STUDY OF VARIABLE TYPE OF RADIATOR COOLANT IN

ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM

By

MIAN MUHAMMAD SAMI

Project Supervisor
DR. ADNAN BIN ROSELI

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFIMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI TENAGA NASIONAL

2014
 ii

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis, submitted to Universiti Tenaga Nasional as partial
fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering.
This thesis has not been submitted to any other university. I also certify that the work
described herein is entirely my own, except for quotations and summaries sources
which have been duly acknowledged.

This thesis may be made available within the university library and may be
photocopied or loaned to other libraries for purpose of consultation.

7th Oct 2014 Mian Muhammad Sami

ME086751
 iii

DEDICATION

Firstly, I would like to thank Allah Almighty, the Merciful and Beneficent, who gave

me health, courage and thoughts to enable me to achieve this goal. I also thank my

parents, brothers and other family members for their never ending moral support and

prayers which always acted as a catalyst in my academic life. Secondly, I dedicate

this thesis to my supervisor, Dr. Adnan Bin Roseli who has always given guidance

and advised me in the project period on this particular study carried out. It would not

have been possible to complete this detailed report without the help of my supervisor.

Lastly, this thesis is dedicated to all my beloved friends without whom none of this

would have been possible.

 iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Adnan Bin Roseli.

His wide knowledge and his logical way of thinking have been of great value to me.

I would also like to take the opportunity to thank all my lecturers and the department

of Mechanical Engineering at University Tenaga Nasional for all the help provided

by them. I would also like to thank my parents and friends for helping me in this

project. Without the help from these parties, the project could not have been

accomplished.
 v

ABSTRACT

Laminar forced convection heat transfer in a flat tube of a radiator with nanofluids is

investigated numerically. In this work, a two-dimensional analysis is used to study

the heat transfer performance of nanofluid flows through a flat tube with constant

heat flux boundary conditions. The nanoparticles used in this study are SiO2, CuO,

and TiO2. Results are presented in terms of velocity profile, heat transfer, and

Nusselt number for various parameters such as the Reynolds number, and volume

fraction. The thermophysical properties of the nanofluids were calculated at different

concentrations. It was found that SiO2/water has the highest Nusselt number as well

as heat transfer coefficient followed by CuO, and TiO2. All the nanofluids show

higher nusselt number compared to that of water. I t was noticed that Nusselt number

increases with the increase in volume fraction. For the above configuration, the

Nusselt number also increases with the increase in Reynolds number. Results have

shown that the heat transfer coefficient increases with an increase in volume fraction

of nanoparticles. Numerical result was compared with those available in literature

for validation.
 vi

CONTENTS

Page
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
CONTENTS vi
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF TABLE xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xv
LIST OF SYMBOLS xvi

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background Study 1
1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Objectives 2
1.4 Scope of Work 3
1.5 Thesis Outline 3

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1 Introduction 5
2.2 Experimental Studies 6
2.3 Numerical Studies 25

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY 55

3.1 Introduction 55
3.2 Nanofluids Thermo Physical Properties 55
3.3 Governing Equations and Boundary Conditions 58
3.4 Geometry Used 60

CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 63

 vii

4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Code Validation 63
4.3 Effect of Different Nanofluids 65

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 70

5.1 Conclusion 70
5.2 Recommendations for Future Work 71

REFERENCES 72
 viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page

2.1 Overall heat transfer coefficient of Fe2O3/water nanofluids

at concentration of 0.15 vol % 6

2.2 Overall heat transfer coefficient of CuO/water nanofluids

at concentration of 0.15 vol% 7

2.3 Percentage of heat transfer enhancement using different

nanofluids at different concentrations 7

2.4 Comparison of outlet temperature with different vol

concentration of nanofluids 8

2.5 Nu number variations of nanofluids with different

concentrations as function of Re number 9

2.6 Effect of vol flow rate on overall heat transfer coefficient

of CuO/water nanofluid 10

2.7 Effect of air Reynolds number on overall heat transfer

coefficient of CuO/water nanofluid 11

2.8 Effect of volume fraction to coolant prandtl and nusselt

number 12

2.9 Effect of volume fraction to overall heat transfer coefficient 12

2.10 Effect of coolant Reynolds number to overall heat transfer

coefficient 13

2.11 Thermal conductivity against Temperature for different

nanofluid vol. concentrations 16
 ix

2.12 Thermal conductivity against volume concentrations for

CuO nanofluid. 16

2.13 Heat transfer coefficient against Reynolds number at

0.3% vol. concentration 18

2.14 Nusselt number against vol. fraction for different

Re number 18

2.15 Thermal conductivity against volume fraction of different

nanoparticles 20

2.16 Heat transfer coefficient against axial distance for different

volume concentration 22

2.17 Heat transfer coefficient against Reynolds number at 2%

volume concentration for different heat flux values 23

2.18 Heat transfer coefficient against axial distance for different

vol, concentration 24

2.19 Overall heat transfer coefficient against Peclet number 25

2.20 Nusselt number against Peclet number for different

volume concentration 26

2.21 Variation of h and Nu with Reynolds number for different

concentration of Al2O3 nanofluid 27

2.22 Variation of h and Nu with Reynolds number for different

concentration of CuO 27

2.23 Nusselt number vs Reynolds number at different

concentrations 29

2.24 Heat transfer coefficient with Re=10 and 125 with

different types of tubes 29
 x

2.25 Heat transfer coefficient against Reynolds number

using different types of nanofluids 31

2.26 Nusselt number variations with Reynolds number at

different vol. concentrations of nanofluid 31

2.27 Heat transfer coefficient variations with increase in

Reynolds number at different vol. concentrations 32

2.28 Heat transfer coefficient variations at different Reynolds

number with three shapes of tubes 33

2.29 Nusselt number variations at different Re number at

different vol. concentrations 34

2.30 Influence of particle volume fraction on heat transfer

Performance 35

2.31 Nusselt number variations with Reynolds number at

different vol. concentrations 36

2.32 Heat transfer coefficient against Reynolds number at different

Reynolds number 37

2.33 Nusselt number against Reynolds number at different

volume Concentrations 38

2.34 Nusselt number against Reynolds number at different vol.

concentration of CuO nanofluid 39

2.35 Nusselt number against Reynolds number at different vol.

concentration of Al2O3 nanofluid 40

2.36 Nusselt number against Reynolds number at different volume

concentration of TiO2 nanofluid 40

2.37 Effect of nanofluid concentration and Reynolds number

on average Nusselt number 41
 xi

2.38 Simulation results for friction factor against Reynolds

number 42

2.39 Heat transfer coefficient against Peclet number at

different volume concentration of CuO nanofluid 43

2.40 Comparison between CFD predictions based on single

phase and two-phase models 43

2.41 Heat transfer coefficient against Reynolds number at

different concentrations 45

2.42 Nusselt number against Reynolds number at 1% volume

concentration 45

2.43 Heat transfer coefficient against distance z at different

concentrations 46

2.44 Nusselt number against Reynolds number at 1% vol.

concentration 47

2.45 Nusselt number against Reynolds number at 4% vol.

concentration 47

2.46 Variation of heat transfer coefficient along the tube length 48

2.47 Variations of average heat transfer coefficient against the

Reynolds number 49

2.48 Change of heat transfer coefficient with Peclet number

for TiO2/water nanofluid 50

2.49 Relation between Nusselt number and Peclet number

for TiO2/water nanofluid 50
 xii

2.50 Relation between Nusselt number and Peclet number

for AI2O3/water nanofluid 50

2.51 Effect of mass flow rate of coolant on cooling

capacity and effectiveness 52

2.52 Effect of mass flow rate of coolant on Pressure drop

and pumping power 52

2.53 Effect of Volume fraction on heat transfer enhancement 53

2.54 Effect of nanofluid volume concentration on heat

transfer enhancement 54

2.55 Effect of volume concentration of nanofluid on

friction factor 54

3.1 Flat tube of a radiator with domain around it 61

3.2 Meshed geometry of tube with spacing of 0.5 61

3.3 Meshed geometry of domain with spacing of 0.25

and more precise towards the wall of the tube 62

4.1 Contours of Static pressure 64

4.2 Velocity vectors with direction 64

4.3 Surface Nusselt number for water 65

4.4 Comparison of Nusselt number with Vajjha 65

4.5 Contour of Heat transfer coefficient of water 66

 xiii

4.6 Contour of Heat transfer coefficient of TiO2 nanofluid

with 3% vol. concentration 66

4.7 Contour of Heat transfer coefficient of SiO2 nanofluid

with 3% vol. concentration 67

4.8 Heat transfer coefficient of CuO nanofluid at

3% vol. concentration 67

4.9 Nusselt number of SiO2 nanofluid at 3% volume

concentration 68
4.10 Nusselt number of CuO nanofluid at 3% volume

concentration 68

4.11 Nusselt number of TiO2 nanofluid at 3% volume

concentration 69
 xiv

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page

2.1 Heat transfer coefficient at various Reynolds

number and different volume concentrations 46

3.1 Thermophysical properties of base fluid water

at 300K 57

3.2 Thermophysical properties of various nanoparticles

at 300K 57

3.3 Nanofluid properties of various particles at 300K 58

 xv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Ag - Gold
Au - Silver
CuO - Copper Oxide
CFD - Computational Fluid Dynamics
Cp - Specific Heat at Constant Pressure
DNS - Direct Numerical Simulation
Dp - Nanoparticle Diameter
H2O - Water
K - Thermal Conductivity
Kr - Conductivity Ratio
Nu - Mean Nusselt Number
Pr - Prandtl Number
Re - Reynolds Number (Re = H0U0=v)
Recr - Critical Reynolds number
SIMPLE - Semi-implicit method for pressure linked equations
SiO2 - Silicon dioxide
TiO2 - Titanium dioxide
V - Dimensionless fluid velocity
 xvi

LIST OF SYMBOLS

Φ - Volume fraction
β - Volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion
µ - Dynamic viscosity of fluid
υ - Kinematic viscosity of fluid
ρ - Fluid density
∆ - Difference in parameter
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Study

Traditionally forced convective heat transfer in an automobile radiator is performed

to cool circulating fluids such as water or a mixture of water and antifreeze material

like ethylene glycol. In order to enhance the development of energy efficient heat

transfer equipment, the thermal conductivity of the heat transfer fluid plays a pivotal

role. As water and ethylene glycol exhibit very low thermal conductivity, there is a

need for new heat transfer fluids to increase the heat transfer rate. The aim of this

study is to look for alternative fluids that can enhance heat transfer in an automobile

radiator which is of great importance for optimization of fuel consumption. Among

the efforts for enhancement of heat transfer, the application of additives to liquids

has been effective. Recent advances in nanotechnology have allowed development of

a new category of fluids termed as nanofluids. Such fluids are liquid suspensions

containing particles that are smaller than 100nm and have a thermal conductivity

higher than the base fluid [1]. Nanofluids are formed by suspending metallic or

non-metallic oxide nanoparticles in traditional heat transfer fluids. For this particular

study, emphasis will be given on forced convective heat transfer in an automobile

radiator using nanofluids.

 2

1.2 Problem Statement

In recent years, nanofluids have attracted much attention of cooling related

applications in various industrial sectors. This new class of heat transfer fluids

evaluated with conventional fluids has greater potential since it consists of suspended

nanoparticles which have more stability compared to millimeter or micrometer size

particles. Hence, the use of nanoparticles with high thermal conductivity will

effectively increase the thermal conductivity of conventional fluids. Therefore, its

effect on heat transfer rate will be investigated thoroughly in this study.

Engineers have worked for decades to develop more efficient heat transfer fluids for

use in heavy industrial equipment. Recently, there have been considerable research

findings highlighting superior heat transfer performance of nanofluids. Heat transfer

enhancement of 15-40 % can be achieved using various types of nanofluids. With

these superior characteristics, the size and weight of an automotive car radiator can be

reduced without affecting its heat transfer performance. This translates into a better

aerodynamic feature for design of an automotive car frontal area. Coefficient of drag

can be minimized and fuel consumption efficiency can be improved as well.

1.3 Objectives

The intention of this project is to find a material that will increase heat transfer

coefficient of a radiator coolant. The main objectives of this thesis are:

 To investigate the effects of different nanofluids, which differ in terms of types

of nanoparticles (types of nanoparticles*).

 To study the effects of different volume fraction of nanoparticles in base fluid.

 3

 To study the effects of Reynolds number, and temperature difference on the

flow structure.

 Numerical study of the parameters affecting heat transfer in radiator coolant

using CFD software.

1.4 Scope of Work

The aim of the project is to numerically investigate the effect of the heat transfer

characteristics for different parameters in the radiator coolant. By doing so, the project

will discover the application of using nanofluids for heat transfer enhancement with

different nanoparticles in terms of types of nanoparticles, volume fraction and

Reynolds Number. Firsly, a literature review was done to research and summarize

journals related to the project title. The literature review was thoroughly carried out to

assist to understand more about nanofluid and its characteristic as well as to choose

the most suitable type of nanofluid to use as a coolant. After this, a complete analysis

was made to interpret the numerical outcomes of this project. Finally, the results

obtained from the numerical study are compared with the results available in

literature.

1.5 Thesis outline

This thesis comprises of mainly five chapters. It covers all chapters required in order

to fulfil the thesis standard format. Chapter 1 discusses mainly on the background of

the problem, statement of problem, and objectives of the study. In chapter 2, literature

review was carried out thoroughly and that relevant to the research are included in this

chapter. Also, some present unanswered questions and untried methods have been

addressed in the summary. Chapter 3 concentrated on research methodology and

 4

general governing equations used in the investigation with its assumptions, limitations,

the boundary condition. Also, the calculation methods needed to find variables such as

thermophysical properites of nanofluids at different concentrations are presented in

this chapter.. Code validation and the results of numerical study are presented in

chapter 4. Lastly, the fifth chapter gives conclusions and recommendations for future

work.
 CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The enhancement of heat transfer by adding solid nanoparticles to liquids has been

an essential topic in the last ten years for many industrial applications. There are

many different applications of Nanofluids in various fields including automotive

cooling system. The focus of this study is to investigate the effect of adding

nanoparticle to base fluid such as water/ethylene glycol that form nanofluids to

enhance heat transfer in automotive cooling system. Numerous studies on

enhancement of heat transfer using nanofluids have been continually published in the

literature. For example, Choi et al. showed that nanofluids have potential of being

recognized as a new generation of coolants for vehicle thermal management due to

higher thermal conductivity than base fluids. The addition of nanoparticles to the

standard engine coolant has the potential to improve automotive and heavy-duty

engine cooling rates. This improvement can be used to remove engine heat with a

smaller size coolant system. This could lead to smaller and lighter radiators, which in

turn benefit almost every aspect of car and economy. It can reduce the coefficient of

drag and thus resulting in less fuel consumption [2].

A large amount of fundamental research has been carried out previously on topics

relating to forced convection by utilizing nanofluids in different types of heat

exchangers. In this context, the published literature provides relevant and important
 6

information which will be useful in implementing the project. Basically, all the studies

carried out previously can be categorized into numerical and experimental studies.

2.2 Experimental Studies

S.M Peyghambarzadeh et al. [3] investigated experimentally the heat transfer

performance of automobile radiator by calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient

according to the conventional ɛ-NTU technique. Copper oxide and Iron oxide

nanoparticles were added to water at different concentrations of 0.15, 0.4, and 0.65

vol% with considering the best pH for longer stability. In these experiments, the liquid

side Reynolds number was varied from 50-1000 and the inlet liquid to the radiator had

a constant temperature which was changed at 50, 65 and 80 °C as shown in figure 2.1.

The ambient air for cooling of hot liquid was used at constant temperature and the air

Reynolds number was varied between 500 and 700 as shown in figure 2.2. The effects

of these variables on overall heat transfer coefficient were investigated and results

showed that both nanofluids have greater overall heat transfer coefficient in

comparison with water up to 9 %. Furthermore, increasing the nanoparticle

concentration, air velocity, and nanofluid velocity enhances the overall heat transfer

coefficient as shown in figure 2.3.

FIGURE 2.1: Overall heat transfer coefficient of Fe2O3/water nanofluids at

concentration of 0.15 vol % [3]
 7

FIGURE 2.2: Overall heat transfer coefficient of CuO/water nanofluids at

concentration of 0.15 vol% [3]

FIGURE 2.3: Percentage of heat transfer enhancement using different nanofluids at

different concentrations [3]

 8

S.M. Peyghambarzadeh et al. [4] experimentally investigated the cooling

performance of automobile radiator with Al2O3 nanoparticles in water. Forced

convective heat transfer in a water based nanofluid was compared to that of pure

water in an automobile radiator. Five different concentrations of nanofluids were

used in the range of 0.1 – 1 vol % by addition of Al2O3 nanoparticles in water as

shown in figure 2.4 as outlet temperature increases with flow rate. Liquid flow rate

was changed in the range of 2-5 l/min to have fully turbulent regime. Also, the

effect of fluid inlet temperature to the radiator was also analyzed by varying the

temperature in the range of 37-49 °C. The result shows that increasing the fluid

circulating rate can improve the heat transfer performance while the fluid inlet

temperature to radiator Al2O3 has trivial effects. Authors reported that application of

nanofluid with low concentration enhanced heat transfer efficiency in comparison

with water.

FIGURE 2.4: Comparison of outlet temperature with different vol concentration of

nanofluids [4]
 9

FIGURE 2.5: Nu number variations of nanofluids with different concentrations as

function of Re number [4]

M. Naraki et al. [5] experimentally investigated the overall heat transfer coefficient

of CuO/water nanofluids under laminar flow regime (100 ≤ Re ≤ 1000) in a car

radiator. The experimental system was similar to cars cooling system. The

experiment was carried out at different nanofluid concentrations between 0-0.4 vol%.

Several inlet temperatures of the liquid were used in the experiment to see its effects.

The overall heat transfer coefficient with nanofluid was more compared to base fluid

which is water. The results show that overall heat transfer coefficient of nanofluid

increases significantly with nanofluid flow rate. The results indicate that heat

transfer coefficient enhances with the addition of nanoparticles to base fluid. At the

concentrations of 0.15 and 0.4 vol % of CuO nanoparticles, the overall heat transfer

coefficient increases by 6% and 8% respectively. This increase in overall heat

transfer coefficient with nanofluid is caused by increase of heat transfer efficiency

due to enhancement of thermal conductivity. The results state that by increasing the
 10

fluid inlet temperature, the overall heat transfer coefficient of nanofluid decreases.

This decrease can be due to a number of factors such as rapid alignment of

nanoparticles in lower viscosity fluids, leading to less contact between nanoparticles.

It could also be due to depletion of particles in the near-wall fluid phase, leading

lower thermal conductivity layer at the wall. To understand which mechanism might

be responsible for this result requires significant work including CFD modeling of

the flows in nanoparticle dispersions.

FIGURE 2.6: Effect of vol flow rate on overall heat transfer coefficient of

CuO/water nanofluid [5]

 11

FIGURE 2.7: Effect of air Reynolds number on overall heat transfer coefficient of

CuO/water nanofluid [5]

K.Y. Leong et al. [6] carried out a study on the application of ethylene glycol based

copper nanofluids in engine cooling system. The study was meant to investigate the

effects of nanofluids as coolants in an automotive car radiator. It was observed that

overall heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer rate in engine cooling system

increased with the usage of nanofluids (with ethylene glycol as base fluid) compared

to ethylene glycol alone. The results state that heat transfer rate was enhanced by

increasing volume concentration of nanoparticles ranging from 0% to 2%. In this

study, it was found that prandtl number of nanofluids based coolant decreases

exponentialy with volume fraction of copper nanoparticles mainly due to higher

thermal conductivity of nanofluids which is due to increase in Brownian motion as

shown in figure 2.8. It was also found that Nusselt number decreases with addition

of copper particles as seen below. The overall heat transfer coefficient increases

significantly as the volume fraction of nanofluids increase as shown in figure

2.9.Thermal performance of a radiator using nanofluid is increased with air and

coolant Reynolds number at different volume concentrations as shown in figure 2.10.

 12

In this study, it was estimated that 18.7% reduction of air frontal area can be

achieved by adding 2 % copper nanoparticles at Reynolds number of 6000 and 5000

for air and coolant respectively.

FIGURE 2.8: Effect of volume fraction to coolant prandtl and nusselt number [6]

FIGURE 2.9: Effect of volume fraction to overall heat transfer coefficient [6]
 13

FIGURE 2.10: Effect of coolant Reynolds number to overall heat transfer coefficient [6]

Kim et al. experimentally investigated the effect of nanofluids on the performances

of convective heat transfer coefficient of a circular straight tube having laminar and

turbulent flow with constant heat flux. Stable nanofluids with water-based

suspensions of alumina and amorphous carbonic nanoparticles were prepared for the

experiment. Authors found that the convective heat transfer coefficient of alumina

nanofluids improved in comparison to base fluid by 15% and 20% in laminar and

turbulent flow respectively. For amorphous carbonic nanofluids, the thermal

conductivity was similar to water, and convective heat transfer coefficient increased

by only 8%. This showed that the thermal boundary layer played a dominant role in

laminar flow while thermal conductivity played a dominant role in turbulent flow.

The movements of nanoparticles enhanced convective heat transfer at the entrance

region [7].
 14

Zeinali et al. investigated experimentally nanofluids containing CuO and

Al2O3 oxide nanoparticles in water as base fluid in different concentrations produced

and the laminar flow convective heat transfer through circular tube with constant

wall temperature boundary condition. This examination was performed with

different concentrations of nanoparticles. A dispersion model is used to account for

the presence of nanoparticles. Numerical predictions are in agreement with

experimental results achieved for different nanoparticles used in the experiment.

Results clearly show that addition of nanoparticles to base fluid yields considerable

enhancement of heat transfer. They obtained augmentation of heat transfer

coefficient of nanofluid with increase of nanoparticle concentration. The heat

transfer coefficient obtained was greater than that of distilled water base fluid.

Authors have reported that the heat transfer augmentation results are much higher in

experimental observation than that of predicted results [8].

Choi published a paper on nanofluids for improving efficiency of cooling systems.

The author reported a project to target fuel savings for automotive industries through

development of energy efficient nanofluids and smaller and lighter radiators. A major

goal of the nanofluids project was to reduce the size and weight of the vehicle

cooling systems by greater than 10%. nanofluids enable the potential to allow higher

temperature coolants and higher heat rejection in the automotive engines. It was

estimated that higher temperature radiator could reduce the radiator size

approximately by 30%. This translates into reduced aerodynamic drag, fluid

pumping and fan requirements leading to perhaps a 10% fuel savings [9].
 15

Duangthongsuk and Wongwises report an experimental study carried out to

investigate the forced convective heat transfer and flow characteristics of a nanofluid

consisting of water and 0.2 vol% TiO2 nanoparticles in a double tube counter flow

heat exchanger. The heat transfer coefficient and friction factor of the TiO2–water

nanofluid flowing in a horizontal double-tube counter flow heat exchanger under

turbulent flow conditions are examined. The Degussa P25 TiO2 nanoparticles of

about 21 nm diameter were used in the study. The results show that the convective

heat transfer coefficient of nanofluid was higher by 6-11% compared to the base

fluid. The heat transfer coefficient of the nanofluid enhances with an increase in

mass flow rate of hot water and nanofluid, and increases with a decrease in the

nanofluid temperature. Finally, it is seen in this report that the use of nanofluid can

increase the pressure drop if high concentrations of nanoparticles are used [10].

Naik and Sundar carried out an experimental investigation into thermophysical

properties of propylene glycol based CuO nanofluid for heat transfer applications. In

this study, thermal conductivity and viscosity of water-propylene glycol based CuO

nanofluids were estimated at different temperatures for five different concentrations.

The results show that thermal conductivity of CuO nanofluids increases with

increase in the nanoparticle concentration in base fluid as shown in figure 2.11. For

1.2% volume concentration CuO nanofluids, a 10.9% to 43% enhancement in the

thermal conductivity of nanofluids was observed in the different temperature range

considered. It is reported that propylene glycol based nanofluids have low thermal

conductivity compared to water based nanofluids. It has antifreeze features and can

be used as heat transfer fluid in cold regions. The authors reported that dynamic

viscosity of copper oxide nanofluids decreases exponentially with increase in

 16

nanofluid temperature. The nanoparticle volume concentration has considerable

influence on viscosity of CuO nanofluids aswell. It was shown that the thermal

conductivity enhancement depends on particle volume concentration and also on

nanofluid temperature [11].

FIGURE 2.11: Thermal conductivity against Temperature for different nanofluid vol.

concentrations. [11]

FIGURE 2.12: Thermal conductivity against volume concentrations for CuO

nanofluid. [11]
 17

Mintsa et al. investigated the effect of temperature, particle size and volume fraction

on thermal conductivity of water based nanofluids of copper oxide and alumina.

Authors suggested that thermal characteristics can be enhanced with increase of

particles volume fraction. It was found that the smaller the particle size, the greater

the effective thermal conductivity of nanofluids at the same volume fraction. Contact

surface area of particles with fluid and Brownian motion can be increased when

smaller particles are used in the same volume fraction. This subsequently increased

thermal conductivity of nanofluids [12].

Lazarus Godson et al. experimentally investigated the convective heat transfer

coefficient and pressure drop of silver-water nanofluids under laminar and turbulent

flow regime in a counter flow heat exchanger. The use of silver nanoparticles in the

base fluid enhanced the heat transfer coefficients by 23.5% and 69% for 0.3 and 0.9

vol% concentrations, respectively. For Reynolds number compliant to laminar

regime, the increase in average heat transfer coefficient with respect to concentration

was about 10-15 % increase for every increase in concentration of 0.3%. For

transition and turbulent regime, the heat transfer coefficient increases by 20-30 % for

same concentrations. Authors reported that augmentation in heat transfer with

respect to concentration is substantial in Reynolds number range from 3000 to 7500.

The comparison between the heat transfer coefficient and the Gnielinski equation is

shown in Figure 2.13. From the figure, it is clearly visible that the measured heat

transfer coefficient of nanofluid was 40% greater than that of the Gnielinski equation.

Likewise, it is observed that the Nu increases with the increase in the Reynolds

number and the volume concentration as shown in figure 2.14. The augmentation is

highly significant in the turbulent flow and less significant in the laminar flow region.
 18

The effect of thermophysical properties plays a major role for the improvement of

heat transfer. In this study, it was noted that pressure drop of using pure metal

nanofluid has a little penalty when compared with that of pure water when solid

nanoparticles are used with higher concentrations [13].

FIGURE 2.13: Heat transfer coefficient against Reynolds number at 0.3% vol.

concentration. [13]

FIGURE 2.14: Nusselt number against vol. fraction for different Re number. [13]
 19

Farajollahi et al. experimentally investigated the heat transfer characteristics and

Nusselt number of Al2O3/water and TiO2/water nanofluids for turbulent flow in a

horizontal stainless steel shell and tube heat exchanger. The effects of Peclet number,

volume concentration of nanoparticles, and particle type on heat transfer

characteristics were investigated. From the results, it is noticed that adding of

nanoparticles to base fluid causes significant enhancement of heat transfer

characteristics. A comparison of heat transfer behavior of two nanofluids indicated

that a certain Peclet number, heat transfer characteristics of TiO2 nanofluid at its

optimum nanoparticle concentration are greater than those of Al2O3 nanofluid.

However, Al2O3 nanofluid possesses better heat transfer behavior at higher

nanoparticle concentrations [14].

Keblinski et al. reviewed the properties of Nanofluids and the future challenges. It

was mentioned that recent experiments on nanofluids have indicated significant

increases in thermal conductivity compared with liquids without nanoparticles. If

these results can be confirmed in future experiments, new theoretical descriptions

may be needed to account for unique features of nanofluids, such as high particle

mobility and large surface to volume ratio. Published reports of how the thermal

conductivity of the nanofluid varies as a function of nanoparticle loading are plotted

in Figure 2.15. Early experimental studies of the thermal transport properties of

nanofluids focused on changes in properties created by high volume fraction of

oxide nanoparticles. In convective heat transfer in nanofluids, the heat transfer

coefficient depends not only on the thermal conductivity but also on other properties,

such as the specific heat, density, and dynamic viscosity of a nanofluid. At low

volume fractions, the density and specific heat of nanofluids have been observed to
 20

be very similar to those describing the base fluid such as that of water. A potentially

significant progress is the recent observation of a strong temperature dependence of

improvement in thermal conductivity for both high concentrations of oxide

nanoparticles and extremely low concentrations of metal oxide nanoparticles. In both

nanofluid systems, a double fold increase in the enhancement of thermal

conductivity was observed over a small temperature range (20-50°C). If established,

and if this temperature dependence occurs over a wide temperature, then this

property could make nanofluids particularly attractive for applications at elevated

temperatures such as those of automobile radiators [15].

FIGURE 2.15: Thermal conductivity against volume fraction of different

nanoparticles. [15]

Sung joong kim et al. carried out an experimental study of flow critical heat flux in

Alumina-water, Zinc Oxide-water, and Diamond-water nanofluids. The results

revealed that addition of the above mentioned nanofluids enhance the critical heat

flux (CHF) of water in flow boiling. The size of the nanoparticles used was less than

100nm. The particle volume concentration was less than or equal to 0.1 vol %. The
 21

CHF tests were conducted at three different mass fluxes. The nanofluids exhibited a

significant CHF enhancement of up to 40-50 % with respect to pure water at high

mass flux of 2500 kg/m2s. The CHF enhancement was weakly dependent on

nanoparticle concentration for alumina nanofluids. However, it increased more

noticeably with nanoparticle concentration for the zinc-oxide and diamond

nanofluids [16].

Lai et al. experimentally investigated the convection heat transfer performance of

water based Al2O3 nanofluids in a single 1.02mm inner diameter, constant heat flux

stainless steel tube for laminar flow in both developing and fully developed regions.

The results revealed that the heat transfer coefficient for nanofluids is greater than

that of pure water. The heat transfer coefficient increases with increasing flow rate

and particle volume fraction. Additionally, the enhancements in heat transfer

coefficient near the entrance region are greater than the enhancements further

downstream. However, the nanofluids exhibit a longer entrance region than pure

water, and this increases further with increase in nanoparticle volume fraction. The

enhancements in heat transfer could be entirely due to increases in the static thermal

conductivity of nanofluids. Another possibility could be particle rotation that can

also lead to convective heat transfer augmentation. It has been proposed that the

enhancement might be due to particle migration within the flow field, especially near

the entrance where a larger velocity gradient is expected. In Figure 2.16, several

trends can be observed. First of all, heat transfer coefficient decreases with

increasing axial distance from the test tube entrance. Second, the h results of the

Al2O3-DI water nanofluid show that h increases with increasing flow rate and

particle volume fraction. Additionally, the enhancements in h near the entrance are
 22

greater than the enhancements in h further downstream. Finally, the nanofluids

exhibit a longer entrance region than pure DI water. [17].

FIGURE 2.16: Heat transfer coefficient against axial distance for different volume

concentration. [17]

Hashemi et al. experimentally investigated the heat transfer characteristics of CuO

based oil nanofluid flow inside horizontal coiled wire inserted tubes under constant

heat flux. The nanofluids with CuO nanoparticles volume fraction ranging from

0-2% were prepared. The effect of different parameters such as mass velocity, and

nanofluid particles concentration on heat transfer coefficient was studied. The figure

2.17 shows the variation of heat transfer coefficient versus Reynolds number for

pure oil and nanofluid with 2% vol at different heat fluxes of 6200 W/m2 and 9900

W/m2. The results revealed that for a given tube, a noticeable increase in heat

transfer coefficient is achieved when nanofluids were used instead of a base fluid.
 23

The reason for this enhancement is the increase in thermal conductivity of the fluid

which results in enhancement of heat transfer coefficient. For a 2% vol concentration

of nanofluid flow inside the tube, the maximum heat transfer enhancement of up to

43.5% was achieved in this experiment. Figure 2.18 compares the local heat transfer

coefficients of pure oil and nanofluid at different axial locations along the test

section. It is seen that for each axial location, nanofluid with 2% vol concentration

shows the greater heat transfer enhancement. In addition, it was observed that the

decay in heat transfer coefficient occurs at higher axial distances. The results show

that the extent of heat transfer enhancement depends on axial position and highest

enhancement occurs at the entrance of the test section and it decreases with increase

of axial distance [18].

FIGURE 2.17: Heat transfer coefficient against Reynolds number at 2% volume

concentration for different heat flux values. [18]

 24

FIGURE 2.18: Heat transfer coefficient against axial distance for different vol,

concentration [18]

Jaafar Albadr et al. experimentally investigated forced convective heat transfer and

flow characteristics of Al2O3 nanofluid with different volume concentrations of

0.3-2 % in a horizontal shell and tube heat exchanger. The results show that the

friction factor increases with the increase in volume concentration of the

nanoparticles for a given mass flow rate and decreases with increase in Reynolds

number. For the nanofluid, the overall heat transfer coefficient increases with the

increase in the values of the mass flow rates and with the increase in volume

concentration of the nanofluid, the maximum value of the overall heat transfer

coefficient indicated at the maximum flow rate and at 2% volume concentration of

the nanoparticles with an enhancement ratio of 1.754, the reason is that the

nanoparticles increase the thermal conductivity and a large energy exchange process

resulting from the chaotic movement of the nanoparticles. Nusselt numbers of the

nanofluid are higher than the base fluid, and the numbers are increasing with the

increase in Reynolds number as well as the particle volume concentration. The

trends shown by the nanofluid is due to the fact that the nanoparticles presented in
 25

the base fluid increase the thermal conductivity and the viscosity of the base liquid at

the same time [19].

FIGURE 2.19: Overall heat transfer coefficient against Peclet number. [19]

FIGURE 2.20: Nusselt number against Peclet number for different vol. conc. [19]

2.3 Numerical Studies

A few numerical studies have been carried out involving nanofluids as a radiator

coolant to enhance heat transfer. Ravikant S. Vajjha et al. numerically studied

three-dimensional laminar flow and heat transfer with two different nanofluids,
 26

Al2O3 and CuO in an ethylene glycol and water mixture circulating through the flat

tubes of an automobile radiator. Heat transfer computations for Al2O3 and CuO

nanofluids with different volumetric concentrations show substantial increase in the

average heat transfer coefficient. For example, at a Reynolds number of 2000, the

percentage increase in the average heat transfer coefficient over the base fluids for a

10% volume concentration of Al2O3 nanofluid is 94% and that for a 6% vol. CuO

nanofluid is 89%. The analysis indicates that average heat transfer coefficient

increases with particle volumetric concentration and Reynolds number, with the

latter having more influence. For instance, increasing Reynolds number from 100 to

2000 for a particle concentration of 10% shows an increase in average heat transfer

coefficient from 865 to 1762 for Al2O3 nanofluid. This increase is lower at a lower

particle concentration. Furthermore, convective heat transfer coefficient in the

developing and developed regions along the flat tubes with nanofluid flow show

marked improvement over the base fluid. The results indicate that nanofluids can

provide the same amount of heat transfer with lower velocities and lower pumping

power compared to the base fluid. At a constant heat transfer, the power required to

pump the fluid decreases with an increase in the particle volumetric concentration.

For the same amount of heat transfer, the pumping power requirement is 82% lower

for Al2O3 nanofluid of 10% concentration and 77% lower for a CuO nanofluid of 6%

concentration when compared to base fluid [20].

 27

FIGURE 2.21: Variation of h and Nu with Reynolds number for different

concentration of Al2O3 nanofluid [20]

FIGURE 2.22: Variation of h and Nu with Reynolds number for different

concentration of CuO [20]

 28

Gabriela and Angel investigated numerically the convective heat transfer in laminar

flow inside a flattened tube of an automobile radiator. CuO/ethylene glycol

nanofluids were used in this work to investigate the cooling performances. A three

dimensional analysis was carried out to study the heat transfer performance of

nanofluid flow over a flattened tube in a laminar flow and constant heat flux

boundary condition parameters. The nanoparticle volumetric concentration was

varied between 0 and 4 vol % to simulate the heat transfer of nanofluids. The results

show that the heat transfer coefficient increases with increase in volume

concentration level of nano particle, Brownian motion and Reynolds number. For

example, at a Reynolds number of 10 and 4% concentration of CuO nanofluid

produces a heat transfer coefficient that is about 19% larger than that of base fluid.

The maximum enhancement in heat transfer coefficient of 82% is obtained for

flattened tube at Reynolds number of 125 and 4% nanoparticles. Figure 2.23 shows

the heat transfer enhancement obtained due to the replacement of ethylene glycol

with nanofluids in the automobile radiator. The heat transfer coefficients for versus

Reynolds number for flattened, circular and elliptic tubes are depicted in Figure 2.24.

The results show that flattened tubes have increased the heat transfer coefficients

significantly compared to those of circular and elliptic tube profiles. It is obvious

that as the tube profile becomes more flattened, the heat transfer coefficient increases

significantly. The reason for heat transfer enhancement could be ascribed to the

change in temperature and velocity distributions along the tube cross section [21].
 29

FIGURE 2.23: Nusselt number vs Reynolds number at different concentrations [21]

FIGURE 2.24: Heat transfer coefficient with Re=10 and 125 with different types of

tubes [21]

Bai et al. employed a CFD numerical simulation method to analyse the application

of nanofluids in engine cooling. The simulation results indicated that nanofluids

could enhance engine heat dissipating capacity and Cu-water nanofluids had better

heat transfer capability. The results show that increasing the nanoparticle
 30

concentration enhances heat dissipating capacity. For example, a concentration of

5% nanoparticles submersed in water increased the heat dissipating capacity by

44.1%. With a remarkable enhancement of heat transfer, the workload of the pump

of engine cooling system only increased by 6%, which could be easily acceptable

[22].

Namburu et al. numerically analyzed turbulent flow and heat transfer to three types

of nanofluids namely copper oxide (CuO), alumina (Al2O3) and silicon dioxide

(SiO2) in ethylene glycol and water, flowing through a circular tube under constant

heat flux. The results revealed that nanofluids containing smaller diameter of

nanoparticles produce higher viscosity and Nusselt number. Nusselt numbers are

also increased at higher volume fraction of particles. Authors state that at a constant

heat flux (50 W/cm2) with a constant Reynolds number (20,000), heat transfer

coefficient of 6% CuO nanofluid has increased 1.35 times than that of base fluid.

The figure 2.25 displays the increase in heat transfer coefficient by using various

nanofluids for a fixed volume concentration of 6%. At the same particle volume

fraction, CuO nanofluid produced higher heat transfer coefficient compared to that

of other types of nanofluids. Also, the figure 2.26 displays the influence of CuO

nanoparticle concentration on the Nusselt number. The increase in Nusselt number is

due to increase in prandtl number at higher volume concentrations of nanofluids [23]

 31

FIGURE 2.25: Heat transfer coefficient against Reynolds number using different

types of nanofluids [23]

FIGURE 2.26: Nusselt number variations with Reynolds number at different vol.

concentrations of nanofluid [23]

Adnan et al. numerically studied the effects of cross sectional area of tube on friction

factor and heat transfer enhancement of nanofluids flow through horizontal three

shapes of tubes. A CFD model by using FLUENT software depending on finite

 32

volume method was conducted. TiO2 nanoparticles with different volume fractions

of 1-2.5 % were suspended in water as base fluid. The results reveal that friction

factor decreases with increase in Reynolds number but increases with increase in

volume concentration of nanofluid. The reason for increase in friction factor is due

to increase in fluid viscosity which reduced the moving of fluid. The friction factor

values for circular tube are higher followed by elliptical and flat tube. On the other

hand, the heat transfer coefficient increases with increasing Reynolds number and

volume concentrations of nanofluid for three tubes because of high thermal

conductivity of TiO2. The results reveal that flat tube has the highest values of heat

transfer coefficient than others followed by elliptical and circular tube. The reason

being the area of heat transfer in flat tube is greater than others [24].

FIGURE 2.27: Heat transfer coefficient variations with increase in Reynolds number

at different vol. concentrations [24]

 33

FIGURE 2.28: Heat transfer coefficient variations at different Reynolds number with

three shapes of tubes [24]

Rabienataj Darzi et al. numerically studied the effects of turbulent heat transfer of

Al2O3-water nanofluid inside helically corrugated tubes. The computational fluid

dynamics code was employed and mesh generation was made by Gambit software.

In order to solve the momentum and energy equations, the second order upwind

scheme and the SIMPLE method for pressure–velocity coupling are used. This study

was carried out for different corrugating pitch and height ratios at several Reynolds

numbers from 10,000-40,000. The effect of nanoparticles in heat transfer

enhancement for smooth tube and helically corrugation tubes was analyzed and their

relative Nusselt number was compared. The results indicate that as concentration of

nanoparticles increases, the Nusselt number increases. The results show that the heat

transfer is enhanced extremely by increasing the volume fraction of nano particles.

By addition of 2% and 4% of nanoparticles by volume to water enhances heat

transfer by 21% and 58%, respectively. The results show that the effect of nano

particles on heat transfer intensifies at higher corrugation height and smaller pitch.

[25].
 34

FIGURE 2.29: Nusselt number variations at different Re number at different vol.

concentrations [25]

Gilles Roy et al. numerically investigated laminar flow and heat transfer in a radial

flow cooling system with the use of nanofluids. In this paper, the nanofluid was

prepared using Al2O3 nanoparticle with water as the base fluid. The nanoparticle

volume fraction of 5% was used in this investigation. The nanofluid physical and

thermal properties were calculated by using empirical equations based on both

constituents of the mixture or from available experimental data. The results show

relative increase of total heat transfer rates as a function of nanoparticle volume

concentration. There was a significant increase of total heat transfer rates with the

use of suspended nanoparticles. For nanoparticle concentration of 5% and 10%, an

increase in heat transfer rates of 45% and 110% was observed, respectively. While,

the use of nanofluids was beneficial in heat transfer enhancement capabilities, it is

expected that they also increase friction and pressure losses. The results show that

the use of a nanofluid causes considerable increase in wall shear stresses and

pressure losses. For a 5% particle nanofluid, a 2.5 fold increase in wall shear stress
 35

was encountered. Although the use of nanoparticles in traditional cooling fluids can

be expected to increase the shear stresses and pressure losses inside any cooling

application, it is believed that the heat transfer benefits of such fluids in engineering

applications will outweigh this side effect [26].

FIGURE 2.30: Influence of particle volume fraction on heat transfer performance

[26]

H. Demir et al. numerically investigated forced convection heat transfer

characteristics of Al2O3 nanofluids in a double-tube counter flow heat exchanger.

The horizontal test section was modeled and solved using a CFD program. The fluid

entered the circular tube with uniform axial velocity and temperature. A single-phase

model having two-dimensional equations was employed with either constant or

temperature dependent properties to study the hydrodynamics and thermal behaviors

of nanofluid flow. The study was carried out at different nanoparticle volume

concentration ranging from 1-4%. The results revealed that considerable heat

transfer enhancement due to nanoparticles were achieved. The increase in heat

transfer coefficient with increase of nanoparticle volume concentration is seen from

 36

the investigation. This increase is high for Al2O3 due to higher Prandtl number and

thermal conductivity of nanoparticles than the base fluid and also a large energy

exchange process resulting from chaotic movement of nanoparticles. It is also seen

that the pressure drop increases with increase in nanoparticle concentration. It was

observed that wall shear stress increases with the increasing Reynolds number of the

flow and also volume concentration of the nanoparticles in the tube. This is due to

mixture viscosity increasing strongly due to inclusion of nanoparticles. The effect of

nanoparticle concentration on average Nusselt number and heat transfer coefficient

can be clearly seen in figure 2.31cand 2.32. Nusselt number and heat transfer

coefficient significantly increases with increasing nanoparticle concentration and

also Reynolds number. The numerical results from this study clearly show that the

use of nanofluids can significantly increase heat transfer capabilities even for

relatively small particle volume fractions. Nanofluids with higher volume fraction

have higher heat transfer enhancement but also have higher pressure drop. Therefore,

one must be careful in selecting a nanofluid that will balance the heat transfer

enhancement and pressure drop penalty [27].

FIGURE 2.31: Nusselt number variations with Reynolds number at different vol.

concentrations [27]
 37

FIGURE 2.32: Heat transfer coefficient against Reynolds number at different

Reynolds number [27]

Govarthan et al. numerically studied heat transfer behavior of nanofluids in a

uniformly heated circular tube fitted with helical inserts in laminar flow under

constant heat flux. Al2O3 nanoparticles were used in water with different

concentrations in the range of 0.5-1.5%. The helical twist inserts of twist ratios of

2.93, 3.91 and 4.89 were used for the simulation. The heat transfer enhancement

increases with increase in Reynolds number and decreases with twist ratio. The

Nusselt number increases as volume concentration increases at a particular Reynolds

number. As the volume concentration increases, the Nusselt number enhancement

increases and is maximum for 1.5% concentration. Also, the Nusselt number

increases gradually as Reynolds number increases. The figure 2.33 shows the

influence of Al2O3 nanofluids volume concentration on the nusselt number.After

comparing the heat transfer rates of water and Al2O3 nanofluids, the increase in

Nusselt number is 5-31% for different helical inserts and different volume

concentrations. The maximum heat transfer enhancement obtained is 31.29% for

helical insert of twist ratio of 2.93 and volume concentration of 1.5% with a

Reynolds number of 2039 [28].

 38

FIGURE 2.33: Nusselt number against Reynolds number at different volume

concentrations [28]

Rostamani et al. numerically investigated the turbulent flow of nanofluids with

different volume concentrations of nanoparticles flowing through a two-dimensional

duct under constant heat flux condition. The nanofluids applied in this study are

mixtures of CuO, Al2O3, and TiO2 nanoparticles with water as the base fluid. The

viscosity of nanofluids was obtained on basis of experimental data. The heat transfer

characteristics of nanoparticles were numerically studied for a wide range of

Reynolds number from 20,000-100,000, with a varied range of volume concentration

of 0-6%. The results show that both the Nusselt number and heat transfer

coefficient of nanofluid are strongly dependent on nanoparticles and increase as the

volume concentration of nanoparticles increases. Also, the results show that by

increasing the volume concentration, the shear stress increases. For TiO2

nanoparticle volume concentration of 3%, the increase in heat transfer coefficient is

about 1.48 times over the base fluid at a Reynolds number of 20,000 and is about
 39

1.35 times at a Reynolds number of 100,000. Therefore, a better heat transfer is

achieved at lower Reynolds number for a fixed concentration. These behaviors are

the same for all kind of nanofluids studied. The results also reveal that wall shear

stress increases with reference to base fluid by increasing of the nanoparticle volume

concentration. This behavior was observed for all nanofluids. The variation of

average Nusselt number has been presented in figure 2.34, 2.35 and 2.36 for

different Reynolds number and volume concentration for three different nanofluids

using Alumina, copper oxide, Titanium oxide nanoparticles. They show that Nusselt

number increases with the rise of Reynolds number as well as volume concentration

of nanoparticle. This is due to increase of Prandtl number of nanofluid due to

increase in volume concentration [29].

FIGURE 2.34: Nusselt number against Reynolds number at different vol.

concentration of CuO nanofluid [29]

 40

FIGURE 2.35: Nusselt number against Reynolds number at different vol.

concentration of Al2O3 nanofluid [29]

FIGURE 2.36: Nusselt number against Reynolds number at different volume

concentration of TiO2 nanofluid [29]

Mostafa et al. numerically modeled turbulent forced convective heat transfer and

friction factor in a tube for Fe3O4 magentic nanofluid with computational fluid

dynamics (CFD) method, with a single phase approach. The nanofluid consists of

Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles, with average diameter of 36nm suspended in water as

a base fluid with different nanoparticle concentrations ranging from 0.02-0.6 vol%.
 41

The aim of the study was to determine the effects of nanoparticle concentration and

flow rate on the convective heat transfer and friction factor of nanofluid flowing

through a plain copper tube in turbulent regime with different Reynolds number

ranging from 3000-22000. From this study, the results show that increasing Reynolds

number and volume concentration of nanofluid increases the value of Nusselt

number. This is due to the fact that nanofluids with higher particle concentrations

have higher thermal conductivities. The results reveal that for a 0.6 vol% of

nanoparticle concentration and Reynolds number around 20,000, the mean heat

transfer coefficient is about 29% larger than pure water. However, the friction factor

of nanofluid enhanced slightly when the nanoparticle concentration increased [30].

FIGURE 2.37: Effect of nanofluid concentration and Reynolds number on average

Nusselt number [30]

 42

FIGURE 2.38: Simulation results for friction factor against Reynolds number [30]

Haghshenas et al. numerically studied convective heat transfer of nanofluids in a

circular tube under constant wall temperature condition using computational fluid

dynamics (CFD) approach. A two-phase model and single-phase model were used

for prediction of temperature, flow field, and calculation of heat transfer coefficient.

The authors investigated the effects of some important parameters such as

nanoparticle volume fraction, nanofluid peclet number on heat transfer rate. The

results of CFD simulation based on two-phase model were used for comparison with

single-phase model, theoretical models and experimental data. The results show that

at the constant Peclet number heat transfer coefficient increases with nanoparticle

volume fraction. The authors also reported that the two phase model was more

precise than single-phase model. In nanofluid with 0.2% concentration, the average

relative error between experimental data and CFD results based on single-phase

model is 16.8% while for two-phase model is 8.07%. In all cases studied, the raio of

heat transfer coefficient of nanofluids to that of pure water increases significantly

with Peclet number as well as nanofluid volume fraction. The enhancement is more

significant at high Peclet number. For example in CuO/water nanofluid at Peclet

 43

number of 6500, volume concentration ranging from 0.2-3%, the heat transfer

coefficient increases to 27.8%. At peclet number of 2500, the enhancement in heat

transfer coefficient is just 13% [31].

FIGURE 2.39: Heat transfer coefficient against Peclet number at different volume

concentration of CuO nanofluid [31]

FIGURE 2.40: Comparison between CFD predictions based on single phase and

two-phase models [31]

 44

Bianco et al. numerically investigated forced convection of nanofluids in circular

tubes for developing laminar flow using computational fluid dynamics (CFD)

approach. Alumina nanoparticle with water as the base fluid was used in this study

with nanoparticle size equal to 100nm. A single phase and two phase model were

employed in this study. The authors reported that the maximum difference in average

heat transfer coefficient between single and two phase models results is about 11%.

The results revealed that convective heat transfer coefficient for nanofluids are

greater than that of base fluid. For example, for nanoparticle volume concentration

of 4%, heat transfer rate and Nusselt number increases to 20% and 16%, respectively.

Slight differences were noticed between the two models. As previously noticed, the

presence of nanoparticles increases the wall shear stress. This further increases when

nanoparticle volume fraction is increased. The results clearly show that the inclusion

of nanoparticles produced a considerable increase of heat transfer with respect to that

of base fluid. Heat transfer enhancement increases with nanoparticle volume

concentration. The authors reported that temperature dependent models present

higher values of heat transfer coefficients and Nusselt numbers because the

difference between wall and bulk temperature is minimized, thereby maximizing the

heat transfer. The effect of Reynolds number on average heat transfer coefficient is

shown in figure 2.41 for single and two-phase model, at q=10,000 W/m2. In figure

2.42, Nusselt number with Reynolds number considered at 1% vol concentration is

reported [32].
 45

FIGURE 2.41: Heat transfer coefficient against Reynolds number at different

concentrations [32]

FIGURE 2.42: Nusselt number against Reynolds number at 1% vol

concentration [32]

Bianco et al. also numerically investigated on nanofluids turbulent convection heat

transfer inside a circular tube. Al2O3 nanoparticles were used with water as the base

fluid subjected to a constant heat flux at the wall. The numerical study was carried

out using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) approach with single and two-phase
 46

models, with particle diameter equal to 38nm. The results showed the useful

contribution to the heat transfer provided by the inclusion of nanoparticles, in

comparison to the base fluid. The authors reported that the heat transfer increased

with the Reynolds number and nanoparticle volume concentration. However, it was

again reported that an increase in volume concentration led to an increase in the

shear stress. For the lowest concentration of 1%, the increase in shear stress was

about 10%. The authors also suggested that the accuracy of the model could be

improved by using a better description of nanofluid thermophysical properties [33].

FIGURE 2.43: Heat transfer coefficient against distance z at different

concentrations [33]

TABLE 2.1: Heat transfer coefficient at various Reynolds number and different

volume concentrations [33]

 47

FIGURE 2.44: Nusselt number against Reynolds number at 1% vol.

concentration [33]

FIGURE 2.45: Nusselt number against Reynolds number at 4% vol.

concentration [33]

N.H. Shuaib performed a study using numerical simulation on tube plate-fin cross

flow compact heat exchanger. The effect of different type of nanoparticles in

ethylene glycol-based fluid mainly Copper, diamond, and silicon dioxide is

calculated. The three-dimensional governing equations for both liquid flow and heat
 48

transfer are solved using standard finite volume method for range of Reynolds

number between 4000 and 7000. The nanoparticle volume concentration of 2% was

used for all types of nanofluid examined. The standard K-E turbulence model with

wall function was employed. The standard SIMPLE algorithm is used as the

computational algorithm. The computational model was used to study the variations

of skin friction, and convective heat transfer coefficient. The average heat transfer

coefficient was increased with Reynolds number. About 33% and 31% heat transfer

enhancement are observed for pure EG and EG with 2% DM nanoparticles,

respectively, when coolant Reynolds number is increased from 5000 to 7000. The

pressure drop is slightly larger for nanofluids but irrelevant at outlet region of the

tube. Therefore, the usage of nanofluids in heat exchangers leads to more energy

transfer in a cost-effective manner rather than using conventional coolants [34].

FIGURE 2.46: Variation of heat transfer coefficient along the tube length [34]
 49

FIGURE 2.47: Variations of average heat transfer coefficient against the Reynolds

number [34]

H.Shedid carried out a computational study of heat transfer through an annulur tube

using nanofluids. In this work, Spalart Allmaras turbulence modeling is used to study

numerically thermal behavior for annulur flow of nanofluids. The nanofluids used in

this numerical simulation are Al2O3 and TiO2 nanoparticles and water as base fluid.

The results related to TiO2/water nanofluid are demonstrated through Figure 2.48.

The enhancements of heat transfer coefficient for TiO2/water nanofluid at Peclet

number about 21,800 are about 5.7% and 31.7% for nanoparticle concentrations of

1.0 vol.% and 5.0 vol.% respectively. Figures 2.49 and 2.50 demonstrate the Nusselt

number for Al2O3/water and TiO2/water nanofluids for different Peclet numbers.

Both nanofluids show higher Nusselt number than those of the base fluids and

enhancement increases with nanoparticle concentration. Finally, they conclude that

Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model gives better convergence and more stability

throughout validation with pure water flow. Heat transfer is enhanced by increasing

concentration ratio of nanoparticles for each Al2O3 and TiO2 [35]

 50

FIGURE 2.48: Change of heat transfer coefficient with Peclet number for TiO2/water

nanofluid [35]

FIGURE 2.49 Relation between Nusselt number and Peclet number for TiO2/water

nanofluid [35]

FIGURE 2.50: Relation between Nusselt number and Peclet number for AI2O3/water

nanofluid [35]
 51

Rahul tarodiya et al. performed a parametric study on automobile radiator using

ɛ-NTU method by utilizing nanofluids in a base fluid 80% water, 20% EG as a coolant
for flat plate fin geometry. Basically, they performed an energetic analysis as well as
theoretical performance analyses of the flat tube using nanofluids as coolant to study
its performance improvement. They use different nanoparticles such as Cu, SiC, Al2O3,
and TiO2 with 80% water and 20% ethylene glycol as base fluid in this article. From
figure 2.51, it has been observed that both cooling capacity and effectiveness of
radiator tube increases and comparing cooling capacity and effectiveness of nanofluid
with base fluid is much higher than only base fluid(80%water-20%EG) mixture is
used as a coolant. Below, Figure 2.52 shows that with the variation of coolant mass
flow rate, the pumping power requirement is also increased, but for the comparison of
nanofluid with base fluid it has been found that requirement of pumping power is
reduced for the use of nanofluid. In addition, comparing requirement of pumping
power for different nanofluids, it was revealed that Cu based Nanofluid requires less
pumping power as compared with SiC, Al2O3,TiO2 based Nano-fluids. Their
interpretation is that nanofluids as a coolant in radiator improves the effectiveness,
cooling capacity with the reduction in pumping power. Present study reveals that
nanofluids may effectively be used as a coolant in automotive radiators to improve
performance [36].

FIGURE 2.51: Effect of mass flow rate of coolant on cooling

capacity and effectiveness [36].
 52

FIGURE 2.52: Effect of mass flow rate of coolant on Pressure drop

and pumping power [36].

Kumar performed a CFD study of heat transfer enhancement in pipe flow using Al2O3

Nanofluid. In this work, the heat transfer enhancement using aluminium oxide

nanofluid has been studied by computational fluid dynamic modeling of the nanofluid

flow adopting the single phase approach. The numerical study was performed with

uniform velocity profile at the inlet of horizontal pipe. The direction of flow was

define normal to the boundary. Figure 2.53 shows the effect of volume fraction of

nanofluid on heat transfer enhancement in the laminar regime by comparing the

increase in Nusselt number at different Reynolds number values. It is also observed

that increase in Reynolds number give higher values of Nusselt number. This is

considered to be good result according to them as this will be useful to test new

nanofluids. A threefold increase in Nusselt number is observed without increase in the

pressure drop (Fig. 5). This observation suggests that the use of nanofluid is a very

effective method of heat transfer enhancement. Though at higher volume fractions

increase in pressure drop will become significant and it is important to find the

optimum volume fraction for each application. [37].

 53

Figure 2.53: Effect of Volume fraction on heat transfer enhancement [37].

Adnan et al. studied heat transfer enhancement with elliptical tube under turbulent
flow using TiO2 nanofluid. They numerically investigated heat transfer and friction
factor with pressure drop.As the flow was turbulent, the Reynolds number was above
10000. Here, they applied uniform heat flux (3000 W/m2) as a boundary condition.
Volume concentration nanofluids (0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1%) at 25ºC base temperature
were used for TiO2-water as input fluids. For comparison purposes, water was also
employed as working fluid. The effect of different volume concentration on friction
factor is shown in Fig. 6, at the range of (0 – 1%) nanoparticle volume concentration.
The results are revealed that TiO2 nanofluid with highest concentration of volume 1%
has the highest friction factor at all Reynolds numbers. On the other hand, Fig. 7
shows that Nusselt number is increasing with increasing in volume concentrations of
nanofluid because of the high thermal properties of TiO2 which enhancement of heat
transfer. The results are revealed that TiO2 nanofluid with highest concentration of
volume 1% has the highest Nusselt number at all Reynolds numbers [38].
 54

FIGURE 2.54: Effect of nanofluid volume concentration on heat

transfer enhancement [38]

FIGURE 2.55: Effect of volume concentration of nanofluid on friction factor [38]

 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

For this project, the laminar, forced convection, steady-state, two dimensional and

segregated models was used from FLUENT to predict the behavior in relation to

volume fraction, velocity profile, temperature distribution and heat transfer

coefficient of nanofluids. This particular study requires knowledge of computational

fluid dynamics (CFD). It is mainly a design tool especially for purposes of design

optimization.

FLUENT solvers are based on finite volume method. In this case, the domain of the

model is discretized into finite set of control volumes, which are termed as meshes

or cells. Furthermore, general conservation equations for mass, momentum, and

energy are solved on this set of control volumes. Consequently, partial differential

equations are discretized into a system of algebraic equations. Only then, all

algebraic equations are solved numerically to extract the solution field.

3.2 Nanofluids Thermophysical Properties

To enable the simulation process, it is required to determine all the nanofluid

properties. When the base fluid is mixed with the small volume fraction of solid

nanoparticles, a significant change in the properties of nanofluid occurs. Therefore, a

 56

new nanofluid property must be determined. For this particular study, the

nanoparticles being used are Al2O3, CuO, SiO2 and TiO2. Basically, the required

physical properties for the simulation are nanofluid thermal conductivity (Knf),

dynamic viscosity (μnf), density (�nf), specific heat at constant pressure (Cnf) and

effective coefficient of thermal expansion.

The nanofluid mass density, �nf is given by,

�nf = (1- φ)�f + φ�s [39]

Where, �f and �s are mass densities of the base fluid and nanoparticle, respectively. φ

is symbol of volume fraction.

Then, the specific heat at constant pressure of nanofluid, (Cp)nf is given by,

(�Cp)nf = (1 - φ) ��p)f + φ(�cp)s [39]

The thermal conductivity of nanofluid, Knf is,

Ks+2Kf+2 Ks−Kf φ
Knf = [40]
Ks+2Kf− Ks−Kf φ

For calculation of water based nanofluids, the following correlation is,

μnf = µ f(123φ2+7.3φ+1) [40]

 57

Table 3.1 shows the thermophysical properties of water which is the basefluid and

Table 3.2 shows properties of various types of nanoparticles to be used for the

simulation.

Table 3.1 Thermophysical properties of base fluid water at 300K

Physical Properties Water(base fluid)

� (kg/m3) 998.2

µ (Ns/m2) 1E-03

K (W/m.k) 0.6028

Cp (J/Kg.k) 4183

Table 3.2 Thermophysical properties of various nanoparticles at 300K

Properties SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 CuO

� (kg/m3) 2200 4250 3700 6500

µ (Ns/m2) - - - -

K (W/m.k) 1.2 8.953 46 20

Cp (J/Kg.k) 703 686.2 880 535.6

The thermophysical properties of various nanoparticles will help us to find the

properties of nanofluids using equations 3.5-3.8. Table 3.3 shows the properties of

nanofluids at different concentrations with water as the base fluid.

 58

Table 3.3 Nanofluid properties of various particles at 300K.

Type of fluid φ (%) � (kg/m3) µ (Ns/m2) K (W/m.k) Cp (J/Kg.k)

SiO2/water 1 1010.2 0.0011 0.6266 4107.2

SiO2/water 3 1034.25 0.0013 0.6520 3960.9

SiO2/water 5 1058.29 0.0018 0.6717 3821.28

CuO/water 1 1050.8 1.03 0.616 3960

CuO/water 3 1157.1 2.67 0.65 3582.4

CuO/water 5 1263.3 3.59 0.683 3268.3

TiO2/water 1 1030.2 1.32 0.615 4034.79

TiO2/water 3 1095.3 1.80 0.6464 3772.3

3.3 Governing Equations and Boundary Conditions

Many recent studies have shown that by using low particle volume concentration of

nanoparticles in the base fluid make it behave like a single-phase fluid. Nanoparticles

should not be used in two-phase Compact heat exchanger because once boiling point

reaches, the particles begin to deposit into relatively large clusters near the tube exit

due to localized evaporation. This clustering phenomenon spreads upstream to fill the

entire tube preventing cooling from entering and causing catastrophic failure of the

cooling system. Thus, the nanofluid is assumed to behave as a single-phase fluid.

Therefore, all the governing equations of mass, momentum and energy can be applied

to nanofluids as in the case of pure fluids, by changing the appropriate thermophysical

properties as listed in Table 3.3.

 59

Governing Equations:

The problem under consideration is a steady-state forced convection flow of nanofluid

inside a flat tube. The nanofluid is assumed to be in single phase, incompressible and

enter the flat tube with uniform axial velocity and temperature. The properties of both

nanofluid and compact heat exchanger are temperature dependent. All the surfaces of

heat exchanger are assumed to be insulated.

The dimensional conservation equations for the fluid flow are as given below

(∇ .V) = 0 (41)

�nf (∇ .V) V = -∇ P + µ nf ∇2 V (41)

�nf Cnf (V . ∇) T = Knf ∇2 T (41)

Reynolds number will be used as an input parameter, and the pressure treatment will

be adopted using the SIMPLE scheme. For all the governing solutions, the residuals

lower than 10-6 will be considered as converged solution. The equations for the

friction factor and nusselt number are;

64
�= [42]
��

�ℎ
Nuav = 1.953(Red Pr )1/3 for (Re Pr Dh / L) ≥ 33.33 [42]
�

�ℎ
Nuav = 4.364 + 0.0722 (Red Pr ) for (Re Pr Dh / L) ≤ 33.33 [42]
�
 60

Boundary conditions:

The governing equations of fluid flow are nonlinear coupled differential equations

subject to the following boundary conditions. At the inlet of flat tube and fin, uniform

axial velocity and temperature will be prescribed. The inlet velocity determines the

Reynolds number of flow. Therefore, the Reynolds number considered in this study

was between 700 -2000. The inlet velocity for coolant is specified and calculated

using the equation below

�� µ
μin = [42]
��ℎ

The inlet temperature of coolant will be taken as 80ºC which is typical for a compact

heat exchanger. All along the fin and tube wall, a no-slip boundary condition is

imposed for velocity. A pressure outlet boundary condition will be implemented for

the outlet section.

3. GEOMETRY USED

The geometry analysed for this problem is a flat tube of a radiator for coolant flow as

shown in figure 3.1. The existing rectangular shape is the domain created around the

tube to analyse the heat transfer rate. When compared to the circular tube, the reason

for using flat tube is that it has relatively small pressure drop with increased heat

transfer area.
 61

FIGURE 3.1: Flat tube of a radiator with domain around it.

The geometry was meshed using gambit and two different types of meshing scheme

were emploted to mesh the tube and geometry. For the tube, Quad mesh type was used

with a spacing of 0.5. For the domain, a tri mesh type was used with a spacing of 0.25

to generate the meshes shown below in the figure 3.2 and 3.3.

FIGURE 3.2: Meshed geometry of tube with spacing of 0.5

 62

FIGURE 3.3: Meshed geometry of domain with spacing of 0.25 and more precise

towards the wall of the tube.

 CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter consists of all the relevant numerical results for forced convection heat

transfer in a flat tube of a radiator using nanofluids as coolant. Prior to this, detail

description of the geometry, boundary conditions and other important aspects

implemented in the numerical simulations have been highlighted in earlier chapters.

Overall, this chapter will consist of two main parts, code validation by comparison

of results for flow using water, and results of flow using nanofluids. Furthermore, the

parameters being studies are different types of nanofluids, different volume fraction,

and Reynolds number. Basically, the results and discussion for this study are based

on streamlines, isotherms and Nusselt number plots of the flat tube of a radiator. In

this context, streamline and isotherms represent flow structure and temperature field

respectively. The Nusselt number plot of the tube indicates the heat transfer rate

within the enclosure.

4.2 Code Validation

The most important and crucial part is the process of numerical validation where it

consists of running the numerical code under specific condition and the comparing

the results obtained with the previous data published in the literature. The result

obtain from the present code will identify whether the working process is valid. This
 64

is important for testing the accuracy and precision of numerical code. To validate the

model used in this study, the numerical simulations were carried out to predict the

results reported by Vajjha [43]. The computations from study of Vajjha were carried

out in laminar flow with Reynolds number below 2000. The results of the numerical

simulation are examined by comparing the Nusselt number with the results reported

by Vajjha for pure water of the flat tube. Vajjha had a value of 5.25 for Nusselt number

whereas I have attained a value of 4.69. This shows that result is in good comparison

with that of Vajjha [43].

FIGURE 4.1: Contours of Static pressure

FIGURE 4.2 : Velocity vectors with direction.

 65

FIGURE 4.3: Surface Nusselt number for water

Comparison between present

work and Vajjha et al.
6
5
4
Nu

3
2
1
0
present Vajjha

FIGURE 4.4: Comparison of Nusselt number with Vajjha [20]

In order for the code validation to be correct, a good matching between the results of

the present code and those of the above mentioned authors must be achieved. As seen

from the figure above, the present results are in good agreement with the results

reported by Vajjha, thus, validating the numerical model used in the present study.

4.3 Effect of Different Nanofluids

For this particular study, three different nanofluids and pure water was utilized. Pure

water is used as a base fluid for the nanofluids. Hence, the difference in heat transfer
 66

by conventional heat transfer fluids and advanced heat transfer fluids which are

nanofluids can be clearly seen. Types of nanofluids employed are formed by mixing a

low concentration of CuO, SiO2, and TiO2 nanoparticles. In order to see the different

effects of different nanofluids, heat transfer coefficient contours are shown below in

the figures 4.5 - 4.8 for different nanofluids and water.

FIGURE 4.5: Contour of Heat transfer coefficient of water.

FIGURE 4.6: Contour of Heat transfer coefficient of TiO2 nanofluid with 3% vol.

concentration.
 67

FIGURE 4.7: Contour of Heat transfer coefficient of SiO2 nanofluid with 3% vol.

concentration.

FIGURE 4.8: Heat transfer coefficient of CuO nanofluid at 3% vol. concentration.

From the simulations it can be seen that the nanofluid with SiO2 has the best heat

transfer rate, followed by CuO, and TiO2. This is because SiO2 has the lowest thermal
 68

conductivity and highest heat capacity which contributes to accelerate the heat transfer.

Also, the nusselt number is an important factor in calculation for heat transfer. The

figures below show contours of Nusselt number with different nanofluids.

FIGURE 4.9: Nusselt number of SiO2 nanofluid at 3% vol. concentration.

FIGURE 4.10: Nusselt number of CuO nanofluid at 3% vol. concentration

 69

FIGURE 4.11: Nusselt number of TiO2 nanofluid at 3% vol. concentration.

These figures show that all nanofluids possess higher Nusselt number compared to

water as heat transfer increases when nanofluids are introduced. This indicates that

pure water is comparatively poor in heat transfer. All the above presented results are

based on laminar forced convection flow in a flat tube of a radiator. The average

surface Nusselt number is the main objective of this study in order to identify the heat

transfer enhancement over the present geometry and boundary conditions.

 CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

This chapter consists of an overview of the results obtained for the numerical study

on the laminar forced convection heat transfer in a flat tube of a radiator using

nanofluids. The main focus is on heat transfer enhancement by the nanofluids

compared to the base fluid. The numerical simulation of laminar forced convection

flow in two-dimensional flat tube of a radiator with nanofluids was presented with

pure water and nanofluids to get a better understanding of heat transfer enhancement

by nanotechnology. This project was divided into two phases, the first phases

consisted of doing research and literature review to get familiarize with the topic as

well as the software used. The second phase consisted of simulation of the effects of

different parameters on the geometry used. CFD software (Gambit & Fluent) was

employed in this study to simulate the numerical model. The governing equations

have been used with certain assumptions and appropriate boundary conditions to

have better understanding of modeling goals. The nanofluid thermophysical

properties have been calculated using the equations provided in the previous

literature.

Three types of nanofluids were utilized in this study. SiO2 and CuO nanoparticles

showed best results followed by TiO2 nanoparticle. However, all nanofluids lead to
 71

greater heat transfer enhancement compared to pure water. It can be concluded that

heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number increases significantly with the use of

nanofluids. It is shown in this project that use of nanofluids gives higher heat transfer

rate compared to conventional heat transfer fluids such as water.

5.2 Recommendations for Future Work

Based on this study, the following recommendations for the future work could be

made:

 A numerical study of three-dimensional forced convection in the tube can be

done.

 The effect of turbulent flow with such geometry.

 Study of nanofluids could be performed with use of other nanoparticles and

base fluids such as ethylene glycol.

 The study could be extended to other types of parameters such as pressure

drop characteristics by using nanofluids.

 Finally, the numerical analysis could be used to carry out research to optimize

the size of a radiator using nanofluid without affecting its heat transfer

performance.
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