Remedial Course in Mathematics

MAT 092

Lecture Notes
 Preface and Acknowledgements

Written by:

Lubaba Ferdous Alim

Reference Books:
• Precalculus - The Art of Problem Solving by Richard Rusczyk
Chapter 2

Introduction to Trigonometric
Functions
2.1 The Unit Circle
A Cartesian plane is defined by two perpendicular number lines: the
x-axis, which is horizontal, and the y-axis, which is vertical. Consider
a circle with radius 1, centered at the origin of the Cartesian plane.
We call this circle the unit circle (unit meaning 1). When the point
(1,0) is rotated counterclockwise by an angle θ about the origin, the
resulting point is called the terminal point. Point P in the diagram is
the terminal point of 50◦ , since it is the point that results when (1,0) is
rotated 50◦ counterclockwise about the origin.

• The cosine of an angle θ defined by cos θ is the x-coordinate of

the terminal point of θ. [cos θ = x]
• The sine of an angle θ defined by sin θ is the y-coordinate of the
terminal point of θ. [sin θ = y]
• The tangent of an angle θ defined by tan θ is the ratio of the
y-coordinate to the x-coordinate of the terminal point of θ.
[tan θ = xy = cos
sin θ
θ]

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Three other trigonometric functions are secant, cosecant, and cotan-

gent, which are denoted as sec, csc, and cot, respectively. They can
be defined as:
1
• sec θ = cos θ
1
• csc θ = sin θ
1 cos θ
• cot θ = tan θ = sin θ

If the hypotenuse
√ of an isosceles right triangle has length 1, then each
leg has length 22 . If the acute angles of a right triangle are 30◦ and 60◦
and the hypotenuse has length 1, then the leg opposite the√30◦ angle
has length 21 and the leg opposite the 60◦ angle has length 23 . These
relationships are depicted below and the proof is done in the example
section 2.1.1.

Trigonometric functions can be written as ratio of sides in a right trian-

gle. In right triangle 4XY Z we have

YZ YX YZ
sin θ = XZ , cos θ = XZ and tan θ = YX

Also, if θ is the measure of an acute angle in a right triangle, then we

have
oppositeleg adjacentleg oppositeleg
sin θ = hypotenuse , cos θ = hypotenuse and tan θ = adjacentleg

• The sine of an angle is positive if and only if the y-coordinate

of the angle’s terminal point is positive. Thus sine is positive in
quadrants I and II, and negative in quadrants III and IV.

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• The cosine of an angle is positive if and only if the x-coordinate

of the angle’s terminal point is positive. Thus cosine is positive in
quadrants I and IV and negative in quadrants II and III.
• Tangent is the quotient of sine and cosine, it is positive if and only
if sine and cosine are both positive or both negative. Sine and
cosine are both positive in the first quadrant, and both negative in
the third, the tangent is positive in quadrants I and III.
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
The identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 isn’t really something new—it’s essen-
tially the Pythagorean Theorem. At the bottom is a right triangle ABC
with hypotenuse of length 1 and ∠BAC = θ. Because sin θ = BC AC and
AB
AC = 1, we have BC = sin θ. Similarly, cos θ = AC so AB = cos θ.
The Pythagorean Theorem gives us
BC 2 + AB 2 = AC 2
so,
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1.
Example 2.1.1.
(a) Triangle ABC below is a 45 − 45 − 90 triangle, which means one
angle is a right angle and the other two angles are equal. If BC =
1, then what are AB and AC

(b) Triangle XYZ above is a 30 − 60 − 90 triangle, which means that its

angles are 30, 60, and 90. If YZ = 1, then what are XY and XZ?
Solution:

(a) We let AB = x. Since ∠B = ∠C, we have AC = AB = x. Since

BC = 1, the Pythagorean Theorem gives us x2 + x2 = 1, so x2 = 21 .
Therefore, we have

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q √
1 2
x= 2 = 2

(b) The 60◦ and 30◦ angles makes us think of equilateral triangles. By
reflecting 4XY Z over side XY , we form equilateral triangle TYZ
in the diagram at right. Since 4T Y Z is equilateral, we have TZ
= ZY = 1. Since 4T Y X ∼ = 4ZY X, we have TX = XZ. Putting
this together with TZ = 1 gives XZ = 12 . Finally, the Pythagorean
Theorem applied to 4XY Z gives us
√ q √
XY = Y Z − XZ = 1 − 14 = 23
2 2

Example 2.1.2.
Find the cosine, sine, and tangent of each of the following angles:
(a) 0◦
(b) 90◦
(c) 45◦
(d) 30◦
(e) 270◦
Solution:

(a) The point on the unit circle that is 0◦ counterclockwise from (1,0)
is simply (1,0). Since the terminal point of 0◦ is (1,0), we have

cos θ = 1

sin θ = 0

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tan θ = 0

(b) The point on the unit circle that is 90◦ counterclockwise from (1,0)
is (0,1). Since the terminal point of 90◦ is (0,1), we have cos 90◦
= 0 and sin 90◦ = 1. Since tan θ = cos sin θ
θ , tan θ is undefined when
cosθ = 0.
(c) We first find the terminal point, P, of 45◦ by rotating the point (1,0)
counter-clockwise an angle of 45◦ . To find the coordinates of P, we
build right triangle OPS, as shown,

and see that 4OP S is a 45-45-90 right√ triangle with hypotenuse

√ √ OP
2 2 2
= 1. Therefore, we have OS = SP = 2 , so point P is ( 2 , 2 ) and:
√
◦ 2
cos 45 = 2
√
sin 45◦ = 2
2

tan 45◦ = 1

(d) As in the previous part, we locate the terminal point, P, and then
build a right triangle by drawing the altitude from P to the x-axis.

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◦
Since 4OP S is√a 30-60-90 triangle with OP=1 √ and ∠P OS = 30 ,
we have OS = 23 and P S = 21 , so point P is ( 23 , 12 ). Therefore, we
have
√
◦ 3
cos 30 = 2

sin 30◦ = 1
2
1 √
◦ 3
tan 30 = √2
3
= 3
2

(e) The point (0,-1) is 270◦ counterclockwise from (1,0). Therefore, we

have
cos 270◦ = 0

sin 270◦ = −1

sin 270◦ = undef ined

Example 2.1.3.
Find each of the following
(a) cos 120◦
(b) csc 240◦
(c) cos 1080◦
(d) cot (−45◦ )
Solution:

(a) The terminal point of 120◦ is in the second quadrant, as indicated

by point P.

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P is 120◦ −90◦ = 30◦ beyond the y-axis, so ∠P OS is 90◦ −30◦ = 60 ◦

√ .
Therefore, 4P OS is a 30-60-90 triangle with OS = 21 and PS = 23 .
Since P is in the second quadrant, the x-coordinate of P is − 12 and
not 21 . Thus
cos 120◦ = − 21
(b) We know
csc 240◦ = 1
sin 240◦

240◦ is in the third

√ quadrant and ∠P OS is 240◦ − 180◦ = 60◦ so OS
= 21 and PS = 23 . Y-coordinate of P is negative, thus
√
◦ 1 1 2 3
csc 240 = sin 240◦ =− √
3
= − 3
2

(c) 1080◦ = 3 × 360◦ . Therefore after completing three 360◦ full circles
we are back at (1,0) as the terminal point, forming 0◦ angle. So we
have
cos 1080◦ = cos 0◦ = 1
(d) Since the angle is negative, the terminal point is 45◦ clockwise from
(1,0), as shown.

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√
2
From 45-45-90 triangle
√ √
POS, we have PS = OS = 2 so the coordi-
nates of P are ( 22 , − 22 ) which gives us
√
2
◦ 1 cos (−45◦ )
cot (−45 ) = tan(−45◦ ) = sin (−45◦ ) = 2√
= −1
− 22

Example 2.1.4.
The range of each of the following functions
(a) f (t) = sin t
(b) h(t) = sec t
Solution:

(a) Any point (x, y) on the Cartesian plane with a y-coordinate that is
greater than p 1 or less than -1 must be more than 1 unit from the
origin (since x2 + y 2 > 1 if |y| > 1 and x is real). Therefore, no
point on the unit circle can have y-coordinate greater than 1 or less
than -1, which means −1 ≤ sin t ≤ 1. Every value in the interval
[-1,1] is in the range of sin t, since the line y=k intersects the unit
circle for any value of k such that −1 ≤ k ≤ 1. So, the range of
f (t) = sin (t) is [-1,1]. Similarly, the range of cos t is also [-1,1].
1
(b) First, we note that sec t = (cost) , so we can find the range of sec t
from the range of cos t, which is [-1,1]. If we have 0 < k ≤ 1, then
the reciprocal of k is at least 1. Conversely, any number greater
than or equal to 1 is the reciprocal of a number in the range of cos t.
Therefore, every number in the interval [1, +∞) is in the range of
h(t) = sec t. Similarly, every number in the interval (−∞, −1] is
in the range of h. Finally, no number in the interval (-1,1) is in
the range of sec t, since such a number being in the range of sec t
would mean that | cos t| > 1, which is impossible. Combining these
observations, the range of sec t is (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞)

2.2 The Radians

In geometry, we typically use degrees, which we denote with the usual
degree symbol, ◦ . However, trigonometric functions of angles are a sig-
nificant part of algebra, and in an algebraic context, degrees are not a
convenient unit. The most convenient unit of measure for angles is the

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radian.

To measure an angle in radians, we draw a circle with radius 1 cen-

tered at the vertex of the angle. The measure of the angle in radians
equals the length of the arc cut off by the angle. So, in the diagram, the
measure of θ in radians equals the length of arc AB.

As another example, the measure of a right angle in radians is π2 because

the circumference of a circle with radius 1 is 2π and a right angle cuts
off one-quarter of the circumference.

We define radian as the ratio of the length of the arc cut off by the
angle to the radius. Thus radian is a dimensionless unit.
Example 2.2.1.
Convert the following degree measures in radians
(a) 288◦
(b) −315◦
Solution:
◦
(a) Since 288◦ is 360
288
◦ =
4
5 of a full circle, its equivalent in radians is
4 8π
( 5 )(2π) = 5 radians
◦
(b) Since 315◦ is 315 7 ◦
360◦ = 8 of a full circle, the equivalent of −315 in
radians is ( 87 )(−2π) = − 7π
4 radians.

Example 2.2.2.
Convert each of the following measures in radians to degrees

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2π
(a) 5

(b) − 7π
3
Solution:
2(180◦ )
(a) Since π radians is 180◦ , we know that 2π
5 radians equals 5 , which
equals 72◦
−7(180◦ )
(b) − 7π
3 radians equals 3 , which equals −420◦
Example 2.2.3.
Evaluate each of the following
(a) cos 2π
3

(b) tan(−11π)
Solution:
2(180)
(a) cos 2π
3 = cos 3 = cos 120

From 30-60-90 triangle POS, we find OS = 12 . Since P is to the left

◦
of the y-axis, we have cos 2π 1
3 = cos 120 = − 2

(b) Ignoring the negative sign we can see that 11π is basically 1π + (5 ×
2π) and we know 2π is a full revolution and π is half revolution. So
11π occurs after 5 complete revolutions and one π. The terminal
point of −π is (-1,0) which means sin(−π) is 0 and cos(−π) is −1.
Thus
sin(−π) 0
tan(−11π) = tan(−π) = cos(−π) = −1 =0

Example 2.2.4.

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What is the sign of cot 30?

Solution:
Notice that the question did not ask for the sign of cot 30◦ but cot 30.
In order to find the sign of cot 30, we must find the quadrant of an angle
of 30 radians. We can take a bit of a shortcut by noticing that π is
approximately 3.14, so 10π, which has terminal point (1,0), is approxi-
mately 31.4 radians. Therefore, an angle of 30 radians is approximately
31.4 − 30 = 1.4 radians clockwise from (1,0). (Remember, 30 radians is
slightly less than 10π radians, so its terminal point will be less than 5
full revolutions counterclockwise from (1,0).) But how large is an angle
of 1.4 radians?
Again, we can estimate. Since π is approximately 3.14, we know that
π ◦
2 radians, which is 90 , is approximately 1.57 radians. Therefore, 1.4
radians is less than 90◦ . Since 30 radians is approximately 1.4 radians
clockwise from (1,0), and 1.4 radians is less than 90◦ , we know that the
terminal point of 30 radians is in the fourth quadrant. This means that
cos 30 is positive and sin 30 is negative, so cot 30 is negative.

2.3 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

In this section, we study the graphs of trigonometric functions. Through-
out our discussion of graphing trigonometric functions, all angles will be
expressed in radians.

Periodic Functions: A function f is called periodic if there is some

nonzero constant t such that f (x) = f (x + t) for all values of x such
that f (x) and f (x + t) are defined. The smallest possible positive value
of t is called the period of f (if such a smallest value exists).

Graph of y=sinx and y=cosx

For y = sin θ, we start with plotting (θ, sin θ) to obtain various coordi-
nates on the graph. We choose values of θ ranging from 0 to 2π.

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• sin θ is the y-coordinate of the terminal point of θ. So when θ

increases from 0 to π2 (90◦ ), the y-coordinate from the terminal
point increases from 0 to 1.
• Continuing past θ = π2 , the y-coordinate of the terminal point
decreases from 1 to 0 as θ increases from to π2 to π.
3π
• Then, θ continues from π to 2 , and the y-coordinate of its terminal
point goes from 0 to -1.
• Finally, θ goes from 3π2 to 2π, during which time the y-coordinate
of its terminal point goes from -1 to 0.
• When θ ranged from 0 to 2π, it completed a full revolution as 2π
is equivalent to 360◦ . The value of sin θ remains the same whether
we increase or decrease θ by 2π. In other words, the value of sin θ
stays the same whenever we increase or decrease θ by 2π

∴sin(θ − 4π) = sin θ = sin(θ − 2π)

• As explained in the previous part we can say that sin x = sin(x + 2π)
for all values of x. Therefore, sine is periodic with period 2π.
• The graph of y = sin x is symmetric about the origin. If a point
P is rotated 180◦ about point O to produce point P, then O is the

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midpoint of the line PP’. Therefore, if (a, b) is rotated 180◦ about

(0,0), the result must be (-a, -b), since (0,0) is the midpoint of the
segment with endpoints (a, b) and (-a, -b).

• Because (a, b) and (-a, -b) are on the graph of y = sinx, we have
b = sina and −b = sin(−a). Putting these together gives us
sin(−a) = −b = −sin(a). Therefore, the fact that the graph of
y = sinx is symmetric about the origin tells us that for all x, we
have

sin(−x) = − sin x

• A function f such that f (−x) = −f (x) for all x in the domain of f

is called an odd function. Therefore, sine is an odd function

We perform the same steps to obtain the graph of y = cos θ

• cos θ is the x-coordinate of the terminal point of θ. So when θ is

equal to 0, cosθ = 1.
• As θ increases from 0 to π2 , the value of cos θ decreases from 1 to 0.
• As θ goes from π2 to π, the x-coordinate of the terminal point de-
creases from 0 to -1.
3π
• As θ goes from π to 2 , the x-coordinate of the terminal point goes
from -1 to 0.

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• The graph again reaches cos θ = 1 when we complete our revolution

about the the unit circle, which is when θ = 2π
• We can see that cos θ = cos(θ + 2π). There cosine is periodic with
period 2π.
• The graph of y = cos x is symmetric about the y-axis. This means
that for every point (a, b) on the graph, its mirror image over the
y-axis, which is (-a, b), is also on the graph. Therefore, we have
both b = cos a and b = cos(−a), so we have cos a = cos(−a) for
all a.

• A function f such that f (−x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f is

called an even function. Because

cos(−x) = cos x

Relationship between y = sin x and y = cos x

Graphing both y = sin x (solid) and y = cos x (dashed) on the same

Cartesian plane below, we notice that y = cos x appears to be a leftward
shift of the graph of y = sin x. Notice that shifting the graph of y = sin x
leftward by π2 gives the graph y = cos x. Thus we can say
sin(x + π2 ) = cos x
Graph of y=tanx

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• For the period of sin x is 2π and the period of cos x is 2π, so we

might guess that the period of tan x is 2π as well. After all, since
sin(x + 2π) = sin x and cos(x + 2π) = cos x, we have
sin x+2π sin x
tan x + 2π = cos x+2π = cos x = tan x
• But this proves that tan x is periodic but does not prove that 2π
is its smallest period.
• We defined tan θ as the slope of the line through the origin and the
terminal point of θ. As θ ranges from 0 to π2 , this slope starts at
0 and increases and does not give the same value for two different
values of θ. Similarly, as θ goes from 0 down to - π2 , this slope starts
at 0 and decreases and again does not give same value for two
different values of θ. Moreover, the slope is 0 when θ = 0, negative
when 0 > θ > f racπ2, and positive when 0 < θ < π2 , so there are
no two values of θ from - π2 to π2 that have the same tangent. This
means that the period of tangent cannot be less than π.

• The line through the origin with slope m intersects the unit circle
at two points that are diametrically opposite each other. There-
fore, they are the terminal points of two angles that differ by π.
Moreover, because the same line through the origin passes through
both terminal points, the tangents of these two angles are the same.
Therefore, we have tan(θ + π) = tan θ for all θ so the period of
tangent is π.
• Since tan x has period π, we can graph y = tan x for a single period,
and then just copy it over and over to get the graph of y = tan x.
We’ll choose to graph tan x first for − π2 < x < π2 since tan x is
defined for all values of x in this range.

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• we know tan 0 = 0, and tan x increases without bound as x goes

from 0 to π2 (but tan x is not defined for x = π2 , so there are no
points on the graph with this value of x). So, as x goes from 0 to π2
the graph of y = tan x starts at the origin and goes upward forever
as x approaches π2
• The graph does gets close to the line x = π2 but never touches it or
crosses it.The line x = π2 is called an asymptote of the graph.
• Moving over to the other side of the origin, we can follow the same
reasoning as above to build the graph as x goes from 0 to − π2 .
Since tan x decreases without bound as x goes from 0 to − π2 , the
graph starts at (0,0) and goes downward forever as x approaches
− π2 . Moreover, this portion of the graph is the 180◦ rotation about
the origin of the portion for 0 < x < π2 , because
sin(−x) − sin x
tan(−x) = cos(−x) = cos x = − tan x

Therefore tan x is an odd function and its graph is symmetric about

the origin. Just as x = π2 is an asymptote of the graph, so is
x = − π2 .
Graph of y=cscx
• We know that csc x = sin1 x . Since sin 0 = 0, csc 0 is undefined. So
the graph of y = csc x does not intersect the y-axis. When x is a
very small positive number, sin x is very small, so csc x is very large.
Similarly, when x is the negative of a very small number, sin x is

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negative, but very close to 0, which makes csc x the negative of a

very large number. So, just to the right of the y-axis, the graph of
y = csc x is very far above the x-axis, while just to the left of the
y-axis, the graph is very far below the x-axis.

• As x increases from 0 to π2 , sin x goes from 0 up to 1. As sin x

increases, sin1 x decreases until it reaches 1 at x = π2 . Then, as x
goes from π2 up to π, sin x goes from 1 back down to 0, and csc x
increases without bound, starting from csc x = 1 at x = π2 . Just
as the graph does not intersect the line x = 0, it does not intersect
x = π.
• On the other side of the y-axis, the pattern is repeated, but all the
action is below the x-axis. As x goes from 0 to − π2 , sin x goes from
0 to -1, so the graph of y = csc x goes from very far below the
x-axis, up to the point (− π2 , −1). Then, as x goes from to − π2 to
−π, sin x goes from -1 back to 0. So, the graph of y = csc x goes
back down from (− π2 , −1), continuing indefinitely below the x-axis
as the graph approaches, but never reaches, the line x = −π.
• Since sin x is periodic with period 2π, we know that sin1 x must also
repeat itself in intervals of 2π. Since we have already determined
the graph from x = −π to x = π, we can simply repeat this portion
of the graph every 2π to produce the full graph of y = csc x
• Therefore the period of csc x is also 2π

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2.4 Transformations of Trignometric Functions

In this section, we will look into how to transform graphs. From the
previous section we have an idea about how graphs of sin x, cos x, tan x
etc looks like.

While transforming graphs, we need to see where the change is occur-

ring; in the x-coordinate or y-coordinate or both. For example if we have
y = sin(2x), compared to y = sin x we can see that originally the func-
tion that was sin x is now sin(2x) meaning the x-coordinate is now twice.

Graph of y=2sinx and y=sinx+2

• Comparing y = 2 sin x with y = sin x we can see that the y-

coordinates of the former are twice that of the latter for the same
x-coordinate. If we take x = 1 then we get y = sin 1 for the latter
and y = 2 sin 1 for the former. Thus the graph of y = 2 sin x shifts
vertically up and down by twice the amount of y = sin x for the
same values of x.
• For y = sin x + 2 we simply shift the graph of y = sin x up by 2
units. Comparing with y = sin x the y-coordinates of y = sin x + 2
increases by 2 units for the same values of x.

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• Note: y = sin x+2 and y = sin(x+2) are not the same. The latter
will show transformation in the x-coordinates and the former will
show transformation in the y-coordinates.
Graph of y=cos2x
• In Section 1.2, we learned that the graph of y = f (2x) is a horizon-
tal scaling of the graph of y = f (x) towards the y-axis by a factor
of 21 . So, to produce the graph of y = cos 2x, we scale the graph of
y = cos x towards the y-axis by a factor of 21 , producing the graph
below

• The graph of y = cos x repeats every 2π. Since we compress this

graph horizontally by a factor of 12 to produce the graph of y =
cos 2x, the graph of y = cos 2x repeats every 2π( 21 ) = π. Therefore,
the period of cos 2x is π.
Amplitude
We use amplitude as a measure of the vertical scale, where the ampli-
tude equals half the vertical distance between a maximal (highest) and
minimal (lowest) point of the graph. Equivalently, we can say that the

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amplitude of a sine (or cosine) function is half the difference between

the maximum and minimum values of the function which is 1.

Phase Shift
The phase shift of a function of the form f (x) = a sin (bx + c), where
a, b, and c are constants, is the smallest horizontal distance by which
the graph of g(x) = a sin bx must be shifted to produce the graph of f.
We typically use positive values for the phase shift if this shift is to the
right, and negative if the shift is to the left.

Example 2.4.1.
What is the period of sin (− x3 )?
Solution:

• We first deal with the negative sign. Since the graph of y = f (−x)
is the reflection of the graph of y = f (x) over the y-axis, the graph
of y = sin (−x) is the reflection of the graph of y = sin x over the
y-axis. Reflecting the graph of a periodic function over the y-axis
doesn’t have any effect on how frequently the graph repeats, so the
period of sin (−x) is the same as the period of sin x, which is 2π.
• Next, we deal with the fraction. The graph of y = f ( x3 ) is a hor-
izontal stretching by a factor of ( 11 ) = 3 away from the x-axis.
3
Therefore, the graph of y = sin(− x3 ) results from stretching the
graph of y = sin (−x) horizontally by a factor of 3. Since the
graph of y = sin (−x) repeats every 2π, the graph of y = sin(− x3 )
repeats every 3(2π) = 6π. Therefore, sin(− x3 ) has period 6π.
Example 2.4.2.

(a) What is the phase shift of sin (x − π2 )

(b) Graph y = sin (x − π2 )
Solution:

(a) The graph of y = f (x − c) is a c-unit rightward shift of the graph of

y = f (x). Therefore, the graph of y = sin (x − π2 ) is a π2 rightward
shift of the graph of y = sin x, so the phase shift is π2 .

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(b) Since we found in part (a) that the graph of y = sin (x − π2 ) is a

π π
2 rightward shift of sin x, we graph y = sin (x − 2 ) by shifting the
graph of y = sin x by π2 to the right, as shown below:

Example 2.4.3.
Graph y = sin(x − π). What does the graph suggest about the
relationship between sin x and sin (x − π)?
(a)
Solution:
The graph of y = sin (x − π) is a π-unit rightward shift of the graph of
y = sin x. We graph y = sin x and y = sin (x − π) below:

The graph of y = sin (x − π) appears to be the reflection of the graph

of y = sin x over the x-axis. When we add the y-coordinates of the
points on the graphs for each value of x, we always get 0, so the graph
of y = sin x + sin (x − π) is just the x-axis. This suggests that we have
sin x + sin (x − π) = 0 for all values of x. That is, we appear to have
another identity: sin (x − π) = − sin x.
Example 2.4.4.

(a) What is the phase shift of −2 sin(3x − π4 )?

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(b) What is the period of −2 sin(3x − π4 )?

(c) Graph y = −2 sin(3x − π4 ).
Solution:

(a) We learned there that the graph of y = f (x − c) is a c-unit right-

ward shift of the graph of y = f (x). However, if we let f (x) =
−2 sin 3x, then f (x − π4 ) = −2 sin (3x − 3π
4 ) which is not the same
π
as−2 sin (3x − 4 ). Instead we note that
−2 sin (3x − π4 ) = −2 sin(3(x − π
12 )) = f (x − π
12 )

so the graph of −2 sin (3x − π4 ) is indeed a rightward shift of the

π
graph of y = −2 sin 3x, which means that the phase shift is 12 .
(b) As explained in the previous part, the graph of −2 sin (3x − π4 ) is
a rightward shift of the graph of y = −2 sin 3x. Translating a sine
curve has no effect on its period, so the period of −2 sin (3x − π4 ) is
the same as the period of y = −2 sin 3x. Similarly, the coefficient -2
in −2 sin 3x has no impact on the period; it merely scales the graph
vertically, which doesn’t affect how frequently the graph repeats itself
horizontally. So, the period of −2 sin 3x is the same as the period of
sin 3x, which is 2π π 2π
3 . Therefore the period of −2 sin (3x − 4 ) is 3 .

(c) We can retrace our steps in the previous two parts to produce the
graph. We start with the graph of y = sin 3x which is the graph of
y = sin x compressed horizontally towards the y-axis by a factor of
3:

The graph of y = 2 sin 3x is the result of scaling the graph of y =

sin 3x vertically away from the x-axis by a factor of 2. The graph
of y = −2 sin 3x is the result of reflecting the graph of y = 2 sin 3x
over the x-axis which gives us the graph below:

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Finally, as explained in part (a), the graph of −2 sin (3x − π4 ) is a π

12
rightward shift of the graph of y = −2 sin 3x:

2.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

In this section, we will try to find the inputs we must give to trigono-
metric functions to produce certain desired outputs.

Invertible functions

A function is invertible if and only if there is exactly one input that

produces each possible output from the function. For example for the
function f (x) = cos x, cos O = 1 and cos 2π = 1. This means the func-
tion f (x) = cos x has two inputs that produce the same output, so it is
not invertible. Moreover, since cos x is periodic, all possible outputs of
f(x) occur for infinitely many inputs.

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Having noted that cos x is periodic, we might think that if we restrict its
domain to a single period of cos x, then we will be able to invert it. But
this fails, too, because there are many values of y such that y = cos x for
two different values of x in the same period. For example, if we consider
the period consisting of the interval [0, 2π), we have cos π2 = cos 3π
2 and
so on. So, we can’t take a full period as the domain of the function.

If a function is invertible, then no two points on its graph can have the
same y-coordinate. So, we can choose a suitable domain so that it is
invertible by picking an interval such that the graph of y = cos x has no
two points with the same y-coordinate when x is in the interval.

There are infinitely many ways we can choose the interval such that
the function is invertible. We could choose [0, π2 ], for example. But
this wouldn’t be such a useful function. We couldn’t use it for cases in
which cosine is negative, for example. We’d like to choose an interval
that provides all the possible outputs of cos x. In other words, we’d like
the range to be [-1,1], because then it is the same as the range of cos x
when there are no restrictions on the domain.Looking at the graph of
y = cos x, or thinking about the unit circle, we see that the interval
[0, π] fits the bill nicely, since cos x takes on every possible value of cos x
once and exactly once for x ∈ [0, π]

Below are the inverse functions of the primary trigonometric functions

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Example 2.5.1.
Evaluate the following
(a) arcsin 0
√
(b) cos−1 ( 3
2 )

(c) arctan 1
√
2
(d) arcsin (− 2 )
√
−1 2 3
(e) sec ( 3 )
Solution:

(a) Since sin 0 = 0 we have arcsin 0 = 0

√ √
π 3 −1 3 π
(b) Since cos 6 = 2 we have cos ( 2 ) = 6

(c) Let x = arctan 1, then sin x and cos x must be equal, so that tan x
will equal 1. The only angle in the interval (− π2 , π2 ) for which this is
the case is π4 , so arctan 1 = π4 .
√ √
(d) sin x equals to − 22 or 22 for odd integer multiples of π4 . Here, we
want the one in√ the interval [− π2 , π2 ] for which sign is negative, so we
have arcsin (− 22 ) = − π4
√
2 3
(e) We seek the angle x such that sec x = 3 . Re-write the equation as

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√
1 2 3
cos x = 3

Taking the reciprocal of both sides gives us

√
3 3
cos x = √
2 3
= 2
√
−1 2 3 π
From problem (b) we can say sec ( 3 ) = 6

Example 2.5.2.
If x is nonzero and arccosx = arcsecy, then find y in terms of x.
Solution:
Let θ = arccosx = arcsecy, so we have cos θ = x and sec θ = y. Since
x 6= 0, we can take the reciprocal of both sides of x = cos θ to get
1 1 1
x = cos θ = sec θ = y. Therefore, we have y = x .

Example 2.5.3.

(a) Why is [−1, 1] the domain of arccos x, but the domain of arctan x
is R?
(b) We use [0, π] as the range of arccos x. Why can’t the range be a
smaller or larger interval?
(c) Why can’t we also use [0, π] as the range of arcsin x?
(d) Why must we exclude the endpoints of the interval (¯ π2 , π2 ) from the
range of arctan x?
Solution:

(a) The value of arccos x is the angle whose cosine is x. Since cosine
cannot be larger than 1 or less than -1, we must restrict x in arccos x
to be in the interval [-1,1]. Meanwhile, for any real number x, there’s
some angle whose tangent is x. Therefore, the domain of arctan x is
R.
(b) Any possible range of arccos x must include angles with terminal
points (1,0) and (-1,0) on the unit circle. These two points are termi-
nal points of angles that are π apart. Moreover, as an angle increases
from 0 to π, the x-coordinate of its terminal point decreases from 1
to -1 and is never the same for two different angles. To include the
angles 0 and π, and all the angles in between, we need an interval

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of at least length π. To see why the range of arccos x cannot be an

interval longer than π, note that we cannot allow two angles with the
same cosine in the range. Since the circumference of the unit circle
covers a range of 2π, any interval greater than π will cover more
than half the unit circle. Such an interval will therefore include two
points with the same x-coordinate, and these two points correspond
to angles with the same cosine.
(c) Using [0, π] as the range creates two problems. First, what would
arcsin 0.5 be? Both sin π6 and sin 5π
6 equal 0.5. Second, what would
arcsin (−1) be? There are no angles in the interval [0, π] that have
a negative sine.
(d) Tangent is not defined for angles of π2 or − π2 so we must exclude these
values from the range of arctan x, since there is no value of x such
that tan π2 = x or tan(− π2 ) = x.
Example 2.5.4.
Let y = arcsin x. Find tan y in terms of x.
Solution:
We start by getting rid of the inverse trig function. We write y =
arcsin x as sin y = x, where y ∈ [ π2 , π2 ]. Now, we must relate tan y to
sin y in order to express tan y in terms of x. Unfortunately, we don’t
have a nice neat identity like we have to relate sin y and cos y. But we
can write tan y in terms of sin y and cos y, and we already have sin y in
terms of x.
sin y x
tan y = cos y = cos y

We now just have to express cos y in terms of x. We know how to relate

cos y to sin y. From sin2 y + cos2 y = 1, we have
cos2 y = 1 − sin2 y = 1 − x2
we face the puzzle of choosing the positive or negative root. Since y ∈
[ π2 , π2 ] (because y is in the range of arcsin
√ x) and cos y is nonnegative for
all y in this interval, we have cos y = 1 − x2 , so
x √ x
tan y = cos y = 1−x2

Example 2.5.5.

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Graph y = arcsin x. How is this graph related to the graph of y =

sin x?
Solution:
The domain of arcsin x is [−1, 1] and the range is [− π2 , π2 ], so the entire
graph is contained in the region −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, − π2 ≤ y ≤ π2 . When
x = −1, we have arcsin x = − π2 . As x increases from -1 to 1, arcsin x
increases from − π2 to π2 .

The graph of a function’s inverse is the reflection of the function’s graph

over the graph of y = x. We see this relationship when we graph
y = sin x for − π2 ≤ x ≤ π2 and graph y = arcsin x on the same Cartesian
plane:

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