classification of signs) codes in various countries specify the color combination for various
types of signs.

DESIGN DRIVER
Drivers are different from one another in all of the characteristics mentioned above. Some drivers may
have a low perception-reaction time, but very good visual acuity, and so on. Hence, for design purposes, the
designer must choose those characteristics which make the design safe for most drivers. A driver, although
fictitious, who has the characteristics chosen by the designer is referred to as the design driver. In general, a design
driver is assumed to have a perception reaction time of 2.5 seconds, comfortable deceleration rate of 3 m/s2,
allowable jerk of about 0.7 m/s3, a 6/7.5 visual acuity, and a critical gap value of between 4 and 7.5 seconds
(depending on the complexity of the maneuver and the number and speed of opposing streams)

ROAD CHARACTERISTICS
Various road characteristics affect the flow of traffic. The most important among them are (i) width, (ii)
presence or absence of shoulders, (iii) surface conditions, (iv) slopes, and (v) curves.

SURFACE CONDITIONS
The surface conditions of a road may be described through two parameters: (i) the frequency and/or extent
of the distressed sections (like, potholes, depressions, stripped sections) and (ii) the friction offered by the road
surface. If a road surface is severely distressed, it will cause considerable hindrance to smooth flow of traffic due
to frequent slowing down of vehicles and changing their paths to avoid potholes and the like. Road surfaces,
however, should provide sufficient friction to enable vehicles to move and stop effectively. A very smooth road
surface (like when there is snow on the road or when it is wet) causes hindrance to flow of traffic and gives rise
to possible safety hazards. The coefficient of rolling friction offered by dry paved surfaces should be around 0.5;
this reduces to about 0.3 if the surface is wet. In the presence of snow, this coefficient is even lower. Another
friction coefficient of road surfaces, known as the coefficient of side friction, is also important to traffic engineers.
This friction coefficient, which is a measure of the resistance offered by the road surface to movements orthogonal
to the direction of motion, comes into play while designing horizontal curves and superelevation.
SLOPES
Moving on uphill roads, or positive slopes, requires an additional effort from a vehicle. Vehicles with low
power-to-weight ratio have problems moving on sustained positive grades or slopes; the steeper the grade the
shorter is the extent over which these vehicles can move at any reasonable speed. While designing roads,
therefore, attention must be paid to the slope and length of the uphill section.

CURVES
Roads often have curves either in the horizontal plane (for example, when the road turns) or in the vertical
plane (for example, when the road has varying gradients). Curves always pose a restriction on the distance over
which the driver can see the road. This factor is taken into account in the design of curves.
Curves, especially those in the horizontal plane, are often such that they create considerable centrifugal
force on the vehicles moving along them. This factor also needs to be kept in mind while designing curves.

CONTROL MECHANISMS
Any traffic system has controls which are either static or dynamic. Static controls broadly comprise: (i)
rules of driving, (ii) road signs such as STOP, NO U TURN, and the like, (iii) raised islands (which in effect
delineate preferred paths of vehicles), and (iv) road markings like dashed or solid lines dividing lanes, and so on.
Dynamic controls, on the other hand, are the signals at signalized intersections which determine the right-of-way
for the different movements at an intersection at any given time.
Control mechanisms have, as expected, a considerable effect on traffic flow. Properly designed controls
improve the efficiency of flow while poorly designed control mechanisms have the opposite effect.

TERMINAL FACILITIES
For a traffic engineering system, terminal facilities include home garages, on-street parking areas, and off-
street parking lots. To a traffic engineer, the design of on-street parking facilities and off-street parking lots are
of interest. In general, on-street parking does not require additional infrastructure; however, it has considerable
impact on the flow of traffic on the road. Off-street parking lots, on the other hand, require additional
infrastructure.